INJIBARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Information Technology
Course Code ITec2024
Course Title Computer Organization and Architecture

By: Anteneh B. (MSc.)

Email: antenehbirr2112@[Link]
 Chapter 1

Digital logic and Digital Systems

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 Outlines
 Overview and history of computer architecture

 What is computer organization and architecture?

 Fundamental building blocks

 Basic logic Gate

 Compound gates (universal gates)

 Boolean algebra

 Boolean expressions

 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra

 Types of Logic Circuits

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Introduction
 A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and
store the results for future use. Computers process data to create information.
 Data is a collection of raw or unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols.
 Information is data that is organized, meaningful, and useful. To process data into information,
a computer uses hardware and software.
 Hardware is the electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a computer.
 Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.

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 Differences between Data and Information

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Generation of computer

 Each new generation resulted in the following changes:

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First Generation (1940-1956)
 This computer was called Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC).

 computers that used vacuum tube circuits were called the First-generation

Computers.

 The main features of the first-generation computers were as follows:

They used vacuum tubes.

They had a very big size.

They consumed huge electricity.

They were prone to failures.

They generated a lot of heat.

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They only supported machine language.
 Second Generation (1956-1963)
 The computers that used transistors were called the Second-Generation Computers.
The main features of the second-generation computers were as follows:
They used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

They were smaller in size as compared to the first generation

They generated lesser heat.

They were more reliable and faster than the first generation

They used core memories, magnetic tapes and disks.

They used lesser electricity.

They could be programmed by using machine as well as assembly

language.

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Third Generation (1964-1971)
 The main features of the third-generation computers were as follows:

They used integrated circuits

They had a small size as compared to the second-generation computers.

They consumed less electricity.

They were faster and reliable than the second-generation computers.

They supported high level language.

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 Fourth Generation computers (1971–Present)

 The computers that used Large-Scale Integration chips were called the Fourth Generation

Computers.

 The main features of the fourth-generation computers are:

They contain high-speed microprocessors.

They contain huge storage volumes in the form of magnetic and optical storage.

They contain main memories up to GBs (Gigabytes).

They are associated with significant progress in network technologies.

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Fifth Generation computers (Future)

 Recent research has focused on developing “thinking computers”. These computers are called the

Fifth Generation Computers.

 Fifth generation computers will have the power to learn and apply knowledge to solve a problem.

 They would be able to work like humans do.

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 First Second Third Fourth Fifth

Time Frame 1942-1955 1955-1964 1964-1975 1975 - 1985 1985 onwards

Circuit Integrated Circuit LSI (Large scale VLSI (very Large

Vacuum Tube Transistor
Component (Silicon Chip) Integration ) scale Integration)

Magnetic drum,
Integrated Integrated
Internal Storage Tape & Punched Magnetic Cores Magnetic Disks
Circuits Circuits
cards

Memory Capacity
4,000 32,000 128,000 100 million >100 million
(Characters)

Popular IBM 650, Univac IBM-1401, IBM 360, IBM 303X,

?
computers –I CDC 36000 Honeywell 200 Univac 6000

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Computer Organization and Architecture?
 As a computer scientist, it is important to understand how hardware interacts with software.

 We must become familiar with how various circuits and components fit together.

 We do this through the study of computer organization.

 Computer organization addresses issues such as:

 Control signals (electrical signals generated by the CU of the CPU that direct the operation of other components
(ALU, memory, I/O devices)),

 Signaling methods(how control, data, and timing information are transmitted between components in a
computer system.) and
 Memory types

 It encompasses all physical aspects of computer systems.

 It helps us to answer the question: How does a computer work?

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 Computer architecture
 It focuses on the structure and behavior of the computer system.
 It refers to the logical aspects of system implementation as seen by the programmer.
 Computer architecture includes many elements such as:
Instruction sets and formats
Operation codes
Data types
The number and types of registers
Addressing modes
main memory access methods and
Various I/O mechanisms
 The computer architecture for a given machine is the combination of its hardware components
plus its instruction set architecture (ISA).
 Studying computer architecture helps us to answer the question: How do I design a computer?

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Structure and Function
 Structure is the way in which components relate to each other

 Refers to the physical components and how they are organized within a computer system.

 This includes the hardware components and their interconnections.

 The arrangement of components such as:

 CPU, memory, input/output devices, buses, and storage devices.

 Function is the operation of individual components as part of the structure.

 Function refers to the purpose and operation of each component within the system.

 Understanding what each part of the system does and how it contributes to overall performance.

 Structure = "What components are there and how are they arranged?"

 Function = "What do these components do?"

