Forces (F/N):

Why things move: The

Physics of Push and Pull
Table of contents

Introduction to forces
01 What are forces and the effects on everyday objects

Types of Forces
02 The different forces we experience

Weight and Gravitational field

03 strength
The difference between mass and weight
Table of contents
Derived Quantities
04 and Units
Deriving Units of Forces

Turning Effects of Forces

05 Taking a “moment” to understand rotation

Centre of Gravity
06 Balance is Key
Table of contents

07 Deformation
The science of stretching materials
 Whoa!
We use and feel forces all the time, but we are not always
consciously aware of them. Forces that push and pull and get
things moving or slow things down are easy to spot, but forces
that hold things still and keep things balanced are less obvious.
Whatever its effect, a force is the action of one object on
another object.
 01
Introduction
What are forces and the
effects on everyday objects
Introduction
A force is a push or pull that can change the size, shape, or motion of
an object.

We experience forces every day:

• Gravity pulls us down.
• Magnets attract metals.
• Pushing a door makes it open.
In this topic, you will:

• Explain the effects of forces.

• Identify types of forces (gravitational, magnetic, etc.).

• Calculate weight using 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

• Understand derived units like the Newton (N).

• Explore turning forces in real life (e.g. seesaws, spanners).

• Forces help us understand how things move, stop, and interact

in the world around us.
 02
Types of Forces
The different forces we experience
Forces always involve an interaction between two objects. When the objects are
joined together or are in contact, the forces are known as contact forces. When
forces act over a distance without any direct connection they are called non-
contact forces. The regions over which non-contact forces act are called fields.
Types of Forces:
• Gravitational forces
• Magnetic forces
• Electrostatic forces
• Nuclear forces
• Elastic forces
• Mechanical forces
 03
Mass and Weight
The difference between Mass
and Weight
 There is a difference!
Unfortunately, in everyday language Mass is the amount of Matter an
we often use the word 'weight' when object has.
strictly we should use 'mass' and we
talk about 'weighing' an object when Weight is the effect of the Earth’s
we are finding its mass. gravity on that object
This pull or weight is caused by what we call 'gravity'. The weight of an object
varies a little from place to place on the surface of the Earth; on the Moon the
weight is only¼ of its value on the Earth. In deep space, away from all gravity, an
object has no weight at all. The link between mass and weight is that at a
particular place the weights of objects are proportional to their masses.
The weight of a body depends on the gravitational field strength that acts on it. On
Earth, the generally accepted value of the gravitational field strength is
𝟏𝟎 𝑵𝒌𝒈–𝟏 . This is equal in value to the acceleration due to gravity = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝒔–𝟐 .
Both are given the symbol g. The units are equivalent.

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

An object of mass 1 𝑘𝑔 therefore has a weight

𝑊 = 1 𝑘𝑔 × 10 𝑁𝑘𝑔– = 10 𝑁.
 04
Derived
Quantities and
Units
Deriving Units of Forces
So, we’ve learnt that the weight is a measure of the effect of gravity on a body,
and it found using the following equation:
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈.

But what units do we use? Let’s derive the units of weight.

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑁𝑘𝑔
𝑊=𝑁
So, what does this tell me?
Well, it tells me that Weight is a force, since it is measured in 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑁)
We also know that force is calculated via the equation;
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
But what units do we use? Let’s derive the units of weight.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑠
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠
So, what does this tell me?
Well, it tells me that Weight is a force, since it is measured in 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑁 is it is
also equivalent units, i.e.
𝑁 ≡ 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠
 05
Turning Effects
of Forces
Taking a “moment” to
understand rotation
 The moment of a Force
Why is it easier to loosen a tight nut
using a long wrench? How can a
see-saw balance when people of
different weights sit on opposite
sides? What makes a racing car
less likely to turn over than an
ordinary car? These are the kinds of
questions that we can answer when
we understand the effects of turning
forces.
 The moment of a Force
We call the turning effect of a force
the moment of the force.

The twisting or turning effect that

your hand feels and must resist is
the moment of the force. The
moment of the force depends on
both the magnitude of the force and
how far away it is from the turning
point. The turning point has several
names and can be several things.
Names that are used include pivot,
axis and fulcrum. Knife-edges,
axles, hinges and the edges or
corners of objects can act as turning
points .
How do we calculate the
Moment of a Force

The moment of a force is calculated

using the following equation:
𝑇 = 𝐹𝑑
Where;
𝑻; 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑁𝑚
𝑭; 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒/𝑁
𝒅; 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑚
Investigating the principle of
moments
The principle of moments is also known as the law of the lever. This
law is about objects balancing when the moments of all the forces
acting are balanced. A balanced object is said to be in equilibrium.
Then try the following:
• Hang two slotted mass hangers from small wire
loops fitted on the ruler.

• Set mass m1, at a fixed distance 𝑑 from the pivot

and slide mass 𝑚 along the ruler until it balances.

• Record the values of 𝑚 , 𝑚 , 𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 in a table

• Repeat the procedure with different values of each

of the four quantities.

• Copy and complete the table as shown below.

 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 𝐹 /𝑁 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒, 𝑚 /𝑘𝑔 𝐹 /𝑁 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒,
𝑑 /𝑚 𝑇 /𝑁𝑚 𝑑 /𝑚 𝑇 /𝑁𝑚

To calculate the forces, use 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒈.

