Unit Five:

Politics, economy and social processes from the early

sixteenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries
 Major developments of the period include
 The first half of the sixteenth century was arguably the most
turbulent period in the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 The principal events which occurred at the time and left lasting
imprints in the socio-political map of Ethiopia were
Conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates and foreign interventions;
The population movements
the Jesuit interlude.
 Conflict Between The Christian Kingdom and The Sultanate Of Adal

 The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and

struggle for control over the trade routes between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim principalities
Trade routes
 Two main trade routes connected the interior of Ethiopia to the
coastal areas.
 One route stretched from the interior to the port of Zӓyla and
Bӓrbӓra on the Gulf of Aden coast.
 He began his military career as a soldier in the service of Garad
Abun ibn Adash.
It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership
that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali,
the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause.
 He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite
and expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time guarding Islamic doctrines
and practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine.
 He was able to gain acceptance as Imam and consolidated his army
to fight the Christian Kingdom
 After the imam's rise to power, the battles were fought not just for
control of the long-distance trade route, but also and mainly to
solve environmental pressure on the Afar and Somali pastoralists,
who were pushing towards Harar and into the riches of the
highland Christian Kingdom.
Lowland Muslim pastoralists wanted to expand to high plateaus
for better and more pastureland because of increased population
and overgrazing.
This led to the intensification of the longstanding conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities while at
the same time resulting in fighting among the pastoralist groups.
 Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only
eleven.
 Assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal,
the Christian state initially retained its interest and even advanced
into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the early
sixteenth century.
 As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal were
made tributaries to the Christian Kingdom.
 Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. He began his military career as
a soldier in the service of Garad Abun ibn Adash.
 By the time Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military
confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was
followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled the territories
including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata
and putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.
 In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a
vast force from his domain and encamped about fifty kilometers
east of what is now Addis Ababa.
 Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized army faced no
such logistical challenges.
 The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership characterized
by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.
 As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was
defeated in one of the most decisive engagement at the battle of
Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo.
 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the
territories of the Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara,
Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
 By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa
on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
 As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed
established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted from
his own men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian
territories.
 One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife
of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara.
 She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal

known as Mahfuz.
 Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband

to avenge the death of her father.

 She accompanied her husband throughout his

 indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531

and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray respectively.

 On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced

the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as

a fugitive.
 His son and successor, Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to

face the wars

 This time with more intensity as Imam Ahmed had received
Turkish musketeers.
 The Arrival of Portuguese soldiers
 In the meantime, based on earlier request made by Lebne Dengel
in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with
matchlock arrived in the Christian court in 1541.
 The force was led by Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of
Vasco da Gama.
 However, in August 1542 the Christian army was defeated in
Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.
 In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were killed and their
leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
 The Role of Seblewongel (Wife of Libne-Dingil)

 She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in

1542 when the army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of
the Portuguese soldiers.
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s
ability to repulse any future attack by the force of the Christian
Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp.
 On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final
confrontation under the leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos
(r.1540-59).
 The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning emperor
how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Due to limited resources, the monarch employed hit and run
strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
 Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of easy
mobility because they did not know where the attacks came from.
 On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near
Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the
battle of Woyna-Dega 1543.
 Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility
and his army were loyal to him.
 As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the
northern and central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos
and he was tolerant toward them to promote national conciliation
and to develop revival of smooth relations with the Muslim world.
 Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s
territories and tributary regions.
 Gelawdewos faced multiple challenges