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 Cont.
 In general, four computer functions are:

Data processing

Data storage

Data movement

Control

 When data are received from or delivered to a device that is directly connected to the computer, the
process is known as input–output (I/O) and the device is referred to as a peripheral device.

 When data are moved over longer distances to or from a remote device, the process is known as data
communications.

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 Cont…
Data Processing

 This is the primary function of a computer.

 It performs operations on data, such as arithmetic calculations or logical operations.

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the component responsible for data processing.

 It fetches instructions, executes them, and produces results.

Data Storage

 Computers need to store data temporarily or permanently.

 This includes storing instructions, intermediate results, and final output.

 Primary Storage: Volatile memory like RAM, used during program execution.

 Secondary
02/19/2026Storage: Non-volatile memory like hard drives for long-term data storage. 17
 Cont…
Data Movement

 Computers move data between different components or to/from external devices.

 Includes transferring data, from memory to the CPU, memory locations, the computer and

 Peripheral devices (e.g., network interfaces, printers, and storage devices).

 Data movement happens via buses (data, control, and address buses).
 Data Bus: Transfers actual data between the processor, memory, and other peripherals.

 Address Bus: Carries the addresses of memory locations where data to be read or written.

 Control Bus: Manages and controls the access and use of the data and address buses.

Control

 Ensures that all components of the computer system work together effectively.

 CPU is responsible for this function.

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 Structure
 The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment.

 All of its linkages to the external environment can be classified as:

 Peripheral devices or communication lines.

 There are four main structural components:

 CPU: Controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions.

 It is also known as processor or microprocessor.

 Main memory: It temporarily stores data and instructions that the CPU needs.

 Input/output (I/O): Moves data between the computer and its external environment.

 System interconnection: Provides for communication among CPU, main memory and I/O.

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 Cont…

 CPU is the most complex one and its major structural components are as follows:

 Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU.

 Managing the flow of data between the CPU and other parts of the computer.

 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data processing functions.

 Performs all mathematical (arithmetic) calculations and logical operations.

 Registers: Temporary, high-speed storage located within the CPU for quick access.

 CPU interconnection: Provides communication pathways among the CU, ALU, and Registers.

 Like Internal buses that transfer data, instructions and control signals between components.
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 Cont. …
 The CPU and memory are normally connected by three groups of connections called bus.

 Bus is a group of wires which carries information from CPU to peripherals or vice.

 The three buses are; Data bus, Address bus and Control bus.

 Address bus: Group of wires which carries address information bits from processor to peripherals (16, 20, 24
or more parallel signal lines).

 Data bus: Group of wires which carries data information bit from processor to peripherals or from peripherals
to the CPU.

 Control bus: Group of wires which carries control signals from processor to peripherals or from peripherals to
the CPU.

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 Fundamental building blocks

Basic logic gate and circuit types፡

 Logic circuits are the basis for modern digital computer systems.

 How computer systems operate you will need to understand digital logic and Boolean algebra.

 Boolean logic forms the basis for computation in modern binary computer systems.

 You can represent any algorithm, any electronic computer circuit, using Boolean equations.

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Basic logic Gate
 The basic building blocks of a computer are called logical gates or just gates.

 Gates are basic circuits that have at least one more input and exactly one output.

 Input and output values are the logical values which are true and false.

 In computer architecture it is common to use 0 for false and 1 for true.

 Gates have no memory because, they computes an output based on its input.

 The value of the output depends only on the current value of the inputs.

 The three fundamental gates are AND, OR, and NOT.

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 Cont…
 The AND and OR gates each have two inputs and one output.

 The output state is determined by the states of the two inputs.

 The function of each gate is defined by a truth table.

 Which specifies the output state for each possible combination of input states.

 The output values of the truth tables can be understood in terms of two switches.

AND Gate implements the AND function.

 With the gate shown to the left, both inputs must have logic 1 signals applied to them in order for the
output to be logic 1.

 With either input at logic 0, the output will be held to logic 0.

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 Cont…
OR gate implements OR function.

 The OR function, allows the output to be true (logic 1) if any one or more of its inputs are true.

 In symbols, the OR function is designated with a plus sign (+).

 In logical diagrams, the symbol below designates the OR gate

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 Cont…
 The NOT Gate or Inverter is a little different from AND and OR gates.

 It always has exactly one input as well as one output.

 Whatever logical state is applied to the input; the opposite state will appear at the output.

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 Compound gates (Universal gates)
 They can be used to construct any other logic gate or logic circuit.

 The NAND gate and the NOR gate are called universal gates.

Why Are Universal Gates "Universal"?

A. Ability to Perform All Logic Operations: can be combined in various configurations to perform the basic
logic operations.

