electrosta.t.

cs
-
Electrrc Cha1e
� 81urc [Link] associated wrtti matter �9uanta�a.u·on T, :Jhe Cllor3e on °'lJ borttt will be.
� Produets cu>d [Link]?ences etect-rrcal & moanw'C Sorf)e ;,,te,3ra.I [Link] <If ee.

tf/ect IB= ±.nel h::.,_,.2,�.,-----

positive Cho7e ( f i ct_
·

l·UIO c)
• •

�pes oF Cnarae
=-

"'do.h�e th47e(t.: -l·GxiO"c)

[Link]'s LQCJ.:J
-t>SJ u.n�t of Cho'de = [Link] (CJ r
-f>C·Gr·S llnif =Stat COuJarnb or e·S·ft F= �q,,Q.1
-1> DfmU>sfon [AT]
=

�=4Ji' �,
60 G,= pumit+ivi'd l1f- free !pace·
J
-11
9 1 � -
�0 - a•
� o5 4f x ro c
3x 10 Nm
a.

Nrn�
c'-
t clecttfc field Li'nes (electric u0nes of force�) I> Continuous cha e drst rfbLth0on : Jhe rt9ion in cdlfch ch
• �lecfrre ftetd l?n(S ore o. pictorTal rrAtl� of represent1°n3 elettrfc field. [Link] close� spaced rs Sllfd to have. [Link] d&+[Link]
around a con f19 umh0n of [Link] •
charae �� rs °' fhree ��
Linear Charae Surface tha.r9e \/olllme C.h6rae
1)r0sttfbllh'bn J)rstrfbllt1on Drstrfbu.t.=o,,
• Eleetric df�le : S�stem of [Link] e<Jual [Link] opposfte - �+ t -1- + + + %
-t + + Swlote. [Link].
+ + + a
dtnsd· �
mt
Volwne charoe
�a
...... 0
dtn
-

sT�
-

ch°'B'es sepo:[Link]! b� a [Link] '21l.'. � �

L°neor c e density + + +

A= ch�rie d V= chOrJe. «U :Charae

-=
rH =

Erecl-ric d!pole momcnt CPJ f ±ti z.Q. -Ve e tve

-=

= I ff> di AreQ... clS Volume dV

-�_,,.d�
1 dF .....

'· �

r
dF ......_.._..&.I

dF= 1 '[Link]) r dF=J_ '[Link]� > r

ti -4nE, t1
--

=�dt
d� .fn e, d\-= rds

�r F=-'1100 r

... J "
F=k
t
s -+�. r'

�
�
 Etectn°c ff ttr. : is CL [Link] ol the nwnbtr of eleetrrc f1'eJd -
&ouss tow:�For a Closed surface enclosrna a net cho.r3e fl,J the
lrnes Crossin9 on ClJl!Q, eloceCJ rn CUI electrrc f1•e1d·
nit electrrc ftui 4> t.mtx3rn3 Dttf- IS aPvm b»
A E �e
� 1 ·ds .Hn
'l'=yf
.... n
.... =
_..

A= 60 dS
....
..

.... �
Ctreo Vector
3oussiM [Link]�
-

f = E· A : El\ Cose � [Link] -lo Surface &

fotc:lif o. dl'pole is enclosed I� a. Closed surface, flux q is l.t(J'()-1
e= so· f=o aft1'<[Link] [Link]. °'"'41 from Hence the ru9ebrnfc Sum ot Charges (-tq,-'l,) =o
�llKftlte
•for non- Wli/brro Surface/ non unifotro C·F
• �-1
�= + c dA cose SI Wl1t � Nm c

Clo\c cu�� - 'at>� (of\'\)

out a\9Q}t. �o.
op..,.-@ \J•ct,,

I
TW o �4 V'tqo
 .,. E,rectrie Potenh°al i EJecttic potenh°a.l at a point is deli0ne<f as -

{l(Obunf Of Wo�K done in brif18ih3 ll unit posihVe ct>arye from

Tnfinft;; to that point CL30Jbst elec.trostah0c Held.·
f.e, V= !d..e;(l-
�xf-�.F - al _r _q-tta. _n_t..-
8 ,8f is a lsc-a- � .I
......

'l-0 �S..I llllit (s � Or�

� £1ectrfc Potellh0ar dHFttence � betwetn +coo point- is defrned as

the [Link] of wot� done required To move a lU>ff- ;.ve teJt-
ch°'<He from one point- io Ott>Vt poi•nt ac· o!nst elec.1rost0Hb f;eJd.·
..,

tB
...

A• < VA- V0 = .[Link]·

•.[Link] q,o
• 61(;f:o
 tfectri°c fbfentr°al due iv groitp of c.h�es :Jhe etectri°c poteh11li.I -
at a. point due to Q group of charges '!.+

is e�ua/ to the [Link]°c st11n of -Hie

electt-ic potenti'[Link] due to Tndivi du.a.I
th o."9t� nt +bat pointip;;i
. ii
iiii
iii
iiiiiii
�

V= [Link]� + �

�Eguipote.ntt0aJ Surface : '1-stJrlace on cohich fhe electric

potinttaJ is ton�tont rs known as [Link]·aJ cSUfface..·
• Propt1tt1�s of Oil [Link] Surlace
6£1ectrfc Held 1fnes [Link] ()/waus perpendrcal or to a.n
equipotential Surface· •

-TAork. done Tn rnoVfn8 on eleclrfc char9e from one pofnt

to [Link] on CU> [Link]•ct1 [Link] �s -

--Two [Link]�e.nh0a1 surfaces CM n�VOL [Link].c.t one

onotheJt·
� Electrfc Potential CreJ!8 �Jhe OJfJOWlt of CXJOrl<. done [Link] fu ....
.._
_ ....
_
.._.. ....
....
... ..._
a
0S5tmble fhe point ch�u fn S�S�tm from Trftni� aad!ns./:
(}; • �lectrostattc Shieldrn ;Qf is the phenomenon ol protectrn9
electrostah°c field � Called electrostah0c potenp·a.1 tnVt.S�t n cut<tfn region of Space froln ex�amaJ electrrc field·
• t:reatrrc Potenttal e,n erg� of a s�ste,rn of tcoo pornt [Link].
t> o·e1ectric Dielecttfcs oJ-e noh- Cohducttng Sl1bstllJ1ces.
r