 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian state came

from
 the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
 the Ottoman Turks
 Jesuit interlude
 The population movement advance into the center.
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn alWaazir Mujahid was
ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and
killed the king himself.
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563)
 Succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed
territories in the coast including Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the
Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend his territory
from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel,
Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo.
 The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish forces,
and restored the territories.
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian Conflict
Negative consequences.
 Huge human and material cost.
 Destruction of valuable documents and heritages
 Population dislocation, migration
 Mutual exhaustion of both Muslim Sultanates and the Christian
Kingdom.
 II: Positive consequences
 The war had resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of
Ethiopia.
 Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by
intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural groups
were one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia
and the Horn.
 External intervention
(Ottoman Turkey Versus Portugal)
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian
Ocean between Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the
prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension.
 Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman Empire
who were the intermediaries of the international trade were
adversely affected by the discovery of a new sea route to India by
Vasco da Gama in 1498.
 They tried to counter the Portuguese encroachment into the East,
while Portugal for its part began to look toward the Christian
Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally, reviving the old "semi-spiritual
quest" for Prester John.
 On its part, the Christian Kingdom asked Portugal’s military
assistance against its Muslim and having of diplomatic missions
between the Christian Kingdom and Portugal,
 The Turk gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed.
 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for
assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided two
hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons
 Religious Controversies
 The attempts to establish diplomatic and military relations between Portugal and
the “Kingdom of Prester John,” first under King Manuel I (1495-1521) and later
under Joao III (1521—1557), saw several representatives of the Portuguese power
visit the Ethiopian royal court.
 This was followed by the arrival of several Jesuit missionaries along with their
bishop, Andreas de Oviedo in Ethiopia in 1557 to expand Catholicism.
The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to
restore its lost territories.
 The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and therefore separate,
natures of Christ-divine and human.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from the divine.
 Leading Missionaries
 The leading members of the mission who played key role in efforts to
evangelize the country include
 Joao Bermudez
 Andreas de Oviedo,
 Pedro Paez
 Alfonso Mendez.

 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-
59), hoping that the rest of the society would follow suit.
 Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal debates with the missionaries,
but he was not prepared to give in.
 Instead, he defended the teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document
entitled the Confession of Faith.
o Minas and Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after
the other, were too busy fighting against the Oromo and the
Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts.
o The Jesuits got relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r.
1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic to Catholicism.
o Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the
desired result.
o Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7),
who met a similar fate in the hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).
 Jesuits during the reign of Susenyos(r. 1607-32).
 Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who refused
to pay tribute due to this, he integrated the Oromo with the forces
of the central government to consolidate his power and stabilize
the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance,
which he got through the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and announced it to
be state religion later in 1622.
1
 Various measures taken by Susenyos and Catholic Priests against the
Orthodox doctrines

 With the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso

Mendez ordered;-
 Reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of
the mass.
 Besides, he called for the suspension of Old Testament customs
such as male circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath.
 Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in
Ge’ez, fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian
saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian
calendar to be adopted
 Eruption of bloody conflict

 The reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility.
 Even loyal followers of the emperor including his own son
Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated by the
Jesuits.
After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted
and the state came to the verge of falling apart.
 In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in
one day.
 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas,
who reversed the Catholic transformation.
 Measures taken by Emperor Fasiledes

 He restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,

 Expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including
Susenyos’ brother and the most fervent supporter of Catholicism,
Se'ela Kristos.
 Introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the country
from all Europeans for about a century and a half.
 Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close diplomatic
relations with the Islamic world
 He formed an alliance with the neighboring Muslim states to
ensure that no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom.
 In 1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at
Suakin and Massawa to the effect that the latter should block any
European from entering in to his territory.
 By doing so, Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order.
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained effective until
the beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception of
secret visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the
Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769, respectively.
 Negative Legacies of Catholic Jesuits to the E.O.C

 The Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and

controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint.
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in
eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again
from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and perfect divinity
united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United).
 It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine and
accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed
that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was born into the
world, Holy Ghost anointed him.
This sect was dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught
that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again
in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by Holy Ghost.
This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
 TIPES OF THE TOPIC
Population movement in the Horn of Africa is influenced by a number of
factors,
 Conflict and insecurity: The region has a history of armed conflict, which
can lead to forced migration
 Climate: Harsh climatic conditions and frequent droughts can lead to forced
migration
 Socioeconomic factors: Economic migration can be a factor, especially in
the eastern part of the region
 Seasonal factors: Seasonal migration is a factor in population movement
 Historical and cultural links: Similar communities separated by borders
can be linked by historical and cultural ties
 Labor supply and demand: The dynamics of labor supply and demand can
influence migration
 Pandemic: The pandemic has created new trends and exacerbated
vulnerabilities for vulnerable populations
 Environment: Pressure on the environment can be a factor in population
movement
 5.3. Population Movements
 The movements of people from one place to another have played
important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Population movements occurred in the Horn due to various reasons, in
varied scales and followed different directions.
 People moved from place to place due to pull and push factors, which
can be summed up as natural and social.
 Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of resources
and better living environment in general.
 In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be attributed
to the region's long socio-political conditions involving military
conflicts, drought and demographic factors.
 5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali

Causes
 The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the
Sultanate of Adal in the late 15th and the early 16 th centuries was
partly responsible for the population movement of the Argoba,
Afar and Somali.
 In addition, pressure on the environment was a major factor for
the population movement.
 Cont’d
 Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and
hence were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
 These peoples moved back and forth in response to the ongoing
military conflict.
A. The Argoba:
 The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn.
 For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by
the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively.
The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade
routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory.
The Somali
 Their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes
during medieval period.
 Prior to the 16th C wars between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates, there was environmental pressure on Somali
inhabited areas.
 The population movement of the Somali was a strong force behind
the military strength of the Imam.
 Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

 The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot
be better understood without considering the Gadaa system.
 The Gadaa system was an institution through which:-
 The Oromo socially organized themselves,

 Administered their affairs,

 Defended their territories,
 maintained law and order, and managed their economies.
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system
emerged.
 However, it is clear that for long the society organized their
politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious affairs through
the Gadaa institution.
 The Gadaa system constituted elements of “democracy”
such:-
 periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a one-man
rule.
 the system included representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies.
 It also served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion.
In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).
 Gada Officials

 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the
government was known as Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the
period” who was assisted by several elected representatives from
among the generation set.
 These included Abba Bokku (father of scepter), Abba Chaffe
(head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera
(father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of
treasury) and other councilors.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played
indispensable roles in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling
gadaa class.
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe institution, which
helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity.
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent),
qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and
Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were
believed to have sacred power.
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict
resolution, thanks-giving and others.
 The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling
class.
 The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)
A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the
Oromo population movement of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
Natural factors include:- demographic pressure and subsequent
need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock
population.
Man made factor: the conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to
leave the lands they inhabited for other area.
In the early decade of the sixteenth century, when the population
movement began,
 During their movement Oromo organized in to two Confederacies
these are Borana and Barentu
1. Borana moved in the North western direction
2. Barentu moved in the Northeastern direction
The Oromo forces took northern direction and passed through a
corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abbaya.
From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.

Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e Melba (1522-1530) fought and

defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied
Bali
Mudena (1531-1538) reached the edge of Awash River.

The Kilole (1539-1546) controlled Dawaro after defeating

Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
While Bifole (1547-1554) advanced to Waj and Erer.

The Michille (1555-1562) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at

Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur
Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
The Harmufa (1563-1570) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina
and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj
Halibo defeated Robale gadaa (1571-78) at Woyna Daga, but
Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force.
The Birmaji (1579-1586) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to
Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
 The Mul’ata (1587-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya
and Tigray.
In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1595-1602),

Melba (1603-10), and

Mudena (1611-1618) expanded to West and Northern parts of the

Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and
Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.
In the course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.
Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama

Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi)

Oda Bultum of Itu-Humabenna

Oda Bisil of Mecha

Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa centers.

Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-

Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma,
Oda Garado of Waloo, etc.
Interaction And Integration Across Ethnic And Religious Diversities

Territorial and religious expansion by the Christian kingdom and

the Ethiopian Orthodox Church diffused Christian tradition from
north to the south

The population movement of the sixteenth century was the

integration of peoples across ethnic and religious diversities in
Ethiopia and the Horn.

The wars of Imam Ahmed caused the expansion of Islam into the
central parts of Ethiopia.
The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifachaa and Moggaasa.
 Guddifachaa refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent.
In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a
biological child.
 Moggaasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos commonly
known as Oroomsuu.
Moggaasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals or
groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights and
obligations that such membership entailed.
 Moggaasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan.
The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits.

The process significantly contributed to the social cohesions,

national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade.
•The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural

values and institutions.

• A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo

adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language.

•Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and

traditions of the people with whom they came into contact.

 The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems

and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and

Muslim cultures.
THANK YOU !!!