B. Flexibility in Circuit Design: Instead of requiring a variety of different gates a designer can use just NAND
gates or just NOR gates to build a circuit.

C. Simplified Implementation in Hardware: using only one type of gate can reduce the complexity of the design
and save space on a chip.

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Compound gates (Universal gates)

 NAND gate, the NOR gate and exclusive-NOR gate (XOR) gate.

 NAND means an AND gate followed by a NOT.

 NOR means an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.

 NAND and NOR are known as universal gates because:

They are inexpensive to manufacture and

Any Boolean function can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR gates.

 The two gates NAND and NOR, are produce complementary output to AND and OR.
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NAND GATE (Combines AND & NOT)

 A NAND gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 if any one of the
input is a 0 and will be a 0 when all input signals are 1.

 NAND gate is a complemented AND gate.

 The symbol  is used to represent NAND operation in Boolean expression. Thus

 A B = (A.B)= A+B

 The NAND gate can then be seen to be an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.

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NOR GATE (Combines OR and NOT)

 A NOR gate is an electronic circuit that generates an output signal of 1 when all input signals
are 0 and it will be a 0 if any input represents a 1.

 NOR gate is a complemented OR gate.

 The symbol  is used to represent NOR operation in Boolean expression. Thus

 A B = (A+B)= A.B

 The NOR gate can then be seen to be an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.

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 Exclusive OR (Ex-OR) Gate

 An Ex-OR (Exclusive OR) gate is a digital logic gate that outputs 1 if and only if the number of
1's is odd. It is one of the fundamental gates used in digital logic circuits.

INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 Boolean algebra

 Boolean algebra is used to describe the manipulation and processing of binary information.

 Boolean algebra is the manipulation of objects that can take on only two values.

 This two values are interpreted to digital value 0 as false and the digital value 1 as true.

 Boolean algebra has important application in the design of modern computing systems.

 That is why we need to deal with Boolean algebra in this chapter about basics of logic design.

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 Boolean expressions

 Boolean algebra also has operations that can be performed on these variables.

 Combining the variables and operators yields Boolean expressions.

 A Boolean function typically has one or more input values and yields a result, based on these input
values, in the range {0,1}.

 Three common Boolean operators are AND, OR, and NOT.

 A Boolean operator described using a table that lists the inputs, all possible values for these inputs,
and the resulting values of the operation for all possible combinations of these inputs.

 This table is called a truth table.

 A truth table shows the relationship, in tabular form, between the input values and the result of a
specific Boolean operator or function on the input variables.
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 Cont…
The logical operator AND is typically represented by either a dot or no symbol at all.

 Example: the Boolean expression AB is equivalent to the expression A · B and is read “A and B.”

 The expression AB is often referred to as a Boolean product.

 The result of the expression AB is 1 only when both inputs are 1, and 0 otherwise.

The Boolean operator OR is typically represented by a plus sign (+).

 Therefore, the expression A + B is read as “A or B.” The result of A + B is 0 when A and B are 0.

 The remaining logical operator is NOT is typically represented by either an overscore or a prime.

 Therefore, both Ᾱ and A’ are read as “NOT A. ”only when both of its input values are 0.

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Truth table for an AND gate
INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A.B

0 0 0

1 0 0

0 1 0

1 1 1

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Truth table for an OR gate

INPUT OUTPUT

A B Q= A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

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Truth table for a NOT gate

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 Cont…
 For example: the Boolean function: F (X, Y, Z) = X + Y’Z is represented by a Boolean expression
involving the three Boolean variables x, y, and z and the logical operators OR, NOT, and AND.

 How do we know which operator to apply first?

 The rules of precedence for Boolean operators give NOT top priority, followed by AND, and then OR.

 For our previous function F, we would negate y first, then perform the AND of y’ and z, and lastly OR this
result with x.

 We can also use a truth table to represent this expression.

 It is often helpful, when creating a truth table for a more complex function such as this, to build the table
representing different pieces of the function, one column at a time, until the final function can be evaluated.

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 Cont…
1. Binary Inputs:
 In a digital circuit, each input can be 0 or 1.

 So, with one input, there are 2 possibilities: 0 or 1.

2. Number of Combinations:
 If you have 2 inputs, each input can independently be 0 or 1, resulting in 2×2=4 possible combinations:
(00),(01),(10),(11
 With 3 inputs, each input can independently be 0 or 1, giving 2×2×2=8 combinations:
(000),(001),(010),(011),(100),(101),(110),(111)

3. General Formula:
The total number of combinations is 2n because each input doubles the number of possible combinations.