U= I q., 'li ri� d /Stance betwe.t1> <t, Md q,, ·

= Jh"'J hove no ( Ot nea1t9f ble [Link].r of) Cho.� e [Link] us
-fni. �2.
• EJectrfc Po�entfal [Link].l'fl� of a s8sttrn of n point [Link]•
Poro.r [Link] : R polar molecttle is one in [Link] cf> the centre
ot posit1 ve d _a.tive chll(9es are se arat (tJJm when ihtre
U 1- ��-· K'Jr ll.J·
=
r� no eXf eJenal field) � polar moleCWe has ptkmanen °J=>ole.
�Lr;: •

ai1 7 'J momellt· e·9 wattk ([Link] rmd Her ·

on- Polat molecule f\ non- polar mole [Link] r one Jn which the
cen
Co. ocitance: Capacitance cc; o� a [Link] rs the, [Link] o� -
cbaf8e CQ) Qiven llild the pofenti"aJ (VJ to cob(c.t> it Ts [Link]•
i·e C-=- Q -
Sl unit �farad (.f).
y
 Curl'el)t �ectrfcit
-
electric Current :81 is deft0ned OS the rnte of flow Of etectrrc
t>[Link] densiW :at a. pdn� rnside the Conductor rs defrnect
Charae ttiroueli Q Cl'<X'S-Sect'bn Of fhe conductor·
r:�rent ns fhe [Link] Of [Link] flowing f>eJc [Link] orea [Link]:ithat

t j§°] f=� if the is steoc.t� point of the conductor,

Condudor
rE �IH---r
�
•

l _..
A J::: l0
-t

eCurruit is a. s col o.r q uantt'8 A

,

es1 [Link] rs ampvce CA)· I A=!..£= 6�5x1d8e1ectron/s

�====
== == IS
� direc�on of CW'renf- • 'Drift velocity' Jhe o.verll9e veloci� with
<.0hfch free
+ve chor9e�
,. eJectron �e.t
drifted [Link] the posih·ve encJ d +he
4 dfrech0on or Conductor undtJt the, inflUtnce of M eiteJtnaJ electric
- ve charae [Link].
�·i1ct.
N'ofe:Jhe current is some for all cross sechon CJf a, conductor
�,,,,,. Gtiven by vd
.....

e.§. -c
= -
....

of non [Link] Cross geclfon· ��::: :=====n m

.,.
Ur
8 0 .,. Lft tLft o
�� o
��tL=:!Jtr
 Ohmic onductors .Jhl13e conductors i.:.ihic�
obeH ohrds 110.w a
rue knolCJO QS mfc conductors t·3 [Link] For ohmic
· Conductorsr
the rn betww> cur t otenh4J dHfmnct iS olstrnTghf- .
lme pas�ns throu3h
the ori9in·
I Ohm's Lo.�1:81 stales thal- the current CO flowrn
+hrou, h a
conductor is CL°recu pro orh"onal to the otmhal [Link] tvJ l+Non-ohmfc Conductors rlhose tondttctors which do nof­
ocros� the tnds the conductor provided h sical condfhons 'if o s loc.o are nown ru non- ohmfc [Link] •

e a dl'ode YOlve, JWlch0on cL°ode·

·
R�Jion •
rlttat1n
i6nA) 1. .r RtSisffdlct
'

.......
l
1 A
I
0

- �-��v
�:: Y: v is more than
th ue
= _, aAJ :P.
Jherelahon.b etween
____

I +one(siope of rvJ V and 1 [Link] one valu.t of. v lor

V � T IS noo-Uheor.
Slope= fQJl9 on t�t S�nOf V· tht some [Link] t·
__._------ v SI unit is ohm (..D-)
 Intvcnal r.esfsf011ce of a cell 8f rs aefioect as the resrstance
Offuecl. oy the �ltctrol te Q.n lltctrodes of Cl [Link] �hen the
(t c!rcuft
•
ttrrents /low throU! h it·
I clectromot.0\le fOrce of a Cell :Jhe potenh°o.1 &[Link] between
the WC> tt1eminals Of a ceu in M open ctrtWt· i·e when no v" [Link] [Link] the electrodes·
[Link] flows throLWh +he ceU·8f r, dtnotu! � SMmboJ £·
v' Jhe. nature of +he ele.ctro1:1te •

SI unit --. dowe/ couJomb or volt _·_ -.___

_ _
v4"tJhe nature of [Link] •
� 3ht [Link] Of a. cell deeUlds �on tt}e, nature of electrodes�
� Area of the electrodes J Tmmersed. Tn +he [Link] •

nature <incl ft)e [Link] � eJectrowte used Jn th' cell &

� elat0onsnr etween c Ctnd r·
' ,
I [Link]•
________ -

-
�� ' '
r '
--1--. "--AAN-r.---,
;ierminal Potenh0aJ Diffuence :3t is deFtned as fhe polu>tio.I dJffuence : c
'
'
' �
r
,
...
betn>ee,n two tumfnals of a, Cell fn a, closed Cfrttlft· •

'
___ ______

i·t lOhtn lWnnt rs flowina throu9h the [Link]• J� IS dmot-ed b3 y.

