Merz-Price Maximum Demand Indicator – Working (Exam Point of View)

The Merz-Price maximum demand indicator is used to measure the maximum average demand
of a consumer over a fixed time interval, usually 30 minutes (half hour).

Working Principle

• The instrument operates on the principle of measuring energy consumed during fixed
time intervals.

• Maximum demand is obtained by comparing the energy consumed in successive

intervals.

Construction & Operation

• A pin drives the pointer forward during a fixed time interval (say half an hour).

• The energy consumed during this half-hour is indicated on the dial.

• At the end of the interval, a cam mechanism, operated by a timing gear, momentarily
disengages the pinion using a bell crank.

• This allows the driving mechanism and pin to return to zero under the action of a spring.

• The pointer does NOT return to zero and remains at the position corresponding to the
energy consumed in the previous half-hour.

Important Feature

• During the next half-hour, the pin again moves forward.

• The pointer will move forward only if the energy consumed in the new interval exceeds
the energy recorded earlier.

• If the energy is less, the pointer remains at the earlier maximum position.

👉 In this way, the instrument continuously records the maximum demand during the entire
billing period.

Reset Mechanism
 • The resetting of the driving mechanism at the end of each interval is done by:

o A small synchronous motor (electric clock type), or

o A spring-driven clock mechanism (sometimes electrically wound).

• The time interval (15 min, 30 min, etc.) can be changed by adjusting the switch.

Variations

• The cam may be replaced by an electromagnetic relay.

• A clutch may be used instead of a bell-crank mechanism.

Formula (Very Important for Exams)

Maximum energy recorded (kWh)
Average Maximum Demand (kW) =
Time interval (hours)

Key Exam Points (One-Line Facts)

• Measures average maximum demand, not instantaneous demand

• Pointer does not reset automatically

• Driving mechanism resets every interval

• Widely used in industrial tariff calculations

Below is a clean, simplified, exam-oriented explanation of the topic you posted: Power Factor
Measurement and Single-Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter. I’ve removed the
scanning errors and explained it step by step, exactly how examiners expect.

1️⃣ Why Power Factor Meter is Needed

In an AC circuit, power factor can be calculated as:

𝑃
cos⁡ 𝜙 =
𝑉𝐼
where

• 𝑃= power (wattmeter)

• 𝑉= voltage (voltmeter)

• 𝐼= current (ammeter)

❌ Disadvantages of this method

• Low accuracy

• Requires three instruments

• Not suitable when power factor varies continuously

• Requires calculation, not direct reading

👉 Hence, power factor meters are used, which give direct indication of power factor by a single
reading.

2️⃣ Power Factor Meter – General Principle

A power factor meter:

• Has a current circuit (current coil)

• Has a pressure circuit (voltage coil)

• Deflection depends on the phase difference between current and voltage

• Indicates power factor directly on a calibrated scale

⚠️ There is no controlling torque (no spring).

So, when disconnected, the pointer stays at the last position.

3️⃣ Types of Power Factor Meters

1. Electrodynamometer type

2. Moving iron type

(Your text mainly explains the single-phase electrodynamometer type.)

4️⃣ Single-Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter

🔧 Construction

It consists of:

(a) Fixed Coil (Current Coil)

• Split into two parts

• Connected in series with the load

• Carries load current

• Produces magnetic field proportional to current

(b) Moving System (Pressure Coils)

Two identical moving coils:

• Coil A:

o Non-inductive resistance 𝑅in series

o Current in phase with voltage

• Coil B:

o Highly inductive choke 𝐿in series

o Current lags voltage by nearly 90°

👉 Values of 𝑅and 𝐿are adjusted such that:

𝑅 = 𝜔𝐿

so both coils carry equal currents at normal frequency.

(c) Mechanical Arrangement

• Angle between planes of coils = 90°

• No controlling springs

• Connections via thin silver/gold ligaments (very flexible)

5️⃣ Working / Theory

Assumptions (for simplicity):

• Current in coil B lags voltage by exactly 90°

• Angle between coil planes = 90°

There are two deflecting torques:

• Torque due to coil A → clockwise

• Torque due to coil B → anticlockwise

At equilibrium:

𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝐵

Torque on Coil A

𝑇𝐴 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos⁡ 𝜙sin⁡ 𝜃

Torque on Coil B

𝑇𝐵 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin⁡ 𝜙cos⁡ 𝜃

Where:

• 𝜙= power factor angle

• 𝜃= angular deflection of pointer

Equating Torques

𝐾𝑉𝐼𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos⁡ 𝜙sin⁡ 𝜃 = 𝐾𝑉𝐼𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin⁡ 𝜙cos⁡ 𝜃

Cancel common terms:

tan⁡ 𝜃 = tan⁡ 𝜙
𝜃=𝜙
👉 Therefore, pointer deflection is directly proportional to power-factor angle.
Hence, the scale is calibrated directly in power factor (cos φ).