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 Cont…
 The last column in the truth table indicates the values of the function for all possible combinations.

Boolean identities

• Frequently, a Boolean expression is not in its simplest form.

• From algebra that an expression such as 2x + 6x is not in its simplest form; it can be reduced to 8x.

• Boolean expressions can also be simplified, but we need new identities, or laws, that apply to
Boolean algebra instead of regular algebra.
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Laws of Boolean Algebra

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 Boolean Analysis of logic Circuits

 Boolean algebra provides a concise way to express the operation of a logic circuit formed by a
combination of logic gates so that the output can be determined for various combinations of input
values.

Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit

 To derive the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit, begin at the leftmost inputs and work
toward the final output, writing the expression for each gate.

 For example: for logic circuit given below determine the Boolean expression.

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 Cont…
Solution: The final output Boolean expression for logic circuit determined as follows

1. The expression for the left-most AND gate with inputs C and D is CD.

2. The output of the left-most AND gate is one of the inputs to the OR gate and B is the other input.
Therefore, the expression for the OR gate is B + CD.

3. The output of the OR gate is one of the inputs to the right-most AND gate and A is the other input.
Therefore, the expression for this AND gate is A (B + CD), which is the final output expression for
the entire circuit.

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 Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
 A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to implement a given expression.

 Example: Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression: AB + A (B + C) + B (B + C)

Solution:
 Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the expression, as follows: AB + AB +
AC + BB + BC

 Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term. AB + AB + AC + B + BC

 Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms. AB + AC + B + BC

 Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms. AB + AC + B

 Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms.

 = B+AC at this point the expression is simplified as much as possible.

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Cont.

02/19/2026 45
 Types of Logic Circuits
 Digital logic chips are combined to give us useful circuits.

 These logic circuits can be categorized as either combinational logic or sequential logic.

Combinational circuit

 Which used to build circuits that contain basic Boolean operators, inputs, and outputs.

 A combinational circuit is that an output is always based entirely on the given inputs.

Example:
 Adders (Half Adder, Full Adder)

 Multiplexers (MUX)

 Demultiplexers (DEMUX)

 Encoders

 Decoders

 There is no memory or feedback in combinational circuits.

• Fast response
02/19/2026
since there is no delay due to memory. 46
 Cont…
Sequential circuit

 One major problem with combinatorial logic is that it is memory less.

 In theory, all logic function outputs depend only on the current inputs.

 Any change in the input values is immediately reflected in the outputs.

 Unfortunately, computers need the ability to remember the results of past computations.

 This is the domain of sequential or clocked logic.

 A sequential circuit defines its output as a function of both its current inputs and its previous
inputs.

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 Cont…
 Therefore, the outputs depend on the past inputs.

 To remember previous inputs, sequential circuit must have some sort of storage element.

 We typically refer to this storage element as flip- flop.

 The state of this flip-flop is a function of the previous inputs to the circuit.

 Therefore, pending output depends on both the current inputs and the current state of the circuit.

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A general model of a sequential circuit
 Cont…
 Output depends on present input and previous state.

 Uses memory elements such as Flip-Flops or Registers.

 Can be synchronous (clock-driven) or asynchronous.

 Used in systems where past information is required.

 Examples:
 Flip-Flops (SR, D, JK, T)

 Counters (Up Counter, Down Counter)

 Shift Registers

 Finite State Machines (FSM)

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 Types of Sequential Logic Circuits

 Depending upon the timing of sequential circuit signal, the sequential logic circuits can be divided
into two classes.

Synchronous sequential circuits is one in which the contents of the memory can change only at
discrete instants time or on the transitions of a clock.

 Since all the circuit action will take place under the control of a clock, so these circuits are known as
clocked sequential circuit.

 Advantage: They are easier to troubleshoot and design because its outputs can change only at
specific instants of time i.e. everything is synchronized to the clock signal transition.

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 Cont…
Asynchronous sequential logic circuit is one whose outputs can change state at any instant of
time with the change of one or more of the inputs.

 The memory elements used in these systems are delay type memory elements.

 It can be regarded as combinational circuit with feedback.

 In an asynchronous sequential circuit, the state transitions occur independently of any clock and
normally dependent on the timing of transitions in the input variables and changes in more than
one output do not necessarily occur simultaneously.

 Disadvantage: It is difficult to design and troubleshoot and used only for simple configuration.

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 Flip-flops (FF)
 A FF is an electronic device that has two stable states.

 One state is assigned the logic 1 value and the other is the logic 0.

 The memory elements used in sequential circuits are the flip flop.

 These circuits are binary cells capable of storing one bit of information.