--... �urfng dPscho.r9Tn9 of n tell
Iv= e, -
rrl
v= e-1r
Iv:: e +fr I
 l> kirchhof f's Ltlca
I � Jolde's Ulw of [Link]� Accordin8 to Jollie� heahii9 [Link]
.......______..._......, of current, the runoWJt of hea.t producecl ( H) rn ll conductor
,......,..

e kfrchhoff's �irsl Lac.c:J St states that the 003ebroJc swn of

of Resistance (R) ,[Link] [Link] i for 11h1e t Ts
currents meeh·ng at 0.. alUlction IS �UO·
IH r:R t (in [Link]) I
[Link]/'eJ
. . . .
I� = �
.
• i,.ihu-e J iS jo ule s rnechanicaJ
=
'
11 T 13 + t IS
or H (B,t Cfn
0 18
,,
equivlkltnt to heo.t (= f·� '1/co.1)
=

J
kfrchhof f 'S firs� IQA'.> Sll orfs the
law of cooservatr'bn of ch e. I 8ectrtc P<292ef :Jh� mte oJ cd>Tch ltlectric �nsa.�:J1>e total work,
AISo CClJ!ed. J°l111Ch0n Rtde or Curten� [Link].0 <.OOtK is done b� the SOIU'Ce of d°"oe b� 0the so1trce of emf rn
[Link] in m<li'ntainrn9 the turrent mruntafn1 n9 +he current- fn an
9kfrchhoff 's second lncu 8t states +hat in Cl closed, loop� t [Link] r' tur electnt crrc.U:t- for Q. iven trme.
jollle (J)
•

the o.l9ebratc swn of the emfs Cs equal to the 019ebrru0c swn P=�lectn•c work done IE= Pxtl c51 unit�
of the prodlLcls of the resistance f!nd the respect,.ve turrents C.ommucfo1 llnit � t h
I looow�
•

l 2
lo�ing through them• I Lc -= � 1& P: V1 = I R., = Y t K�h .u1cf J
t
L_fJ
�
I
L
- u
_,......,._

H R_, l-
R., one of el ectrrcit [Link]
[Link]
SI unit �[Link]) I
= o· of Wlit tonswnecL·
Proch0caJ [Link] k11owat1 (1<�)
= =total wattase x tr•me in hour
I Clnd norse powex (hp) IOOO
 Gnd Pretds
-
� Masneti't fre1dl3+ rslo. region around a ma3net or
or ::pace I • Dfrection of Hasneh� field.
current carr�ing conductor or a. movira [Link], Tn which ifs � :� R.i�Qht Hand tlhlllllb'RuJe
ma3nehc [Link] CM be felt·
• [Link] fre1d is a vector [Link]:'fy_C�
_8)....__
•SI unit tesla [T) or webu/metre2 : Wblm�l •

GtS unit� auss � 1+esla.=101-Gr

�Jhe sources of ma nehc frelds are
R current cnrr fn conductor electric field.
Movtn ch ed parhcle Pumantnt ma ntl
?l'rechbn of the ffelci j:?[Link] io the plane
@ © © ©
© © © © {�lo the
® ® ®® 0 tof
® ® ®®
I
t� [Link]
,....,. torentz Force� When [Link] [Link] of cho/:Ye q,
a.

® ® ® ® nae er moving wi.f-h velocit� V is StJbjected to cm elech:fc

® ® ®®
® ® ® ® [Link] � cmd Ma. nthC ffelcJ total force dch"n3 on the
.-
® ®®® 0
� ...... ......
par�tcle IS F = Fe + Fm
F = <t� +q.tVx6)
I � [Link] lo;;} Accordrng to thTs [Link] the �8neh0c field at I Ampere's [Link] lo.c.o�Blle 1rne integrOJ of ffie [Link] A
a. poTnt due to a, currwf- elunent of
P lw9th dl, [Link] field 6 oround closed on i
CLtrrent i, at a distnnce r from =the e:ltment JS
teoe rs .tqttal to times the
0 B
total [Link] l fhreo.c.tln3 through
d6= J.k i dlSfn9 -
dB= JJ. i ( dL>c t' ) t
·

the loop· r
------
.if;t. rJ.
....

41-JC
..

r3
...
magnefl'c
B·cll =lto1 fteld·
..... ...
.

Solenofd, A strai9ht solenoid Consists or hollow [Link] OVP.r

which a. I n1e. [Link] of [Link] of fnslllated coppu- wire
Ctrt [Link]� WOWld.·

t>[Link]'c Dfpole :IA Current corrHrna loop acts lfke a ma.�ne1fc I

dipole the m a.�neh.c momenI- for +h015 d0IDole IS arven ba
M-= Tit or M=i� • Ma3nehC freld [Link] to o. stroi9ht Solenoid.
or IM=N'iAI © ® © ® © Rt an point Tnsfde Solenoid
of
N � f\Jwnbu
i : [Link]- in
turns Tn loop
the I oop
-- 80 0 0 ©
-------- -- ----- f)
®
-· B=
A.ton1
At the ends of the Solenoid
ft : fl rea of [Link] -[Link] o� the loop. Bend J. lfon l n= t:£ .
._.9t is � Dfrechbo n; no· of tW"ns ptk unit letwff>·
=

a. vector [Link]�· o .--.f'[ � .. L. "

 �Ammetut is on instrwnent used to measure [Link] in an

-tlectr(Cetl Cirtwf • C/he re.1istance Of CUl ideal [Link] ls %QlfJ • A

I [Link] of Gral [Link] Tnto a.n ammeterI
5 ..' Ammehlt · ----- ---
,. - , -_

0
_,
�Gt=S(i-i3) :s= �Gt :
' I I
• •

�
':���----��-'3_!
Cllrrent Se.n itivi :gt is [Link] as the def lectton roduced l\fote� Ammdtr rs a loc.o resfstonce [Link]- � it ts
in the alvanomiteJt on o�sin uni� current +hrou h Tfs Coil ctlwa�s [Link] Tn SU<ia to the c1rwit•
Cur:rtnJ �e.n�iiiviru !2.. NBA ( rad A-�
= =
------ ----------- ------------------------------- ---------- -

·4 L
.......
'<.. 9 Voltmeter , is o.n f nstrlU'rlent used in measun po�enh·aJ difFuent:t.
ocro�c; a conductor fn on electrrca.1 circwt •Jne [Link] of Ctn
YQ1�8L��ll_i�YJ� �jt rS defined as the deftectr'bn produced
rdta! VOltme:Jtl( is Tnfinite
in the s�lva..[Link]. , when Q UtJif VOltoae is [Link] OCl'OSS •

its toil·
j Convt1<sTon of Gtalvonornetu Tnto an voltmetU'j
r volt roettr
a $UJ1Jift"vif1J
Volto e. = .Q = NBA l racl V�
v l<R,
- V= ra CR+&) .. R= y_ -&
13
F{: Ru [Link]. of the. 30.1vo..[Link]· v ,.
voltage to bt mtasllled·
__ ....