6️⃣ Important Features (Exam Points)

• Direct indication of power factor

• No controlling torque

• Suitable for AC only

• Moderate accuracy (not for precision labs)

• Widely used in industrial installations

7️⃣ One-Line Exam Answers

Definition:

A power factor meter is an instrument that directly measures the power factor of an AC circuit
without calculation.

Principle:

It works on the interaction of magnetic fields produced by current and pressure coils, where
deflection depends on phase angle.

Why no control spring?

Because equilibrium is achieved by equality of deflecting torques.

Below is a clean, corrected, exam-oriented explanation of the Electrodynamometer Type

Frequency Meter, written clearly from your given text.

Electrodynamometer Type Frequency Meter

Construction

• The instrument consists of:

o Two fixed coils (coil 1 and coil 2)

o One moving coil

 • The fixed coil is split into two parts, each forming a separate resonant circuit.

Fixed Coil Circuits

1. Fixed Coil 1

o Connected in series with inductance 𝐿1 and capacitance 𝐶1

o Tuned to a resonant frequency 𝑓1 slightly below the lower limit of the meter scale

2. Fixed Coil 2

o Connected in series with inductance 𝐿2 and capacitance 𝐶2

o Tuned to a resonant frequency 𝑓2 slightly above the upper limit of the meter scale

👉 For power-frequency meters:

• 𝑓1 ≈ 40 Hz

• 𝑓2 ≈ 60 Hz

• 50 Hz lies at the center of the scale

Operation / Working Principle

• The return paths of both fixed-coil circuits pass through the moving coil.

• The current through the moving coil is the sum of currents flowing in the two fixed-coil
circuits.

• Torque produced on the moving coil depends on this resultant current.

Behaviour with Frequency

• For any applied frequency within the operating range:

o Fixed Coil 1 circuit operates above resonance

𝑋𝐿1 > 𝑋𝐶1

→ current 𝑖1 lags the applied voltage (inductive)

o Fixed Coil 2 circuit operates below resonance

𝑋𝐶2 > 𝑋𝐿2

→ current 𝑖2 leads the applied voltage (capacitive)

Torque Production

• One fixed-coil circuit is inductive, the other capacitive

• Hence, currents 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 produce torques in opposite directions

• The resultant torque depends on the relative magnitudes of 𝑖1 and 𝑖2 , which depend on
frequency

• Therefore:

Deflection ∝ Frequency

👉 The scale is directly calibrated in frequency (Hz).

Scale and Control

• The instrument scale covers about 90°

• Controlling torque is provided by a small iron vane

• The meter has good stability and reasonable accuracy for power-frequency measurement

Important Exam Points

• Uses two resonant circuits

• One circuit inductive, the other capacitive

• Torque depends on difference of currents

• Scale calibrated directly in Hz

• Suitable for AC frequency measurement only

Characteristics of Potential Transformers

1. Effect of secondary burden the secondary current is increased and therefore the primary
current increases both primary and secondary voltage drops increases and thus for a given value
of Vp the value of vs decreases and hence the actual ratio increases becoming more negative
with t]increase in burden the variation of error is almost linear with the change in burden

With regard to phase angle, the voltage is more advanced in phase because of increased drops
with increase in secondary burden. The phasor V_{s} reversed is retarded in plaze owing to
increas secondary winding voltage drops. Thus with increase in burden, the phase angle between
V_{p} and V_{1} reversed increases, becoming more negative. V_{r}

2. Effect of Power Factor of Secondary Burden. If the power factor of secondary circuit bude
reduced, angle & is increased. This makes current I_{r} to shift towards current I_{0} (see Fig.
10.21). The voltag v_{p} and v_{s} come more nearly into phase with E_{p} and Es, respectively
since the voltage drops are almost constant. The result is an increase in v_{p} relative Ep But
V_{p} is constant and, therefore, e_{p} reduces relative to v_{p} The voltage V_p reduces relative
E_{s} Therefore the transformation ratin increases as the power factor of secondary burden
reduces. Now with decrease in power factor, V_{s} is advanced in phase and v_{p} in phase. the
phase angle (-ve) reduces with decrease in secondary power factor (lagging).

