Demonstrated by
[Link]
Assistant Professor, SVCA
&
K. Sarmada Madhulika
Assistant Professor, SVCA
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
VII SEM
UNIT - 3
1. Relation between structure and
architecture
2. Geometry of form and function
3. Aesthetic theories of the expression
of structural function in
architectural form
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
Relation between structure and architecture
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
Form is generally and primarily understood as the shape or three-dimensional massing,
but also encompasses additional architectural aspects including structural configuration
and form, in so far as they may organize and unify an architectural design
Architectural form is an inclusive term that refers primarily to a building’s external outline
or shape, and to a lesser degree references its internal organization and unifying principles.
The shape encompasses various visual and relational properties; namely size, colour and
texture, position, orientation and visual inertia.
Structure is the strongest and most powerful element of form, so much so that if it is not
the last consideration in the long series of decisions deter-mining form, it distorts or
modifies all other determinants of a building. One finds in fact, that the structure has
dictated all the other aspects of the design. The inhabitants should not behave as the
columns dictate the contrary should surely be the case. As with all my buildings the
structure was not even considered until the main premises of the design the shape of the
spaces and the form of the building had been determined. Thus, the structure did not
preclude but followed the design intent.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
The thin external surface of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbour, USA, is
supported by a triangulated structural framework. The influence of structural
considerations on the final version of the form was minimal.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
INTRODUCTION
Structure and architecture may be related in a wide variety of ways ranging between the
extremes of complete domination of the architecture by the structure to total disregard of
structural requirements in the determination of both the form of a building and of its
aesthetic treatment. This infinite number of possibilities is discussed here under six broad
headings:
TYPE DEFENITION
1 Ornamentation of structure The forms that have been adopted have logical consequences of the
structural armatures of buildings.
2 Structure as ornament The structural requirements imposed the form and formal logic has
been praised and admired as a part of visual language
3 Structure as architecture Structural elements are selected and controlled by primarily visual
standards.
4 Structure as form generator Structural requirements may considerably affect the form of the
5 Structure accepted building even if the structure is not necessarily exposed
6 Structure ignored Structure is ignored during the design of the building will and not
considered as part of the aesthetic programs
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
1. ORNAMENTATION OF STRUCTURE
The building consists of little more than a visible structural armature adjusted in fairly
minor ways for visual reasons.
In these buildings structure and architecture expression co-exist in perfect harmony.
Example: Greek Temples, Gothic Buildings etc.,
The Doric Order, which
reached its greatest degree
of refinement in this
building, was a system of
ornamentation evolved
from the post-and-beam
structural arrangement
Parthenon, Greece
The architecture of the Parthenon is tectonic: Structural requirements dictated the form and, although the
purpose of the building was not to celebrate structural technology, its formal logic was celebrated as part of
the visual expression.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
1. ORNAMENTATION OF STRUCTURE
AEG Turbine Hall, Berlin, 1908; Peter Behrens, architect.
Glass and structure alternate on the side walls of this building and the rhythm of the steel structure forms
a significant component of the visual vocabulary. The structure was used ‘honestly’; it was not modified
significantly for purely visual effect. With the exception of the hinges at the bases of the columns it was
also protected within the external weather tight skin of the building.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
2. STRUCTURE AS ORNAMENT
The manipulation of structural elements by criteria which are principally visual.
The design process is driven by visual rather than by technical considerations. As a
consequence the performance of these structures is often less than ideal when judged by
technical criteria.
Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
2. STRUCTURE AS ORNAMENT
Three versions of structure as ornament may be distinguished.
1. The devices which are associated with structural efficiency, which are mostly borrowed
from the aerospace industry and from science fiction, are used as a visual vocabulary
which is intended to convey the idea of progress and of a future dominated by
technology.
The curved steel ribs with circular ‘lightening’ holes are
reminiscent of structures found in the aerospace industry.
Entrance canopy, Lloyds headquarters building, London, UK, 1986
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
2. STRUCTURE AS ORNAMENT
Three versions of structure as ornament may be distinguished.
2. Spectacular exposed structure may be devised in response to artificially created
circumstances. In this type of building, the forms of the exposed structure are justified
technically, but only as the solutions to unnecessary technical problems that have been
created by the designers of the building.
Many technical criticisms could be made of this design.
The elevation of the building above ground level is
perhaps the most obvious as this requires that an
elaborate structural system be adopted including floor
structures of steel-plate box-girders similar to those
which are used in long-span bridge construction. There
is no technical justification for their use here where a
more environmentally friendly structural system, such as
reinforced concrete slabs supported on a conventional
column grid, would have been a more convincing
choice. This would not have been so exciting visually,
but it would have been more convincing in the context
of the idea of a sustainable architecture.