V iS the
•
 -
Ma9neh�m : The p ropert� of ®y object- b� virtue of which M11Gt�ETIC FIELD: Jhe space [Link] a mo.9neJ within
if (Qn [Link] a. piece of Iron, hie e J C6bal etc• which Tis [Link] can be exp ui weed 1s knou:m llJ its
mo.� [Link]. [Link] • ine j o i nin3 ihe iwo
i1 ht I poles of ll mo3ne.t- is
_.,,N'aturCll Ho. net � A naturo.I ma3net r� o.n of fron CFe.30.,.) k.nOC1>n mo.3ridiC axi.s • �
;:--4 �
ore oc
,

lri n rch [Link]� small piece of iron, cobaH- [Link]. [Link].I towards Tt· s •: N' �
-+When SUSf>U>ded freeJ8 , [Link].a io rut llJo°8 north� SO<llb
dA°rechon NAGrNETIC DIPOLE : A- mo.3net� dipole consrsts of -two unlike
..:,�rli°ficial t109net Ma9net whfcl) ls prepared arhttda.11� is polt� of equal stre.n3tb and [Link] � ll small distance
====:::::'I
·

1<nou:1n OS [Link]"ft•cfal mo.3ne.t· For t3 Cll horse-shoe, ma.9ne.t L·3 tt bar ma.3ntt, a compass nttdle de· -------

a. bar [Link] mll.9neh0c [Link] Uc·

s 1� .lrn .TI f\I
�The Bar Ma3ne.t -=P CL [Link] dipole whfch producu t3
m

I• � �
[Link] field OJ'Olll)d tt• ,.s N
13
 Ma neh°c dipole mo men : 8f rs delrned os the prodtttt of s��ff>
of ttther pole Cm.) Q.l>d ma3neJiC len9tt> (20 af the. monhtt·
.....
8t 1s denoted b� ��:;.:.:. ·���
.

IFi m(2tJI
= 8t is a. veclor quanti•tu Md
t t is dlrtcltd from [Link]) to tJorHl pole ol ma3net·
m m�
S I� II
N SJ wit A ms. =

I [Link] Suscef!iPU:t:f ('Xm) I is

how tOAil n st$t"apce � a. measure of
�����������--------, ma neh�ed in a. Ma9nehc field· A malen°al with mo Xw, ca.n be
�QUSS4S
Lo.w of H o_gnetfµn Of- 6r�s Xn,[Link]<jUt!llGe [Link] t
ChOiljt info maane.t ttl&i� ha� t')O UJ)jfs and no dimei>s1ons}
u
• Hfl- al
�s forms Closed
-
Loo_ps·-====::::=====:===:::2
L__ --
_...r-
.__ .... -t----
__..,._
... • Monopoles don't txfst· Na neh'C PermeabTlit t is t/le ease with <.difch the matflra1 illlows mqqnefrb
1 lhes 6f lorce. to pass thro o it or the de3rte to UJnicn ma9nehc field can
____

ptnei a 3ivtp medil.t40· = �

RelahVe Perroeahllif8 Air::: � Note':. .AJ.r = I +-X:m
-Uo
 elen�Vi rs a measure of rnagOOt-C lield. remoinir_ia Tn-lhe Furomt1Jfltf1c a
s etimen wfien the magneh�0� flel(J is remo�·

CoercMf!f : is a.n measure of mo9netiiirio field. �qW'"d. -to deAtro9 the

:
I
I
I I:
_,,,,-
• I
residual mag�hSm 6l the [Link] .specrmm ·

I I

X;-small & Posih'Ve XirVtJH llQe

I I

� :ml & +Ve·

: x,,,o1.J_ (curie la...,) �°' J_
I

: T T-Tc
I
�--· I

3) .Ur is sli.9ht!Y lessVt, :3).ur ·is 3li9ht� [Link], � .u,. is much 9reafU'
than Wli�· Uot .u <.tt.) j ha.n un11:1 {}t. .�I>.u.). ! -than un1w-ne. .tt» .u..J
I I
----=====::::;'I I I

�) /lfoJ1l5 do nof have MM have ptunaoo>tdl'pole Mve �noontnt di°pde

!1) !'rJ
!>UfQanent d1 fe, rnbmenf : �mmls mhich are : roomm1s wht°ch O(t
rondoml� Briented
� :o,,anised Tn. doroo1�·
�· BT, cu., Ag, H3 , Pb, t-b) I<,�, Al, Cr, Sr>
[Link];!.5). f.e,Co,,Nt & -[Link]
p).
hMd"°8Ul,He, Ne de :! ljquid oxy9cn : [Link]·
GJJh� CRLI> soli 16).Jhe.y eon beso/fd., : 6).Jh� ore sol rd,.
,

iquid or 9as. : iqw or 3as ;

 l�r a Ac I
-
� M a9 neh''c r1114Jht number of rnogheh°c ITnu of force c.rossir19 a..
�iiii�
iii �� The. rna9nitude of the Induced emf is tquQl to
swface_ rs known as ma nehc fJux I inked with tha� surface.
�he. iimt [Link]. of ch an l of ma9nehc f 1 ux
3t is 3iven bcJ cp= B·A BFIC:OSQ
·