3. Effect of Frequency. For a constant voltage, the flux is inversely proportional to frequency.
Ince in frequency reduces the flux and, therefore, I at and I_{c} are decreased and, therefore, the
voltage u decreases. The decrease is not so much, as with increase in frequency the leakage
reactance increases ar therefore, leakage reactance drops are increased giving an increase in
ratio. Thus changes in voltage ai because of change in frequency are dependent upon relative
values of I_{n} and leakage reactances since

effects produced by them oppose each other. As regards phase angle error, both effects due to
increase in frequency advance V_{p} and the increa in secondary reactance retarda v_{y} and,
therefore, the phase angle is increased as the frequency increzz

4. Effect of Primary Voltage. There is no wide variation of supply voltage to which the primary
wind of the P.T. is connected. Therefore the study of variation of ratio and phase angle errors
with supply volta are of no importance

✅ 1. Primary Sensing Element

What it does:

Directly senses the physical quantity (temperature, pressure, displacement, voltage, etc.).

Examples:

• Thermocouple → senses temperature

• Strain gauge → senses force

• LVDT → senses displacement

• Photodiode → senses light

🧠 It is the first point of contact between the instrument and the real world.

✅ 2. Variable Conversion Element

What it does:

Converts the sensed quantity into a more useful electrical signal.

Examples:

• Thermocouple senses heat → converts it into voltage

• Bourdon tube senses pressure → moves pointer → mechanical displacement

• Strain gauge senses strain → changes resistance

🧠 This element changes the form of the signal (force → displacement, displacement → voltage,
etc.).

✅ 3. Variable Manipulation Element

What it does:

Modifies the converted signal to make it suitable for measurement or processing.

It includes:

• Amplification (increasing the signal)

• Filtering (removing noise)

• Attenuation (reducing signal level)

• Differentiation / Integration

• Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)

Examples:

• Op-amp amplifier

• Low-pass filter

• Signal conditioner

• ADC IC

🧠 Think of this element as the signal processing stage.

✅ 4. Data Transmission Element

What it does:

Carries the processed signal from one point to another.

Examples:

• Electrical wires

• Coaxial cable

• Optical fiber
 • Wireless transmitter

• Telemetry systems

🧠 When the sensor is far from the display/controller, this element is needed.

✅ 5. Data Presentation Element

What it does:

Displays the final measurement so a human or machine can understand it.

Examples:

• Analog meter (pointer)

• Digital display (LCD/LED)

• Graph on a computer

• Printout

• Data logger

• Control system interface

🧠 This is the final stage where the instrument presents the output.

Types of Errors in Measurement

Errors in electrical measurements are mainly classified into instrumental errors, environmental
errors, and observational errors.

1. Instrumental Errors

These errors occur due to imperfections or limitations of the measuring instrument.

Causes:

• Faulty calibration

• Ageing of instrument components

 • Mechanical friction in moving parts

• Zero error in instruments

Example:
A voltmeter showing a reading even when no voltage is applied due to zero error.

Remedy:

• Proper calibration

• Periodic maintenance

• Using high-quality instruments

2. Environmental Errors

These errors are caused due to external environmental conditions affecting the measurement.

Causes:

• Temperature changes

• Humidity

• Magnetic and electric fields

• Pressure and vibration

Example:
Resistance value changing due to temperature variation.

Remedy:

• Using temperature-compensated instruments

• Proper shielding and insulation

• Controlling surrounding conditions

3. Observational Errors

These errors occur due to human mistakes while taking readings.

Causes:

• Parallax error
 • Improper reading of scale

• Carelessness or lack of concentration

Example:
Reading the pointer from an angle instead of straight in front of the scale.

Remedy:

• Proper positioning of eye

• Using mirror scale instruments

• Careful observation

🔹 Conclusion:

To obtain accurate measurements, instrumental, environmental, and observational errors must

be minimized using proper instruments, controlled conditions, and careful observation.

If you want, I can also shorten this to a 3-marks answer or convert it into point-wise notes for
quick revision.