Green Building (project), 1990: Future Systems, architects.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
2. STRUCTURE AS ORNAMENT
Three versions of structure as ornament may be distinguished.
3. The adoption of an approach in which structure is expressed so as to produce a
readable building in which technology is celebrated, but in which a visual agenda is
pursued which is incompatible with structural logic. The lack of the overt use of images
associated with advanced technology distinguishes this from the first category.
The service towers which project from the rectangular plan are
one of the most distinctive features of the building
Lloyds headquarters building, London, UK, 1986; Richard Rogers and
Partners, architects; Ove Arup & Partners, structural engineers.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
3. STRUCTURE AS ARCHITECTURE
There have always been buildings which consisted of structure and only structure.
Example: The igloo and the tepee
This is a third type of relationship between structure and architecture which might be
referred to as structure without ornament, but perhaps even more accurately as structure as
architecture
• The very long span
Airship Hangars, Orly Airport, France Millennium Dome, London, UK
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
3. STRUCTURE AS ARCHITECTURE
There have always been buildings which consisted of structure and only structure.
Example: The igloo and the tepee
This is a third type of relationship between structure and architecture which might be
referred to as structure without ornament, but perhaps even more accurately as structure as
architecture
• The very long span
• Very tall buildings
World Trade Centre, New York, USA Burj Khalifa, Dubai - UAE
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
3. STRUCTURE AS ARCHITECTURE
There have always been buildings which consisted of structure and only structure.
Example: The igloo and the tepee
This is a third type of relationship between structure and architecture which might be
referred to as structure without ornament, but perhaps even more accurately as structure as
architecture
• The very long span
• Very tall buildings
• The lightweight building
Crystal Palace, London, UK IBM Travelling Pavillion, Renzo Piano
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
4. STRUCTURE AS FORM GENERATOR / STRUCTURE ACCEPTED
The terms structure as form generator and structure accepted are used here to describe a
relationship between structure and architecture in which structural requirements are
allowed to influence strongly the forms of buildings even though the structure itself is not
necessarily exposed.
In this type of relationship the configuration of elements which is most sensible
structurally is accepted and the architecture accommodated to it.
Sometimes it is very positive, with the form-generating possibilities of structure being used
to contribute to an architectural style. Alternatively, even though the overall form of a
building may have been determined largely to satisfy structural requirements, the
architectural interest may lie elsewhere.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
4. STRUCTURE AS FORM GENERATOR / STRUCTURE ACCEPTED
The vaulted structures of Roman antiquity are an example of the first of these
possibilities. The large interior spaces of the basilicas and bath houses of Imperial Rome,
which are one of the chief glories of the architecture of the period and which are among
the largest interiors in Western architecture, were roofed by vaults and domes
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
6. Structure ignored
Since the development of the structural technologies of steel and reinforced concrete it has
been possible to design buildings, at least to a preliminary stage of the process, without
considering how they will be supported or constructed. This is possible because the
strength properties of steel and reinforced concrete are such that practically any form can
be built, provided that it is not too large and that finance is not a limiting consideration.
This freedom represents a significant and often unacknowledged contribution which
structural technology has made to architecture, liberating architects from the constraints
imposed by the need to support buildings with masonry and timber.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4 5 6 UNIT - III
Vitra Design Museum,
Basel, Switzerland, 1989;
Frank Gehry, architect.
From a technical point of view forms such as this present a challenge. Their construction is
made possible by the excellent structural properties of present-day materials such as
reinforced concrete and steel. The scale of such a project must be small however.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - I1
TWA Terminal, Idlewild (now
Kennedy) Airport, New York,
USA, 1962
The form here was far from ideal structurally and strengthening ribs of great thickness
were required at locations of high internal force. The structure was therefore inefficient but
construction was possible due to the relatively modest spans involved.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
original competition-winning proposal
Built
Opera House, Sydney, Australia, 1957–65; Jorn Utzon, architect;
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
Aesthetic theories of the expression of structural function in architectural form
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
Aesthetic theories of the expression of structural function in
architectural form
Structural function is an important factor influencing the aesthetics of architectural form,
to the degree that it expresses strength, structural integrity, and/or the load-transfer
mechanism operating in the structure.
There are several theories relating to this structural function, which are:
1. Schopenhauer’s theory of statics:
2. Theory of empathy:
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
1. SCHPENHAUER’S THEORY OF STATICS
• One of the oldest and the most important theories dealing with the aesthetics of
architectural form and related directly to the expression of structural function
• This theory is important due to its lasting influence- alive even today-on architectural
criticism.