=-
����
_,.
[Link]':1 E, C>( cJm or e - qm-- =

B= Sir th of mo neh0c fiefc.l. Area or surfoce

-= �= ==
cl� Ii-:; dt
tw & field cL0rec • 4:>Ne9Qtive S�n ind1'[Link] the directton of E..·
----�------- ------------------------�-�--��-�---�--���-��

l>tlecJroma nehc Tnductton

9t is �he [Link] of enerah· an emf b (nar>gin �Loiz's Law : Jhfsl aw 3ives us the dfrectton of [Link].
the tll1tn Of ma nehc Jane� of force i·e mo ehc flui �f· [Link] to this lauJ, the direchbn of induced [Link]
assolrated <.t:Jrt t e ci UL. Jhe. emf so qtnU'ated is ro«Dn In a. circuit is Suc.h that 1t opposes the. [Link].n9e. in rna9nehc

os in [Link] (Jri Jf ihe ci [Link] is cl�ed he [Link] t0hich

·
flux responsi ble for its prodtfch·on •

flou:Js in it due to in uced em is knolal as [Link] turrenb '-PLenz's low is in [Link] with +ne prfnciple. or
con�ervaH'on of !nef9�·
Farado.Y•s laws of electrbma netic 1,-,duch·on
1) First low �[Link] i�t. rtmou.n'- of ma9netic ftux 1rn1<ed
wifli a tirtuit changtJ, Ctn trnf is [Link] in tht [Link].
Jhis inductd unf pusists a� Jon9 as the [Link].n9e 1n
mo�neh0c -[Link]: tontinues ·
 I> Fltmin9,s right [Link] rule: ij Motiopal C·l"J·cl: When C.onductin9 rod of len9th l,
a moves a

witfl a velolity v laueeJ1ditulodto o uniform magneh·c

Th�tor field B) +ne [Link] [Link] ocro�s its ends rs
Motion --
cf B.e.v lhls emf is khouJn asl-m-o-h"-on _a._I q, fJ
= ...

Magnefic �ield
�Inductor
.Induced An inductor is a device. YJ in o. ma neh0c
Curre,nt f [Link] An induc�or fs [Link]� [Link] as lnduct-CU>ce·
·

In usual ptac�tce, Q coil or [Link] is [Link] os in uc+or •

.!)t is [Link] btJ symbol

�Self Induction Whenevu the lurrent possin� throlt9h a coTI

or cJrcltit e, an9es the ma9nehc Iux Ii nked with Jt wil I also
J

chM9e ·As a reslt tt o/ ihis, ClJ> em 1s 1n u c td in the coil or

the circuit which oppose.& the chonje that causes 'tt·
This phuiomuion is known as elf Tnduch·on h tht e,nf
[Link] fs kno<0n as [Link] in uteq Unf or back 4nf •
I · Mutual Induction: Whenever +he eurnnt passinj fhto�P fL > [Link] of co i I<): of [Link] [Link] Ts o. mws� of-
• A
coil or [Link] chan9es) the ma3neh c. flux linked wl+t> a th befwao the two [Link] [Link] is 9ivtn bcj
nei kbourln [Link] or circtL1f wllJ o.\so [Link].n � Henct CJ.I:> L, & � M COtffitil(>ts of self indudcmce

will bt i Cl
. n t t nei Kbourln co· o c0rc.C1 •
ol [Link] [Link] 0-nd H )s [Link]>t of mutual
This phenomenon · known as tnutua' TndLtc.h·o�
[Link] of tht tcoo coils·
Jf>e coil or [Link] i� which the Current ch01>je5 fs khouJn
as prirnar� wf>ile +ne other in Whic.h emf is [Link].p ls knot0n ..___...._...w.�...._..
.__..__._._ilimli!il.;.;..
,,.
..

as Sttond Ct�. oa

P ri rnar� Coil .Selondar!J Coil·

(.()= 2n

Y= f requmc.y of A·C
T-= Time period of A·c

Qunlit�- factor rs [Link] [Link] in +trms of

baMtVifth .
Q = [Link] [Link]
[Link] width

1J [Link] Powu• CJhe. Pot0er in the O·C circult- o.t

h
o.n� i nstOl)t of tirne is knoum QS [Link] Powu I
9t rs tqua1 to tt>e product of values of [Link]&nah°na
Voltqfe
Q.r)d [Link]
current o.t tha.t tJme. ·
 • WllHless Current :Jht ll'1uo.3e porou [Link]'o..te.a ovtM. a.
-
complete [Link]. wTth o. pure Tociuc.t-or or- pUTe [Link] rs
�[Link], wen tho�h a. [Link] rs flotd� tt>ro�h them· Jhfs
Pav :: V
rms
1
rms
LlJScf> = Vo Io lOS <f> lurrult ls [Link] OJ u:JaU\ess [Link] or idle. CUfrwt·
�

0 Apparent ouJ : JHe prodoct of virtual \/oltaae (Vrrns)

ITransformer :9t is a device. ust.d for [Link]•oo a. loc.o
\:I

c.u1d virfual currU>t (irmsJ in the [Link]..Tt is knot0n o.ltunatin9 volta3t. to a. hiBh [Link]:ilng vol+°!_o.n �cL�-
as virtu a.l power or a..[Link] pocve.r v1ce· vusa jf fs brutoJ on phwomenon of mutual induch·on•
·

Principle: Whto the. turrent flocoin8 +hrouat> +ht prfmonr

·1� = v�ms [Link] coil [Link].n3u , cm ..uof &, ind.u<:ut ln tht SttandW) cell
[Link]. +o +he. [Link] Tn mo.3nutc {1u>C Li'nke.d. u:>ith tt·
 electromct neb0c wciues
-
Diselactment Currw Jhe turrent which comes into pla� tn
I £[Link]�neh·c waves � E. ·M Wa\les ore +hose o:JaVes in
tbe, resion, l() tre)llf the [Link] field o..nd hence tht llectrrc
which there rs a. sinusoidal varTah·on Of eJe.ctp0c CJnd
flux is chCUlRin$1 with time.·
� e,-dj_e. Co= Pumtttivl� of free. space
=
[Link]·c [Link] nt �i9�t o.n91es to eadJ otr<r ru well o.a o.t
.. !----___;dt..;;.;.., d.m.e rate of chon<Je of [Link] flux.·
�
r;�ht �Jes fo the [Link]·on of wa\Ji eropo$Jallon·
a
v

clt
�

X(E)
_
__ _.1

Max wel I's tq1Jah0ons : dht basic prrricij:>I e of- e.I e ctroma.a riet& m
CM ht [Link] in tums of four foodamU>t-aJ lJllfah0ons
kno�n cu [Link] >s ,e,�uahoh.
@,aus�'s LQw for el�ct. ostah0csJ Gtouss [Link] for lrll¥[Link]
for a plane pro9ressfvt .[Link]'C (J)()Ve. propa3ahhg
� E·aS = i � B·dS=o olono +� d.irech0on ihe ..eledtrc Md ma3ht.t1°c [Link] c..o.,, he
So ,

�Mmcwetl-Ampe(is [Link] [Link] t0ritltn QS· E= Eo'5ft1 (kz-wt)

....
.___,__
_ _____ EM_I_)
6= BoSin (Kz-wt)
fB·dl =.v. ( ic +id)
 ( RD.8 optrcs)
Optics � is thi [Link] of physics wh;c.h d e.a1s with [Link] Of I �br ��efractiop Of Ll_ght: wrqi 0. rn8 of li9ht passes from one medium to
----
--l
--

and tht phtnomena ossod'attd with lt Jt ls dTvided infb two ptnncht.s-

onolhu, in which it has a. diffmnt �eloaw, thtre occurs o. � in +he
or Lght; l-JhUJ a raH .strrku the sttr(act separotiry Mo
I> Rtf/ection ditechbn of propa9ation of IWtt acef* cd>ro 11 otrrkes the surfact d
mu!ia, a pan of it nets refltcttd. 1-e rttttms back in fht initloJ seporatibn of tLOo media normatl!J ·Jnrs [Link]}f of o. rnH of l�t>t rS kno1.011
muJiwn·Sf is f{[Link] as Reflechbn· as rifrnctioo
: .�orm
_______,

:Nt>rtnaJ i =�le OF incidenct r= ntwle Of ,-eflect•on

, al �

:
·

; r �� Ncle�VtlOOVf ,l1'0veJ� s fraqutllqf of '•Bht

�
�

n Rartr � l.{)ws Of refroction

I
•

do net�· �....��
q.s: �
Q)
_. Jhe incident ray, fhe notmal � the. tefracted rny
I

....au.t amplitude or intmsi� Of r?Jlecfed ray Ts I� [Link]"cl Tncfdqt--�.

all lit in the some ptMe·
4 sJnr = constant .u011 = 41
=
-u,
Sinr
� Refractioh from a Sphurcal SlYface
1ht portion of a rtfroctirtj rrie illm, whose curved sbdace forms tilt part ot a Rbi I ity of a lens of I 1
t> Powtr of a I ens to [Link] or di\luqe, Q [Link]
�phtie, is known as sphubl rtfracb'w oulfaa ·��n Cobverm·ons for ophq,0cal [Link] on ft·
refrnch"IJI.. SIUfa<! am t>M SQ/Ile as tfk>st, f� st*xrfcat mTrrDrs· P-= I 4>SI W>it of powu of lens is dioptre (D)
f l m> 4>for [Link]. lens, Pis -'le· lt>for convex [Link],Prs
�
���-----'

Convex 5�uical swface [Link] ophurc:a1 '5wfal! �Ve·

�

�[Link] of thin lenses Tn cont act {coaxfaJl<J}

[Link].r
J_=l +l 8�c��
c
F f1 f.a_
+Lt--·--
f3 �
(t-cti)
IP= P, +& + � + ----1
R. ,.
_

' L6NS � ff lens fs a. porb'on of a transparwt: reftaC�'l'J [Link] bound � i:too

spherfcnl swfaces or one sphufcal surface and otnt.r plane surface·
��efrnction throu,gh o. pristn ( Prism): 9115 a. homogeneous, transpartnt
•Cbnvex. or cohveiyrng leJ>S •Concave or dTvttgr� lens tnclost.d by tLOO plane swfaces lncli11ed at an 0119Je·1f\6e surfallS l1.f?
Ctllltd t� ref racb·ng .surfacts asr1 angle betcoem them is krl()(.(1) as the.
rttf4cti� �le or the OJ191t. Of prism• TFt 01?9lt bttUJt.U> the incicJmt rn�
nnd tht [Link] ra� fs known as tht ongle of da1rat000.(b)

BiconveX Plano Ci>ncavo 'Bi concave Plano Conveko

lens convex lens Con� I� leJ]S Conmve lets G:1rtil\le tens
 Wave Optr�s
tr======�= -
#Wa.�efronl: 1he locus of all earhcles of the [Link] vibra h"r:N Tn ,
ens f?rinciele : fl ccotding to HLtyBtns principlt,
[Link] ph�e at a. givm Tnstant rs knocon as wavefront·
- €.Vuy point on give.h [Link] (prirw� [Link]) [Link] o.s a,
�Sphuica l wavefront : Whm tht source of li9ht is a pornt soun:e, the
wavtfront is sph trical·
tnas fresh sourct of rtw disturbance, colltd suondar� wavelets·
!@)) .-. �[Link]· 'The secondar� wo.\teleJs spread out Tn a.11 the drrection wilt>
I r source the speed of J i9ht in the rntdi �. Pri _

[Link] ront �, � n<hr_g

_

� lindtical Wavifront : Whtn ihe I 1qht Sol.U(e Is I intar) tht wavefront -R Surfact touching the�t second nni
,

-J
_ �

Wltutfront; .... - ', w<lVe

,,

iS r11lin dn°caJ wavttets tan9tn·Ually in tht forward ttJavelejS : , front·

-a Lfntor '
� :
..__. I
-

&[Link] '
direction al on9 instant giva the ntu:> : I .... -�
'

'
( sW>ndnry) wovtf�ont ai +rat 1 nstant ,
...,
-

� PlllOt JNavefront t Wht.n tht point sowrt or lrntar sourct of L'gbt IS ar

-

YU] larye dfsfll(lCt, a small Porhbn of sft>uicoJ or cylfndrrcal [Link]­ # Coh&rot and lncobuent s0urces �The sources of light, whicp emit
,front appuirs to bt plant· Such a. wavefronti is known as Plont [Link]­ conttnuolts I ight waves of the. same wavelen9th ,[Link] f requenc.Y s
...front· in some, phas t or having a. constan£ phast diffuence o.r� known- as....,.--,
cohq-ent sources.
'Plllht
----
-­

WllVtfront· --+-----J-+---....__�
�---
--

[Link] SoLtrce.s of li9nt do not tmit ll9ht- waves wtth a constont

phase diffennce [Link] Calltd [Link] sources·
 � Intuf t!UJCe. Of I ight:
-
9t is iht phtnomtnon of e istriblttton of 4JU:9. on [Link] of
I slteugos\tion lof light waves rom o c.o [Link] sources·
l nturu-enre_ pattern produce points of maximum and
minimum ·1htensit� Points whm resuttMt intensit� is maximum,
• • •

intufuence, rs said to b [Link] 1ve ond at the points of

es ructrvt intu umct, [Link] int wrt: rs minrmwn ·

Frifl e widt :1he distQOCl bdwW> 01>9 iwo Consectrlfvt

bright or dork frin t.s is known os frirl9t width·
Frin9t width, �= ?\i V

� Drffmdlon Of ligat_:St rs iht [Link]> of bmd!� Of

I ight around corntrS of an [Link] or oputure. Tn +hi
p�tb of I i9ht ·
 -
IPhotonl Accordth8 Efnstd'o's [Link].m +he.o
to Tliermionic tmfssion jf is tht phenomenon of
I? ht pro [Link] fn the d1:[Link] packel- of unissio e om the meJ-aJ [Link].. when
en er Called a ho ns •
neoJ-ec! [Link].b1 •

Note: Small ocke,t of ene.r made of a.rh0cle

IPh2totl!ztrr, [Link]�ron I J� 1S the Rhtnomenon of
- Jhe en of photon rs aiven b�
emission of ee from th ....llilli.... ...
I£ hYI
= h-= Planck constant .Y:. fteqlUllcg of radlbhOn iWl ....
. ....
... Wliiil
. ll
when li&ht [Link]"ons Of- [Link] fre�tW>
I a1ecttmJ �wI�I onl 3t rs the phenomenon o fall on rt·
Of electrons f tom +he Sttr et of ll
0 0

•
n
J [Link]
emfssiotJ I: 8t l's the phenomenon of- [Link]$iOI)
of e.e from surfau a mdtl! [Link] the
Wo� fWlcbOn ; Jhe minf mwn .[Link].� [Link]
b� a.n eleci-ron *> to me.kl1
Clfptico.b"im of a Stron .[Link]-ri'e fieJd.•
[Link].. is �noll!>n o.a te wo Aul cbo oF- tne
rnettd· !Jt is denoft!cl � or Wo <lncl. 0
PhofoeJectric effect : 3t 1S tht phenomenon t1f-
measured fn eJechon volt (ev) em1s<;100 e m the, Surface � metals,
oohen �8ht
·

ro.ch0a£Dns ot [Link] [Link]

W = hV�= �, -Oo='lhreshold fre1lle.nC11 fo11 on +hem•
Q
�Cf 1�
It IACO or Photoelechfc Wirssfpn I -
'-" For o. 9Tvw melaJ oro r qlUl)qr of- fncfcJtnt todJ"atr'1n_,
the nwnber of photoelectrons ejec'led. per �ecorti 6
cU're.ct18 pn>porb"onol to tt>e fnhnsf'1J of the fncl'dtnt tt3ht·

L-. For o. 9ivU> mdal there e.d'sls

J cutofn mfnfmum
a
fr"flU.n� Of- the TnrJdmt rndlab'"on belo"' [Link] no
tmf�Clfoo bf phofotlecfrons faKes place •J'hfs fr�lU/JClf
rf> l([Link] OS threshold, freqctUlqf •

�Above ffle threshold freq11.en41, the moxJmum

ktneti°c e.n� of the tmf tt-ed p�ioeJtciron IS
[Link] bf the fnhnsTy, of fncl cltnt ll9ht b<tP
<itptnds onl� lJf'O" -the fre1JU111'tf <f fncfd'1lt t13ht•

� Jhe photo eJ tctrrc tmfssion rS Bn fnstnntoJ>eou.a

proce,�s· Jhe time ltlfl betwem -Hie incJdU)ce ol- rad/abO,,
'1 trnl'ssfon d pholoelecJToo f's Ul!r� [Link] less -#JM
109 setond•
 -

ahe mfnfmwn dtstilnct betwttn Untre at the nucleus '* - -

[Link] : Jhe process of J(nockf an electron
aJom to ittJI-point tulxre. alpha.. : :.- r;,
I

: 011 o om 1s ca led
palltcte jcut deflecivA bael<. �
I I

to
: ) entn :Jhe energ3 requTred, io knoc� tlJJ
uJs."on
•
r;, = 2 ze .[Link]
r.e IK·E [Link]
= 4JLP-. Ke ee completelH out of the atom·
Ioni;[Link]•on energ� =13·' <lV
Impact [Link] :Bt 1s defl°ned as the [Link] n2.
dfstanct M the Tni�iaJ velocit:J vector of t(-part1tlt from the.
Ctntre of fhe nucle�, when the article Ts far awa from
nucleus e [Link]·
b= ze
1 c�tv
4Jt�Ke
9 s catteJt1°n3
= HnJle·
Centre of
nuc1eus
� Isotoees Jhe atoms otl an tlunuit i,.ihrc.h [Link] same al-omit /'.fuc/eo.r Force : Nuclear force is stron9 attroch·ve Force
a.
nwnbVl but &fferent- mass nwnbu- ore ca.11ed rso�opes tha.t bfnds the protons eu>d neutrons to3ttt>u insfde a,
•

I
p rotrlJ..lr) • cl [Link]
I
e·a H •
n°n nu cleus·
I
I H
, H3 � +[Link]

� Jsobars t- Jhe [Link] havrn9 the somt mass nwnbcr bcd­

I t> Mass defect Jhe l
difference betwe.t11 ffit. [Link] of mosses af all
nucleons (11) llnd mass d the nucleus (mJ fs COUed as Moss
different- [Link] number ore [Link] fsobars.
defect•
t· •
0
3H
I
3He
J.
-4<>ea --to Ar
�o 18 Am= [zm +(A-z)m0- mN]
_,.Jhe be
f .Thotones f Jhe nucltdis havrn31the [Link] nwnber of- I �Binding €ners�
deFrne.d
bindrna tner9� of
the entr3� requ!red. +n breQk, up o, nucleus into
os
a nucleus ma.}J

neu,trons ore Called Tsotones

its tonsh•tuUJt ( i-e protons [Link]. neu.�rons) and to [Link]
·

e · tt 3l c1 a I(,
a Ir 19 fJitm to $uc.t) a lar3e drstctnce. that tht� mo� nor interae�

I • rsomusl: .... Jhese on the nuclrde .,..it� some [Link] I with .eac.t, ottie.r·
In terms of Einstern's moss enera� [Link]
0

nwobtr lV> [Link] mass nwnbtr ui t.x rsh1 Tn d/Fftru>t

L\Eb-== e.m x c'" Am� mass defect-
lntr3� States
c =speed of l�ht·
i-e AEb= [zmp+(A-z)m0- mN] c'-
 I Brnd.i°n9 €nerow ptJt nucleonl Jhe bfnd1°na U>tka� PUt
nuclton '5 the QvfJ<4' e tnUlS� reqtdred. -to e1tract one.
nucl lw •

t\Eb = �§ N'ote: dhe bfnd1°n9 tntJt8� pvc riuclwn

""----- A 3fve� a. measure Of the force whfch binds
+he
nucleons itJ3ether fnside & nudtus •

Nott: H'8he1t the VQJue of Ae-b mor!. [Link] +he J

Nucleus rs •

I N'uclear F'fssionJ Jhe phtnomuia. rn [Link] heava nucleus a

splits into two or l�htu n ucleus ond la'8 t cunounf­

more

o� U>eJt& rele a�ed is called. nuclear ffssion reaction•

235 I
2:3A 191 92. I
U+ °n � u - ---
� Ba.. _,.. Kr -t 3 n -t 200MeV
91 92. 5G 3' �s� (EneJt9 � )
s1o� ([Link]) (�pion) tietLtl'OI) �[Link] ed
[Link]
 SemTconducto"
-
1£neraM [Link] �n enormous lM larae n wnber of erivey�
fl 'f es of Semiconductors
leVels close!� spaced fn a. Ver� small enexa� ra.n8e
Cohst11 ute a.n er>Vt2¥ bend·
lJ).intrrnsrc [Link] Jhe purelsr or Gte crijstdls [Link] I
[Link] intrinsic semfconductor.
•lvoJence Bon4t-t-Jhe ll>V<8M band which Tncludes the tl!'1f8k
IW$�h ��a� &�����b� �ebMd • ----
--�
�-
-�
--
contafns valence e Jhfs bMd ma� b [Link] o>- [Link] 1 I •£xtrfnsrc Semiconductor � when [Link]'Klll OlflOW\t (Qfew [Link]
frlle,d Jbfs bllfld I° un t Electrons rn ihfs b� do
•
pat rn111iori Cppm) of- a suttal>le impllrfJH is added to pure .semf-
Ylo� tootrfbttfe, to electrfc CurrUJt
Co t.t on d
•

Clht eneJ< bond ahove the val U1ce.

�
-COYJductor J. Conduch"lli Of sernrCbfldUctor is fncreased ffien Sttch
se'Tlftonductors are ealled ettrrnsrc [Link]�
bMd i's Called co nductio n BClnd•
[Link] Gtap Jhe difference beJ UJW) the hi hest en eJ<8� rn lL
[Link]. C1h lowest- lfltkSH i n -the next C· 9 Pl\f June 1bn formation :Jhe [Link] contact betu:Jeen N'- e &
highrJc. bQ/ld rs eolled. -ttie [Link] 80f• P-fype semiconductor is Called PN' Junction and sLtcb aevrce rs
ca11ed PN Jtinch0on drode.
 KneeVolfaBe: In forward bfasin9,ffle. vo1faaeat wbich the current starts -
Tncrease rapidlH is Kno<Dn as cW-rn or knee Vo1taae·
V' 0·2 v for Gte

Br-eakdowh Volta : �hen the reverse vott4 e across -lhe [Link] �ches
n � 11 , ti H h; vq 11e reverse curff/Jt sud I es o a lar e a ue. •

RECTIFIER> :mie [Link] whrc Converts al rnah0n cuJrent Toto frect

I cu�rwt � Cdlled Rech0ffeK· I
Prine rp1e :-+Recttf;er � boseq on the fact ttial» a. lorwarrl hras p.n
junctibn Conducts ond a reverse bfas P-r' JWlch9qi does not Cbnducl-·