Example: 𝐹 = 0.2 𝑘𝑔 × 10 𝑁/𝑘𝑔 = 2.0 𝑁

To calculate the moment of the forces, use 𝐓 = 𝑭𝒅

Example: 𝑀 = 2.0𝑁 𝑥 0.3𝑚 = 0.6𝑁𝑚
 Results of our Investigation

The results for the moments of the forces on each side of the ruler show that when the
ruler is balanced the moments are always equal: 𝑇 = 𝑇 . It is usually helpful to describe
a moment as acting either clockwise or anticlockwise according to which way it tries to
turn the object about the pivot.

When there are extra forces on either side, we find that the ruler balances when the sum
of the moments (not the sum of the weights) are equal.
 The Principle of Moments
The principle of moments when an object is in equilibrium (balanced and not
moving), the sum of the clockwise moments about any point (acting as a pivot)
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
 Calculations on the
equilibrium of bodies
The following conditions hold for a system of coplanar forces in equilibrium:

1. The sum of the forces in any direction is equal to the sum of the forces in the
opposite direction(translational equilibrium).

2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the sum of
the anticlockwise moments about that same point (rotational equilibrium).
This is the principle of moments.
 A bridge is supported at both ends by upward contact forces 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 (Figure
4.3.6). Its weight W can be considered to act downwards through its center. These
three forces are in equilibrium and the conditions 1 and 2 above will hold.
From 1 we have for the forces acting on the bridge:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

𝑖. 𝑒
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 𝑊

Now we imagine that the bridge might turn or tip up at one end and we choose a suitable pivot. By
choosing the point labelled pivot, we make the problem simpler because the force 𝐶 , acting through the
pivot, has no moment about it.

Force 𝐶 gives a clockwise moment = 𝐶 × 𝑙

W gives an anticlockwise moment = 𝑊 × 𝑙

Sum of the clockwise moments about pivot = sum of the anticlockwise moments about pivot
which gives us: 𝐶 × 𝑙 = 𝑊 ×
and dividing through by 𝑙 we get 𝐶 =
and since 𝐶 + 𝐶 = 𝑊, it follows that 𝐶 also equals

This may seem a complicated way of showing that a bridge with its weight acting in the middle gets
equal support from both pillars at its two ends. But the two ideas we have used can be applied to more
difficult examples with more than three parallel forces.
 Tackling problems that
involve moments
• Sketch a diagram showing all the forces acting on the body in equilibrium. These are:
i) the weight, which acts through the center of gravity

ii) all other forces of the environment, which act on the body at points of contact.

• Select a suitable point about which to take moments.

If more than one force is unknown, choose a point through which one of them acts.
That force then has no moment about the point and is excluded from the calculation.

• Use the rules of translational and rotational equilibrium to formulate equations and solve for
unknown forces and distances.

• Whenever there is only one unknown force, it can easily be found from the rule of translational
equilibrium.
Common tools that use Moment
For a given moment, the greater the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the force, the
smaller is the force. In each device of Figure 4.6, since 𝑑 is greater than 𝑑 , the force of the
effort (𝐸) is less than the force of the load (𝐿). For this reason, these devices are known as
force multipliers
 06
Centre of Gravity
Balance is Key
 CENTRE OF GRAVTY
When gravity pulls an object towards the Earth it always appears to pull at the
same point on the object. Where is the center of gravity of an object? The Earth
pulls every molecule of an object in a downward direction, or in other words
every molecule in an object has a weight. We can add all these millions of tiny
molecule weights together and get a single resultant force for the weight of the
whole object. So, an object behaves as if its whole weight was a single force,
which acts through a point G called its center of gravity.

We define the center of gravity of an object as the point through which its
whole weight acts for any orientation of the object.
CENTRE OF GRAVTY FOR AN
IRREGULAR SHAPE
The lamina is hung so that it swings freely
from a pin placed through a small hole near
its edge as shown in Figure 4.3. A plumb
line is suspended from the pin and the
position where it passes in front of the
lamina is marked by small crosses. A line is
drawn through the crosses. The procedure
is repeated twice by suspending the lamina
from other points near its edge. Where the
lines intersect is the center of gravity of the
lamina.
Centre of Gravity for various
shapes
The point where the three lines cross is the center of gravity of the object. The center of gravity
does not have to be within the object itself. For example, the center of gravity of a uniform ring is
nowhere on the ring itself. It is in the gap in the center of the ring.
Stability and Centre of Gravity
Types of Stability

Stable equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, its center of gravity
rises, and a restoring moment is created that returns the body to its base.

Unstable equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, its center of
gravity falls, and a toppling moment is created which removes the body from its base.

Neutral equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, the height of its
center of gravity is unchanged and the body remains at rest in its new position.
Factors affecting the sability
of an object
1. Height of its center of gravity

2. Width of its base

3. Its weight.
A larger weight increases the restoring moment of a stable body thereby increasing it stability. It also
increases the toppling moment of an unstable body, thereby decreasing its stability.

• Go-karts have wide wheelbases and low centers of gravity in order to be more stable.

• Large cargo buses have their baggage compartments under the floor in order to lower the center of
gravity of the vehicle and to enhance stability.
Factors affecting the sability
of an object