 A latch is a bi-stable circuit that is the fundamental building block of a flip-flop.

 It exists in one of the two states (1 and 0) and in the absence of the input, it remains in that state.

 It has two output y and y`. A simple FF or 1-bit memory (i.e. it can store one bit of information y = 0
or y = 1) and since this information is locked or latched so, FF is known as a latch.

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 Types of FF
 The major differences among flip flop are in the number of inputs they possess and

 In the manner in which the inputs affect the binary state.

 Each flip flop has two outputs Q and Q` and two inputs set and reset.

 The most common types of flip flops are:

RS (Set-Reset) Flip-Flop: The initials of the RS flip flop stand for Set-Reset.

• This type of logic gate or circuit has two inputs, the set and reset.

• This type of logic circuit is set when one input is triggered and reset when the other is triggered.

• Able to be forced into one state or another with input to SET or RESET.

• SET02/19/2026
and RESET cannot be used simultaneously - ambiguous result. 53
 Cont…
D-flip-flop is a true representation of physical computer memory.

 This sequential circuit stores one bit of information.

 If a 1 is asserted on the input line D, and the clock is pulsed, the output line Q becomes a 1.

 If a 0 is asserted on the input line and the clock is pulsed, the output becomes 0.

 Remember that output Q represents the current state of the circuit. Therefore, an output value of 1
means the circuit is currently “storing” a value of 1.

J-K Flip Flop: The J-K flip-flop is the most versatile(multi-purpose) of the basic flip-flops and it
can be configured to operate in a variety of modes. It combines RS flip-flop features and toggling,
making it more versatile.
02/19/2026 54
 Register
 A register is a memory device that can be used to store more than one bit of information.

 A register is usually realized as several flip-flops with common control signals, that controls the
movement of data to and from the register.

 Register is a collection of binary storage elements that includes a set of flip-flop n-bit register.

 Frequently used for:

Simple data storage

Data movement and

Processing operations

 It can be constructed using D flip-flop.

02/19/2026 55
 Cont…
 A register is a generalization of a flip-flop.

 Where a flip flop stores one bit, a register stores several bits.

 The main operations on a register are the same as for any storage devices, namely:

Load or Store: Put new data into the register

Read: Retrieve the data stored in the register (usually without changing the stored data)

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 Register Transfer Operations
 The movement and processing of data stored in registers Notation for register:
 AR (Address Register): Holds memory addresses to locate data or instructions in memory.

 PC (Program Counter): Tracks the address of the next instruction to be executed.

 IR (Instruction Register): Stores the current instruction being executed.

 R2 (Result Register): May hold the result of a computation or operation.

 Three basic components of register transfer operation:

 The set of registers in digital systems

 The operations performed on the data

 Control on the sequence of operations

02/19/2026 57
 Counters

 A register that goes through a predetermined sequence of states upon the application of input
pulses is called a counter.

 The input pulses may be clock pulses or may originate from an external source.

 They may occur at uniform intervals of time or at random.

 Each input pulse increments the state by 1; the machine can therefore, be viewed as counting the
input pulses.

02/19/2026 58
 Cont…

 Counters are found in almost all equipment containing digital logic.

 They are used for counting the number of occurrences of an event and are useful for generating
timing signals to control the sequence of operations in digital computers.

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 Technology Parameters
 Specific gate implementation technologies are characterized by the following parameters:

 Fan-in – the number of inputs available on a gate

 Fan-out – the number of standard loads driven by a gate output

 Logic Levels – the signal value ranges for 1 and 0 on the inputs and 1 and 0 on the outputs

 Noise Margin – the maximum external noise voltage superimposed on a normal input value that will not cause an
undesirable change in the circuit output.

 Cost for a gate – a measure of the contribution by the gate to the cost of the integrated circuit

 Propagation Delay – The time required for a change in the value of a signal to propagate from an input to an
output

 Power Dissipation – the amount of power drawn from the power supply and consumed by the gate
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 Fan-in
 For a given logic family, the maximum number of inputs available on any one gate is called
the fan-in.

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 Fan-out

 The fan-out of a logic gate is the number of inputs that the gate can drive without exceeding
its worst-case loading specs.

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Propagation Delay
 Propagation delay is the time for a change on an input of a gate to propagate to the output.

 Delay is usually measured at the 50% point with respect to the H and L output voltage levels.

 High-to-low (tPHL) and low-to-high (tPLH) output signal changes may have different propagation delays.

 High-to-low (HL) and low-to-high (LH) transitions are defined with respect to the output, not the input.

 An HL input transition causes:

 an LH output transition if the gate inverts and

 an HL output transition if the gate does not invert.

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