• It is based on the axiom that the sole and constantly recurring theme of architecture is
the expression of loads and support.
• Form must express the struggle of forces to achieve equilibrium; every architectural
member must carry its load; and the relation of the member to its whole must be such
that if one member were removed, we would be left with impression that the entire
architectural work would crumble.
Schopenhauer believed that the architectural ideally expressing the opposition of the land
and the support forces is the column-cum-architrave form. Those connected the theory of
empathy to the aesthetic approach to architecture also considered this form to express the
opposition or equilibrium of forces.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
2. THEORY OF EMPATHY
VISCHER, one of the most prominent students of aesthetics, also believed that the
column is a form that expresses better than any other form the struggle between force and
weight. According to the theory of empathy, this is the case not because the column is the
support that reacts in order to carry the weight of the overlying beam, but rather because
the column’s shape reminds us of our bodies in a standing position, carrying weight, while
the horizontal architrave reminds us of ourselves lying down.
Author Book
1 Mihelis Architecture as Art active, passive, and decorative
elements
2 Christian norberg Intensions in Architecture the mass system and the skeleton
schulz system
3 Seymour Howard Structure: An Architect’s
Approach
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
2. THEORY OF EMPATHY
(A) MIHELIS - Architecture as Art :
MIHELIS expressed opinions similar to Schopenhauer’s. In his analysis of architectural
form, Mihelis maintains that it consists of active, passive, and decorative elements.
The first two constitute the system of construction: active elements the bearing elements
prop up the work and support the weights, whereas passive elements (the roof, the cornice,
and the covering, for the example) protect the structure from the external conditions.
Decorative elements provide unity and harmony to the structure as a whole to which they,
in turn, conform.
Concerning the active elements that constitute the bearing structure, Mihelis maintains
that some, like the column are carrying the elements and, some, like the beam, are carried
elements.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
(B) CHRISTIAN NORBERG SCHULZ - Intensions in Architecture:
Christian Norberg Schulz, in his work Intensions in Architecture, divides forms into two
categories reminiscent of Mihelis’s distinctions: the mass system and the skeleton system.
These two categories derive from the two corresponding systems of construction. The
difference is that the bearing structure of the structural system is composed of articulated
members, whereas that of the mass system is not.
Norberg Schulz does not examine whether this difference in the articulation of the
elements is due to a difference in the mode of structural function of the bearing structures
of the two systems of construction.
In other words, he does not address the problem of whether articulated members are
characterized by a distant structural function expressed through form.
He considers structural function to be a less important factor than rationalism. For this
reason, he maintains that all regular-shaped structures composed of repeated elements fall
under the two categories of form, the mass system and the skeleton system.
The regular geometrical shape and the identical repeated elements facilitate construction,
as well as static’s calculation. He calls structures without these properties “amorphous.”
Norberg Schulz finds that the forms of skeleton systems offer ample opportunities for the
articulation, as well as repetitive and hierarchy properties, and characterizes them as
“architectural,” in contrast to the forms of mass system which he terms “sculptural.”
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
(C) SEYMOUR HOWARD - Structure: An Architect’s Approach:
A similar term, “sculptural structure,” appears in SEYMOUR HOWARD”S book
Structure: An Architect’s Approach.
His classification of forms is based on an entirely different principle. He does not examine
the geometry of forms, that is, whether they are integral or articulated, nor does he analyze
the way in which forms function statically.
Instead, he concentrates on the design of structures from the point of view of the
effectiveness of their structural function.
According to Seymour Howard’s classification, four categories of structure is distinguished:
• In forms of “minimal structure,” the form of the structure is such that the material is
used in the most effective way possible. Seymour Howard observes correctly that the
greatest possible savings in building materials do not necessarily coincide with the
greatest possible savings in resources or expenses.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III
• The structures of most buildings do not approach the limits of the strength of the
materials used. The loading of such a structure does not approach critical loading.
Seymour Howard calls that and “adequate structure” because it is adequate for its
purpose, given that it does not fall down.
• Forms of “sculptural” or “formal” structure are those whose members waste the material
that performs a structural function. In these forms, materials are used inefficiently for
aesthetic reasons only; these forms reflect the aesthetic intentions of the architect.
• Seymour Howard used the concept of structural function to categorize forms of
structure. However, he does not use this criticism from the point of view of the mode of
structural function: rather, he concentrates on the intensity of structural function. At the
same time, he use logic, sincerity, and the aesthetic result as additional criteria. Forms of
minimal or adequate structure express structural function honestly.
ADVANCED STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT - III