NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

🌿 1. Tree Topology

A hierarchical topology formed by combining Bus + Star structures.

Multiple star networks connect to a central backbone cable, and data flows in a
hierarchical (tree-like) manner.

✨ Advantages

• Easily Scalable – new nodes can be

added without disturbing the network.
• Fault Isolation & Tolerance – error
detection becomes easier due to
hierarchy.

⚠️ Disadvantages

• Backbone Dependency – entire network

relies on the central backbone cable.
• High Complexity – structure becomes complicated as size grows.

🔗 2. Mesh Topology

Also used in MANETs (Mobile Ad-hoc Networks).

Every device is interconnected with every other device.
It is highly reliable, robust, yet costly.

Mesh is also known as Wire Topology because it uses the

maximum number of cables.

📌 Key Formulas

• Number of Links / Cables: N(N – 1) / 2

• Ports Required per Device: N – 1
• Total Ports in Network: N(N – 1)

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🔶 3. Hybrid Topology

A mixture of two or more different network topologies.

It is the most complex form of topology but offers flexibility and scalability.

📝 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Q1. Which network topology has the most complex structure?

Ans: Hybrid topology

Q2. Ethernet uses ______?

Ans: Bus topology

Q3. A linear LAN architecture in which all stations receive the reproduced
transmission over the entire medium is known as:

Ans: Bus topology

Q4. In which connection do more than two devices share a single link?

Ans: Multipoint connection

Q5. Which architecture connects devices with equal responsibility and no central
authority?

Ans: Peer-to-peer architecture

Q6. Which of the following is not a topology?

Ans: Circle

Q7. In which network topology is communication between any two nodes the fastest?

Ans: Mesh topology

Q8. For connecting N nodes in mesh topology, the number of links required is:

Ans: N(N – 1)/2

Q9. In which topology does the failure of one node disturb the entire network?

Ans: Ring topology

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Q10. The topology in which every node is connected only to its immediate neighbours
is called:

Ans: Ring topology

Q11. Which topology arranges all nodes connected to a central hub or switch?

Ans: Star topology

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 NETWORK DEVICES

1. Hub

A simple multiport network device used to connect multiple computers or media at a

central point.
It operates below the Physical Layer of the OSI / TCP-IP model and is commonly used
in Star Topology.

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Page 5 of 92
✨ Types of Hubs

A. Passive Hub – “The Dumb Device”

• Works only as a connector

• Used as a common wiring point
• Distributes incoming signals to all connected devices (Broadcast)
• No signal amplification or regeneration
• Purely a physical connector

B. Active Hub

• Works as a Multiport Repeater

• Regenerates, strengthens, and amplifies signals
• Operates at the Physical Layer
• Creates a connection between two or more stations
• Active hub is used in Star Topology ✔️ (your added line)

C. Intelligent Hub

• Also known as a Manageable Hub

• Contains network management software
• Enables traffic monitoring, analysis, and remote management
• Provides enhanced network control and efficiency

2. Repeater

A repeater is a network device that receives a weak or corrupted signal and regenerates
it back to its original bit pattern before the signal fades completely.
It acts like a quiet guardian extending the reach of communication.

✨ Key Points

• Used to extend the physical distance of a LAN

• Operates at the Physical Layer of the OSI model
• Has no filtering or traffic-control capability
• Works as a signal booster / range extender

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3. Bridge

A bridge is a device that spans two LAN segments, connecting them into a larger, unified
network as long as they use the same protocol.

It carries a dual responsibility:

• Physical Layer: behaves like a repeater

• Data Link Layer: forwards frames intelligently

Thus, a bridge offers the grace of selective forwarding—only passing frames that need to
cross segments.

✨ Types of Bridges

1. Transparent Bridge

• Stations in the network are unaware of the bridge’s presence

• Bridge learns MAC addresses automatically
• Used commonly in Ethernet networks

2. Source Routing Bridge

• Routing decisions are performed by the source station

• Frame headers specify which path to follow
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 • Used in Token Ring networks

3. Translation Bridge

• Connects networks with different architectures

o Example: Ethernet ↔ Token Ring
• Translates frame formats between two technologies

📌 Summary

• Ethernet → Transparent Bridge

• Token Ring → Source Routing Bridge

4. Switch

A switch is a sophisticated multiport network device used to connect multiple computers

within a Local Area Network (LAN).
It brings discipline to communication—forwarding frames only where they are meant to
go.

✨ Key Features

• Works at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

• Supports Full Duplex communication
• Acts as a multiport bridge with internal buffers
• Reduces collisions and increases network efficiency

✨ Types of Switches

1. Two-Layer Switch

• Operates at:
o Physical Layer (Layer 1)
o Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

2. Three-Layer Switch

• Operates at:
o Physical Layer
o Data Link Layer
o Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Performs functions similar to a router
o Lookup

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 o Forwarding

5. Router

A router is an internetworking device that connects multiple networks and forwards data
packets based on their IP address.
It acts like a vigilant gatekeeper, guiding packets along the most suitable path.

✨ Layer-Wise Functioning

• Physical Layer:
Regenerates/reshapes signals before passing them further.
• Data Link Layer:
Checks physical (MAC) addresses contained in the frame header.
• Network Layer:
Examines the network (IP) address and decides the forwarding route.

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✨ Key Features

• Works across Physical, Data Link, and Network Layers

• Routes packets based on IP address
• Connects different networks using similar protocols (LAN, WAN)
• Acts like a multi-layer switch for routing purposes
• Essential device for connecting LAN to the Internet

📝 QUESTIONS (Router Section)

Q1. ____ is a device used to connect LAN to the Internet.

Ans: Router

Q2. Device–Purpose Matching

Device Purpose
A. Router iv. Directs network traffic
B. Switch ii. Connects devices
C. Modem iii. Converts digital signals
D. Access Point i. Extends Wi-Fi coverage

Correct Option: (a) A-iv, B-ii, C-iii, D-i

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Q3. Which device is used to connect multiple devices within the same LAN?

Options: Router, Switch, Bridge

Ans: D. More than one of the above
(Because both Switch and Bridge connect LAN devices.)

Q4. Frames from one LAN can be transmitted to another LAN via which device?

Ans: Bridge

Q5. An Ethernet card used for establishing a wired network is also known as a
______.

Ans: Network Interface Card (NIC)

6. Gateway – “The Gatekeeper of the Internet”

A gateway is a powerful device that operates across all layers of:

• OSI Model (7 layers)

• TCP/IP Model (4 layers)

It is usually a combination of hardware & software that connects independent

networks having different architectures, formats, or protocols.

✨ Key Points

• Translates data between different systems

• Essential for connecting heterogeneous networks
• ISPs (Internet Service Providers) function as gateways for end-users

Brouter (Bridge + Router)

A Brouter is a hybrid device that performs the functions of both:

• Bridge (Data Link Layer)

• Router (Network Layer)

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✨ Key Points

• Connects networks using both bridging and routing

• Forwards packets like a router
• Forwards frames like a bridge when routing is not required

📝 QUESTIONS (Gateway & Brouter Section)

Q1. Which of the following is NOT a network device?

Ans: RAM

Q2. ____ is a device that combines many low-speed lines into one high-speed line.

Ans: Multiplexer

Q3. Which device understands data format and translates messages from one format
to another?

Ans: Gateway

Q4. A ______ is the basic unit of

communication over a digital
[Link]: Data Packet

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SWITCHING –

🌐 What is Switching?

Switching is a communication technique through which a message is transmitted from one

computer network to another.
It creates a temporary or virtual link between sending and receiving devices.

Switching is generally performed by a Switch, a network device used to connect multiple

computers in a LAN using MAC addresses and supporting full-duplex mode.

✨ Advantages of Switching

• Increases Bandwidth of the network

• Improves Overall Network Performance
• Reduces Frame Collisions due to efficient forwarding

🔶 Types of Switching

Switching is mainly divided into three categories:

1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
o i. Virtual Circuit Approach
o ii. Datagram Approach

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 3. Message Switching

1. Circuit Switching

Circuit Switching is a technique where a dedicated physical communication path is

established between the sender and receiver before data transfer begins.

It functions similar to a traditional telephone network where a line is reserved

exclusively for two parties during communication.

✨ Key Features

• Dedicated path = fixed data transfer rate

• No interruption once the circuit is established
• Reliable but inefficient (path remains reserved even when idle)

🔄 Phases of Circuit Switching

A. Connection Establishment (Setup Phase)

A communication path is reserved end-to-end.

B. Data Transfer Phase

Data flows freely through the dedicated link.

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C. Connection Termination (Teardown Phase)

Circuit is released after communication ends.

📝 IMPORTANT QUESTION

Q1. Which data transfer technique in computer networks requires a dedicated

communication channel?

Ans: Circuit Switching

PACKET SWITCHING

🌐 What is Packet Switching?

In packet switching, a message is first divided into small, manageable units called
packets.
These packets travel across the network independently, and each packet may take the
shortest available path at the time of transmission.

Packet switching is widely used in modern networks because it is cost-effective, efficient,

and highly reliable, making optimal use of bandwidth.

✨ Key Characteristics

• Message → divided into packets

• Packets may take different routes
• Uses available network links dynamically
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 • Highly efficient for bursty data traffic
• Supports error checking & retransmission (depending on protocol)

🔶 Types of Packet Switching

Packet switching is classified into two major approaches:

A. Datagram Approach

• Based on UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

• Connectionless service
• No prior connection setup
• Each packet is treated independently
• Packets may arrive out of order, or even get lost
• Faster but less reliable

✨ Features

• No guarantee of delivery
• Router treats each packet separately
• Best used for:
o Real-time applications
o Voice/Video streaming
o Online gaming

B. Virtual Circuit Approach

• Based on TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

• Connection-oriented service
• A virtual path is established before transmission
• All packets follow the same route
• More reliable but slightly slower

✨ Phases

1. Connection Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Connection Termination

✨ Features

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 • Ensures ordered delivery
• Reliable and error-controlled
• Suitable for:
o Email
o File transfer
o Web browsing

Feature Circuit Packet Switching: Packet Switching:

Switching Virtual Circuit Datagram Approach
Approach
Connection Connection Connection oriented Connection less
Type oriented
Delivery Insure in order In-order delivery Packets may be out of
Order delivery order delivery
Reordering No-Reordering No-Reordering Re-ordering may
required
Path All packets with dedicated path No Fixed path.
same path
Data Flow Stream oriented Packet oriented Packet oriented
Bandwidth Fixed Bandwidth Dynamic Dynamic
Reliability Reliable Reliable Unreliable
Overhead No overhead less overhead Higher overhead
OSI Layer Physical layer data link layer Network layer
Examples Eg: Telephone Eg: X.25, Frame Relay Eg: Internet
system

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 MESSAGE SWITCHING

🌐 What is Message Switching?

In Message Switching, the entire message is treated as a single unit and transferred from
one node to another using the Store-and-Forward technique.

Every intermediate device (node) temporarily stores the complete message, checks it, and
then forwards it to the next node.
There is no dedicated path between the sender and receiver.

This switching technique offers flexibility but may introduce delay due to storage at every
hop.

✨ Key Features

• Uses Store-and-Forward mechanism

• The entire message (not packets) is stored at intermediate nodes
• No dedicated communication path
• No need for real-time communication
• High delay → not suitable for time-sensitive data
• More suitable for:
o Email systems
o Telegraphy
o Non-real-time communication

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📝 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q1. Identify the switching technique in which the message is divided into smaller
pieces, each piece having a unique number and address for correct ordering at the
receiving end.

Ans: Packet Switching

Q2. Which data transmission technique in a computer network requires a dedicated

communication channel?

Ans: Circuit Switching

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

(Communication Link / Communication Channel)

🌐 What is Transmission Media?

Transmission Media—also known as the Communication Channel—is the physical

pathway through which data or signals travel from one place to another.
Through these paths, information moves as electrical signals or optical light pulses,
carrying the heartbeat of communication networks.

Transmission media functions at the Physical Layer of both:

• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Model

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✨ Factors to Consider While Designing Transmission Media

1. Bandwidth

• Represents the maximum data-carrying capacity of the medium.

• If all other factors remain constant:
Higher Bandwidth ⇒ Faster Data Transfer
• Determines how efficiently a network can handle large volumes of data.

2. Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted signal.
It leads to distortion and degradation in signal quality.

Three major causes:

• Attenuation – loss of signal strength

• Distortion – changes in signal shape
• Noise – unwanted energy interfering with the signal

This factor plays a crucial role in determining maximum transmission distance.

3. Interference

Interference is the process of disturbing or altering a signal by external noise,

electromagnetic waves, or overlapping transmissions.
It affects clarity, accuracy, and reliability of communication.

Interference can be:

• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)

• Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
• Crosstalk from neighboring wires

1. Causes of Transmission Impairment

Transmission impairment refers to the weakening, alteration, or corruption of a signal

during its journey across a medium.

i. Attenuation
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 • Meaning: Loss of signal energy during transmission.
• When a signal travels long distances, its strength gradually becomes weak.
• Important:
o Attenuation ↑ → Signal quality ↓
o Requires amplifiers to boost the signal.

ii. Distortion

• Meaning: Change in the shape or form of the signal.

• Occurs when different frequency components of a signal travel at different speeds.
• Important: Distortion mainly affects composite signals (signals made of multiple
frequencies).

iii. Noise

• Meaning: Unwanted signals mixed with the original signal.

• Noise introduces errors during transmission.
• Types include: Thermal noise, Crosstalk, Impulse noise, Induced noise.
• Important:
o Crosstalk = unwanted signal leakage from a nearby channel.

2. Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media are pathways that carry data signals from sender to receiver.

They are classified into:

i. Wired / Guided / Bounded Media

Signals travel through physical cables or wires.

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ii. Wireless / Unguided / Unbounded Media

Signals travel through air using electromagnetic waves.

A. Wired / Guided / Bounded Media

“Data travels through a structured path, guarded by physical boundaries.”

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A cable consisting of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.

Key Points:

• Lightweight and commonly used.

• Uses RJ-45 (Registered Jack) connector.
• Twisting helps reduce:
o Crosstalk (unwanted signal transfer).
o Electrical noise.
o Electromagnetic interference (EMI).
• Frequency range: 0 to 3.5 kHz.

Types of Twisted Pair Cables

i. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

• Most common, inexpensive, flexible.

• No metal shielding — only plastic insulation.
• Used in home/office LAN networks.
• Important: Cost-effective, supports Ethernet.

ii. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

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 • Contains metal foil shielding around the pairs.
• More expensive than UTP.
• Provides better protection from EMI and noise.
• Used in industries, high-interference environments.

2. Coaxial Cable

Also known as co-ax because two conductors share the same axis.

Structure:

• Inner conductor: Copper wire

• Insulation layer
• Outer conductor: Copper mesh
• Outer jacket

Usage:

• High-speed radio frequency transmission

• Cable TV, Internet, Satellite communication
• Uses BNC (Bayonet Neill–Concelman) connector

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3. Fibre Optic Cable

(You mentioned the term; complete details can be added when you give more points.)

Carries data as light signals, offering:

• Very high bandwidth

• No EMI problems
• Long-distance & secure transmission

B. Wireless / Unguided / Unbounded Media

“Signals set free—traveling through open skies.”

Types:

a. Radio Wave Transmission

• Suitable for long distances

• Omnidirectional

b. Microwave Transmission

Two forms:

1. Terrestrial Microwave – ground-based towers

2. Satellite Microwave – signals bounced via satellites

c. Infrared Transmission
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 • Short-range communication
• Used in remote controls, sensors

Coaxial Cable

Types of Coaxial Cable (RG – Radio Guide Standard)

RG Standard Cable Type / Use

RG-11 Thick Ethernet (10BASE5)
RG-58 Thin Ethernet (10BASE2)
RG-59 Cable TV

RG = Radio Guide Standard (sometimes referred as Radio Government/Radio

Guided)

2. Transmission Types

📡 Baseband Transmission

• Sends a single signal at a time.

• High-speed but one signal only over the medium.

🌈 Broadband Transmission

• Sends multiple signals simultaneously.

• Allows channels like cable TV or multi-stream networks.

Baseband = one signal

Broadband = multiple signals

3. Optical Fiber Cable (Submarine Cable)

A marvel of modern communication—

thin as a hair, yet carrying the world’s conversations.

✨ Key Features

• Most expensive but highest speed transmission.

• Used mainly for long-distance communications (submarine links, backbone).
• Digital data travels as light signals (near light speed).
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4. Basic Elements of Optical Fiber

1. 🌟 Core
o Innermost, pure optical glass or plastic.
o Carries actual light signals.
2. 💠 Cladding
o Glass coating around the core.
o Provides lower refractive index → causes total internal reflection.
3. 🛡️ Plastic Cover (Outer Jacket)
o Protects from environmental hazards, moisture, dust, stress.

5. Propagation Modes of Optical Fiber

A. Multimode Fiber

• Carries multiple beams/modes of light.

• Light travels in different paths in the core.
• Suitable for short-distance transmission.
• Used in LANs, data centers, campus networks.

Types of Multimode Fiber

1. Multimode Step-Index Fiber

• Density (refractive index) remains constant from center to edge.

• Light travels straight but experiences sudden changes (step) at boundaries.
• Leads to more dispersion → suitable only for short range.
• Step index : sudden changes in the signal.

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2. Multimode Graded-Index Fiber

• Refractive index highest at center, decreasing toward edges.

• Light bends smoothly → reduced dispersion, better performance than step-index.

B. Single-Mode Fiber

• Only one light beam travels through the core.

• Very small core diameter.
• Supports very long distances (tens of kilometers).
• Forms the backbone of high-speed networks like WANs, ISPs, and
telecommunication lines.

Wireless / Unguided / Unbounded Transmission Media

Definition

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Wireless (Unguided / Unbounded) Media refers to the transmission of data or signals
through electromagnetic waves, without using any physical medium such as cables.

Signal travels freely through air or space using electromagnetic waves.

A. Radio Waves

Overview

• Simplest and easiest electromagnetic waves to generate.

• Can propagate in all directions → Omnidirectional transmission.
• Suitable for broadcasting and wide coverage.

Key Characteristics

• Omnidirectional: Signal spreads in all directions from the transmitter.

• Penetrates solid objects like building walls, trees, and mountains.
• Supports long-range communication.
• High-speed transmission with large area coverage.

Applications

• Multicasting (One-to-Many communication)

• FM Radio
• Television broadcasting
• Cordless phones
• Mobile (Cellular) networks
• WAN (Wide Area Network)

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B.

Microwave Transmission

Overview

• Uses high-frequency radio waves

for signal transmission.
• Requires directional
communication.

Key Characteristics
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 • Unidirectional transmission (one direction at a time).
• Cannot penetrate solid objects.
• Requires Line of Sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver.
• High bandwidth and high data rate.

Transmitter and receiver must be perfectly aligned.

Types of Microwave Transmission

1. Terrestrial Microwave

Description

• Uses ground-based towers.

• Communication occurs antenna-to-
antenna.
• Operates in the frequency range of 1
GHz to 1000 GHz.

Features

• Ground wave transmission

• Line-of-sight communication
• Used for point-to-point links

2. Satellite Microwave

Description

• Signals are uplinked to satellites and then bounced back to Earth.

• Enables very long-distance communication, even across continents.

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Applications

• International telephone
networks
• Mobile communication
• TV broadcasting
• GPS (Global Positioning
System)
• Global data transmission

C. Infrared Transmission

Overview

• Wireless technology used mainly for

short-distance communication.

Key Characteristics

• Works strictly on Line of Sight (LOS).

• Cannot pass through solid or non-
transparent objects.
• Highly secure due to limited range.

Applications

• TV remote controls
• Data transfer between mobile phones
• Computer-to-computer short-range communication

📌 Quick Comparison Summary

Medium Direction Distance Penetration Key Use

Radio Waves Omni-directional Long Yes Broadcasting, mobile
Microwave Uni-directional Very Long No Satellite, WAN
Infrared LOS Short No Remote controls

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 Computer Network Paper Solution
01. In computer network nodes are:

(a) The computer that originates the data

(b) The computer that routes the data
(c) The computer that terminates the data
✅ (d) All of these

02. A host is connected to a department network which is part of a university network. The
university network, in turn, is part of the Internet. The largest network, in which the
Ethernet address of the host is unique, is:

(a) The department network

✅ (b) The Ethernet
(c) The subnet to which the host belongs
(d) The university network

03. Which of the following networks is considered as the first network that initiated the
internet?

✅ (a) ARPANET
(b) UUCPNET
(c) AOL
(d) PTRINET

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04. Which of the following term is used for a computer network that typically connects
personal computers within a limited geographical area, usually within a single building?

✅ (a) LAN
(b) WAN
(c) MAN
(d) BAN

05. Consider the following two statements:

Statement-I: A mesh network with 10 nodes requires 45 links.

Statement-II: A mesh network with 4 nodes requires 6 links.

✅ (a) Both statement I and statement II are true.

(b) Both statement I and statement II are false.
(c) Statement I is correct, but statement II is false.
(d) Statement I is incorrect, but statement II is true.

06. Which one of the following is not a network topology?

(a) Ring
(b) Bus
✅ (c) Stack
(d) Star

07.______ topology requires highest number of ports and largest amount of cabling in
computer networks.

(a) Star
(b) Ring
✅ (c) Mesh
(d) Bus

08. Which network topology requires a central controller or hub?

✅ (a) Star
(b) Mesh
(c) Ring
(d) More than one of the above
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09. The topology with highest reliability is:

(a) Star
(b) Ring
✅ (c) Mesh
(d) More than one of the above

10. A ______ topology uses a single connection to connect all devices together.

✅ (a) Bus
(b) Star
(c) Ring
(d) More than one of the above

11. A ______ is used to connect networking devices that are in a very close geographic
area such as a floor of a building.

(a) WAN
✅ (b) LAN
(c) MAN
(d) More than one of the above

12. In a fully-connected mesh network with 10 computers, total ______ number of cables
are required and ______ number of ports are required for each device.

(a) 40, 9
(b) 45, 10
✅ (c) 45, 9
(d) 50, 10 12

13. Which statements are true about local area network?

I. Communication takes place by way of satellites, microwave.

II. Faster than wide area network

III. Covers limited area

(a) I and II
(b) I and III
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✅ (c) II and III
(d) I, II and III

14. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct?

I. Metropolitan area network is a collection of Local area network

II. Metropolitan area network support both data and voices transmission

(a) Only I
(b) Only II
✅ (c) Both I and II
(d) Neither I nor II

15. Which of the following is a type of network topology?

I. Star topology
II. Bus topology
III. Car topology

✅ (a) I and II
(b) I and III
(c) II and III
(d) I, II and III

16. Which of the following is not an example of Distributive computing?

(a) LAN network

(b) Mobile network
✅ (c) Parallel computing
(d) Internet

17. _____ is loosely coupled system and ______ is tightly coupled system.

(a) Distributed processing; Uniprocessing

(b) Batch processing; Parallel processing
✅ (c) Distributed processing; Parallel processing
(d) Uniprocessing; Real Processing

18. Which of the following is not a type of Network topology?

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(a) Star Network
(b) Ring Network
(c) Hybrid Network
✅ (d) Singleton Network

19. How many maximum links can be created in a mesh topology network of n computer?

(a) n
(b) n-1
(c) n(n-1)
✅ (d) n(n-1)/2

20. Which of the following is not a LAN technology?

(a) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

(b) Token Ring
(c) Ethernet
✅ (d) Frame Relay

21. Which of the following is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices
of a computer?

✅ (a) Bus
(b) Memory
(c) UPS
(d) Control Unit (CU)

22. Network uses star topology if:

(a) All computer are arranged in local loop

✅ (b) All computers are attached to a central point
(c) All computers are attached to a single long cable
(d) All computers are attached to multiple hierarchical cable

23. Which type of network shares the communication channel among all the machines?

✅ (a) Broadcast network

(b) Multicast network
(c) Unicast network
(d) More than one of the above

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24. Which of the following networks extends a private network across public networks?

✅ (a) Virtual private network

(b) Local area network
(c) Enterprise private network
(d) More than one of the above

25. Which device is used to connect multiple devices within the same local area network
(LAN)?

(a) Router
✅ (b) Switch
(c) Bridge
(d) More than one of the above

26. X.21 is:

(a) A method of determining which device has access to the transmission medium at any
time
(b) A method access control technique or multiple access transmission media
(c) Very common but oriented at linked protocol issued to ISO
✅ (d) A network access standard for connecting stations to a circuit switch network

27. Identify the topology from the given options, which is a hierarchical topology, in
which there are multiple branches and each branch can have one or more basic topologies
and are usually connect multiple LAN.

(a) Bus topology

✅ (b) Tree topology
(c) Star topology
(d) Mesh topology

28. Frames from one LAN can be transmitted to another LAN via a device called:

(a) Router
✅ (b) Bridge
(c) Repeater
(d) Modem 28

29. The communication between the components in a microcomputer takes place via the
address and ______:
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(a) I/O bus
✅ (b) Data bus
(c) Address bus
(d) Control lines

30. Garuda Skill Education has set up their new skill training campus... The campus has
three close by buildings connected with each other using CAT6 cable. Which type of
network is established?

(a) PAN
(b) MAN
✅ (c) LAN
(d) WAN

31. Protocols are:

✅ (a) Agreements on how communication components and DTEs are to

communicate
(b) Logical communication channels for transferring data
(c) Physical communication channels used for transferring data
(d) None of these

32. A physical connection between the microprocessor memory and other parts of the
microcomputer is known as:

(a) Path
✅ (b) Address bus
(c) Route
(d) All of these

33. What is the maximum data rate of Bluetooth version 5.0?

(a) 1 Mbps
✅ (b) 2 Mbps
(c) 5 Mbps
(d) More than one of the above

34. In which of the following the density of the core remains constant from the center to
the edges?

(a) Single mode fiber

✅ (b) Multimode step-index fiber
(c) Multimode graded-index fiber

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(d) Single mode step-index fiber

35. The bit rate of a signal is 3000 bps. If each signal unit carries 6 bits, the baud rate of
the signal is:

✅ (a) 500 baud/sec

(b) 1000 baud/sec
(c) 3000 baud/sec
(d) 18000 baud/sec

36. Assume that we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute.
A page is an average 24 lines with 80 characters... each character requires 8 bits. Then the
required bit rate... is:

(a) 192 mbps

(b) 512 mbps
(c) 1.248 mbps
✅ (d) 1.536 mbps

Page 39 of 92
37. ______ mode allows transmission in both directions simultaneously.

✅ (a) Duplex
(b) Half duplex
(c) Simplex
(d) Half simplex

38. What kind of transmission medium is most appropriate to carry data in a computer
network that is exposed to electrical interference?

(a) Unshielded twisted pair

✅ (b) Optical fiber
(c) Coaxial cable
(d) More than one of the above

39. A high-speed communication equipment typically would not be needed for:

✅ (a) E-mail
(b) Transferring large volume of data
(c) Supporting communication between nodes in a LAN
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(d) More than one of the above

40. In a fast Ethernet cabling, 100 base-TX uses ______ cable and maximum segment size
is ______.

✅ (a) Twisted pair, 100 meters

(b) Twisted pair, 200 meters
(c) Fibre optics, 1000 meters
(d) Fibre optics, 2000 meters

41. A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?

(a) 1 Mbps
✅ (b) 2 Mbps
(c) 10 Mbps
(d) 12 Mbps

42. Which data transmission technique in a computer network required dedicated

communication channel?

✅ (a) Circuit Switching

(b) Packet Switching
(c) Message Switching
(d) Frame Switching

43. ______ mode allows transmission in either direction but not simultaneously.

(a) Duplex
✅ (b) Half duplex
(c) Simplex
(d) Half-simplex

44. ______ is a device that combines a large number of low speed transmission lines into a
high speed line.

✅ (a) Multiplexer
(b) Demultiplexer
(c) Repeater
(d) Switch

45. The loss of energy as signal propagates outward is known as:

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(a) Noise
(b) Distortion
✅ (c) Attenuation
(d) Scattering 45

46. Match the following [Devices vs Layers]:

(a) A-ii, B-i,

C-iii, D-iv
(b) A-iii, B-ii, C-i, D-iv
✅ (c) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
(d) A-i, B-iii, C-iv, D-ii

47. Which of the following is not an example of Guided transmission media?

(a) Fiber optic

✅ (b) Infrared wave
(c) Twisted pair
d) Coaxial cable

48. Which of the following statement(s) is/are true regarding Data Communication?

I. Half duplex communication is multidirectional communication.

II. Full duplex communication is bidirectional communication.

(a) Only I
✅ (b) Only II
(c) Both I and II
(d) Neither I nor II

49. Which of the following statement(s) is/are true regarding switching techniques?

I. In circuit switching a dedicated path is identified...

II. In packet switching each information... is broken down into smaller packets.

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(a) Only I
(b) Only II
✅ (c) Both I and II
(d) Neither I nor II

50. Which of the following connector is used by Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)?

✅ (a) RJ45
(b) RJ55
(c) RS45
(d) RS55

51. State whether True or False?

I. Radio waves can penetrate walls...

II. Infrared signals are used for short range communication.

(a) I-True, II-False

✅ (b) I-True, II-True
(c) I-False, II-True
(d) I-False, II-False

52. Which of the following is correct formula for calculating wavelength (lambda)?

(a) lambda = propagation speed + frequency

(b) lambda = propagation speed * period
(c) lambda = propagation speed + period
(d) lambda = propagation speed * frequency
✅ Ans :- lambda = propagation speed / frequency

53. In periodic analog signals, which of the following is NOT a parameter to describe a
sine wave?

✅ (a) Wavelength
(b) Phase
(c) Frequency
(d) Peak amplitude

54. Baud is:

(a) Number of bits transmitted per unit time

(b) Number of bytes transmitted per unit time
✅ (c) Number of signal changes per second

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(d) None of these

55. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves transmission:

✅ (a) Simplex
(b) Half-duplex
(c) Full-duplex
(d) More than one of the above

56. Wireless transmission of signals can be done via:

(a) Radio waves

(b) Microwaves
(c) Infrared
✅ (d) More than one of the above

57. Which of the following techniques is used for transmitting digital signal?

(a) Amplitude modulation

(b) Frequency modulation
✅ (c) Pulse code modulation
✅ (d) Amplitude shift keying

58. Which of the following transmission media works on the principle of total internal
reflection?

✅ (a) Optical fiber cable

(b) Shielded twisted pair cable
(c) Unshielded twisted pair cable
(d) Coaxial cable

59. The 10Base5 cabling is also known as:

(a) Fast Ethernet

✅ (b) Thick Ethernet
(c) Thin Ethernet
(d) Gigabit Ethernet

60. Which data communication method is used to transmit the data over a serial
communication link?

(a) Simplex
(b) Half-duplex
(c) Full-duplex

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✅ (d) All of these

61. Which of the following is not the possible ways of data exchange?

(a) Simplex
✅ (b) Multiplex
(c) Half-duplex
(d) Full-duplex

62. IEEE 802.11 standard belongs to:

✅ (a) Wireless LAN

(b) Wired LAN
(c) Bluetooth Certification
(d) Token Bus

63. Datagram networks are also referred to as ______ networks.

(a) Connection oriented

(b) Bluetooth
✅ (c) Connectionless
(d) Wi-Fi

64. Fibre optics is an example of:

✅ (a) Guided Media

(b) Unguided Media
(c) Wireless Media
(d) All options are wrong

65. Which switching technique establishes a dedicated physical path between source and
destination nodes?

(a) Packet Switching

(b) Message Switching
(c) Physical Switching
✅ (d) Circuit Switching

66. Which of the following switching technique was used in ARPANET?

(a) Message Switching

(b) Circuit Switching
✅ (c) Packet Switching
(d) Data switching

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67. Which transmission technique guarantees that data packets will be received in the
same order in which they were sent?

(a) Broadcasting
(b) Unicasting
(c) Packet switching
✅ (d) Circuit switching

68. Which device forwards data based on MAC address?

(a) Hub
(b) Modem
✅ (c) Switch
(d) Gateway

69. In which switching each packet of a message follow the same path from sender to
receiver?

(a) Circuit Switching

(b) Message Switching
✅ (c) Virtual approach to packet switching
(d) Datagram approach to packet switching

70. The number of crosspoints needed for 10 lines in a crosspoint switch (full duplex, no
self-connection) is:

(a) 100
(b) 45
(c) 50
✅ (d) 90

71. Identify the switching technique in which the message is divided into smaller pieces
(unique numbers and addresses):

(a) Message Switching

✅ (b) Packet Switching
(c) Binary Switching
(d) Circuit Switching

72. Which device understands format/content and translates messages from one format to
another?

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✅ (a) Gateway
(b) Hub
(c) Switch
(d) Router

73. Contention-based MAC protocols are commonly used in:

✅ (a) Ethernet network

(b) Token Ring networks
(c) ATM networks
(d) Point-to-Point networks

74. Which of the following is not an example of unguided transmission media?

(a) Radio Transmission

(b) Microwave transmission
✅ (c) Coaxial cable
(d) Light transmission

75. Which device is needed to connect two systems if they use different protocols?

(a) Repeater
✅ (b) Gateway
(c) Bridge
(d) Hub

76. Which type of guided media are categorized by Radio Government (RG) ratings?

(a) Fiber-Optic Cable

✅ (b) Coaxial Cable
(c) Metallic Cable
(d) Twisted-Pair Cable

77. What is the meaning of bandwidth in a network?

✅ (a) Transmission capacity of a communication channel.

(b) Connected computers in a network.
(c) Class of IP used in Network.
(d) Interconnected by communication channels.

78. Match network devices with purposes [Router, Switch, Modem, Access Point]:

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✅ (a) A-iv, B-ii, C-iii, D-i
(b) A-iv, B-iii, C-i, D-ii
(c) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii
(d) A-i, B-iv, C-ii, D-iii

79. Signal varies continuously with space and/or time:

✅ (a) Analog
(b) Digital
(c) Monologue
(d) Multilogue

80. Data transmission using multiple pathways simultaneously is known as:

✅ (a) Parallel Transmission

(b) Serial Transmission
(c) Duplex Transmission
(d) Half-duplex Transmission

81. Computer Network is:

(a) Collection of hardware components and computers

(b) Interconnected by communication channels
(c) Sharing of resources and information
✅ (d) All of these

82. Network of networks is called?

(a) INTERANET
✅ (b) INTERNET
(c) NETWORKING
(d) COMMUNICATION

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83. ______ is a combination of hardware and software that facilitates sharing of
information:

✅ (a) Network
(b) Peripheral
(c) Expansion board
(d) Digital device

84. Which internet access method uses Wi-Fi technology?

(a) ISDN
✅ (b) WIFI hotspots
(c) Cable
(d) Dial-up

85. In which types of internet connections is a telephone line used for data transmission?

(a) Broadband
✅ (b) Dial up
(c) Satellite
(d) Fibre optic

86. Which of the following is an INVALID transmission mode?

(a) Full-Duplex
(b) Simplex
✅ (c) Complex
(d) Half-Duplex

87. Ethernet Card is also known as:

✅ (a) Network Interface Card

(b) Fiber Optics
(c) Bluetooth Card
(d) Wi-Fi Card

88. Which among the following is NOT true with reference to wireless networks?

(a) Wireless means without wire, that is made up of electromagnetic waves (EM waves) or
Infrared waves.
✅ (b) They are more secure and hence reliable when compared to wired networks.
(c) Installation is quick when compared to wired networks.
(d) Slow transmission speed when compared to wired networks.

89. Four types of channels used in LAN: twisted pair, coaxial, radio waves, and ______:
Page 49 of 92
(a) ISDN cable
(b) PSDN cable
(c) X-ray waves
✅ (d) Fiber optics

90. The network cable commonly used to connect one computer to another is:

✅ (a) Crossover cable

(b) USB cable
(c) VGA cable
(d) Straight-through cable

91. What is a Virtual Private Network? आभासी निजी परिपथ (Virtual Private Network) क्या है?

(a) It is a private computer circuit of an organization, in which remote users can transmit
information through the organization's supervisor (server)
✅ (b) It is a computer circuit built on private internet, which gives users the facility
to enter their organization's circuit and keeps the transmitted information safe
(c) It is a computer circuit through which users can access the shared pool of computing
resources through a service provider
(d) None of the above

92. Which of the following is a low power, local area wireless communication
technology?

✅ (a) Bluetooth
(b) Wi-Max
(c) Ethernet
(d) Cellular Network

93. "Baud" is a unit of:

(a) Wavelength
(b) Frequency
(c) Storage capacity
✅ (d) Data transfer rate

94. Technologies like ATM, SONET and Frame Relay are used by:

(a) LAN
(b) PAN
✅ (c) WAN
(d) MAN

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95. Which of the following statements is true regarding WAN?

(i) A network in an office building can be a WAN.

(ii) WANs use technologies like MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25.

(a) Only (i)

(b) Both (i) and (ii)
✅ (c) Only (ii)
(d) Neither (i) nor (ii)

96. PSTN is an example of ______ network.

✅ (a) Circuit switching

(b) Optical switching
(c) Asynchronous transfer mode switching
(d) packet switching

97. What is the primary function of a router in a computer network?

(a) To connect devices within the same network

(b) To connect multiple networks together
✅ (c) To filter incoming traffic based on IP addresses
(d) More than one of the above

98. Which layer is responsible for routing packets between networks?

(a) Data link layer

✅ (b) Network layer
(c) Transport layer
(d) Application layer

99. Which of these is NOT a switching techniques?

(a) Circuit Switching

✅ (b) Data Switching
(c) Packet Switching
(d) Message Switching

100. A ______ is a basic unit of communication over a digital network.

(a) Switch
(b) Access points
✅ (c) Data packet (d) Router

Page 51 of 92
 Network Models
1. OSI model (open system interconnection model)
2. TCP/IP model (transmission control protocol/internet protocol)

OSI Model

• It is also known as reference model that describe that how information or message
from a software application from a computer move through physical medium to
another software application in another computer.
• OSI model is consists of 7 layer and each layer performs and network function.
• It is developed by ISO international standardisation organisation in 1984.

Layers Classification in OSI Model

Upper layer – responsibility of host

• The upper layer of osi model deals with application related issues.
• Implemented only on software.

Lower layer

• The lower layer of osi model deals with data transfer related issues.
• Implemented with hardware and software.

Transport Layer

• Transport layer- heart of OSI model.

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Page 53 of 92
Page 54 of 92
 Function of OSI Model
Layer 1: Physical Layer

• Physical layer is the bottom most layer of the OSI model that co-ordinate the
function required to transmit bit stream over the transmission media.
• The Physical Layer deals with the actual transmission of data over the physical
medium.

Functions of Physical Layer

• Physical characteristics of a media and interface –

The physical layer defines the characteristics of interference between the device
and the transmission media.

Question:
What is the correct encapsulation order from top (data) to bottom (bits) when sending the
data?

Answer: Data → Segment → Packet → Frame → Bits

1️⃣ Characteristics of Transmission Media

• Physical layer defines the characteristics of the transmission media or physical

medium.

2️⃣ Representation of Bits

• To transmit streams of BIT, it must be encoded into signals.
• The Physical Layer defines the types of encoding.

3️⃣ Signals

• It determines what type of signal is used for transmitting information.

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4️⃣ Bitrate / Transmission Rate (Data Rate)

• The total number of bits transmitted per second is defined by the Physical
Layer.

5️⃣ Synchronization of Bits

• The sender and receiver must be synchronized at the bit level.

• Clocks must be synchronized to ensure correct transmission.

6️⃣ Line Configuration

• Physical layer defines the line configuration, which can be:

o Point-to-Point → Dedicated link
o Multipoint → Link is shared between more than two devices

7️⃣ Physical Topology

• Physical topology defines how different devices are physically connected in a
network.
Types of Physical Topology:

• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Tree
• Mesh
• Hybrid

8️⃣ Transmission Mode

• The physical layer also defines the direction in which information or

transmission flows between sender and receiver.

There are three types of transmission modes:

• Simplex
• Half Duplex
• Full Duplex

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🔹 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for transmitting a frame from node to next node
(hop to hop).

📌 Sub-Layers of Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is further divided into two parts:

1️⃣ Logical Link Control (LLC)

2️⃣ Media Access Control (MAC)

🔹 Responsibilities of Data Link Layer

1️⃣ Framing

• It divides data into data units, and each data unit is called a frame.

2️⃣ Physical Addressing

• Uses a 48-bit address in hexadecimal format.

• Also called Hardware Address or MAC Address.
• If a frame is distributed to different systems in a network, the Data Link Layer
adds a header to the frame that defines:
o Sender
o Receiver

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3️⃣ Flow Control

• If the receiver’s data rate is less than the sender’s data rate,
the Data Link Layer is responsible for flow control.

4️⃣ Error Control

• Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames.

• Includes error detection and correction.

5️⃣ Medium Access Control

• The Data Link Layer determines which device has control over the link at a given
time.

🔹 Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for delivery of packets from source to destination.
➡️ This is also known as host to host delivery.

📌 Functions of Network Layer

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1️⃣ Logical Addressing

• Internet Protocol (IP) is used.

• If a packet passes network boundary, then an address is used to identify the source
and destination message.
• This address is called Logical Address or IP Address.
• This address is used to identify a device on the Internet.

2️⃣ Routing

• Routing is the major component of the Network Layer.

• It is used to determine the best optimal path between source and destination.
• Routing selects the path from multiple available paths.

🔹 Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer works at the application (process) level.

➡️ It provides Process to Process delivery

➡️ Also called End to End delivery

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The Transport Layer is responsible for process to process delivery, and it ensures
whether the message arrives in order or not.

📌 Functions of Transport Layer

1️⃣ Connection Control

There are two types of services:

i. TCP – Connection oriented services

ii. UDP – Connection less services

2️⃣ Port Addressing / Service Port Addressing

• For process to process delivery, a port address is included in the header.

• It helps to transfer the message to the correct process.
• Port address is of 16 bit.

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3️⃣ Segmentation and Reassembly

• The message received in the Transport Layer from upper layer is divided into small
units called segments.
• Each segment is assigned a sequence number.
• This sequence number is used by the Transport Layer to arrange segments at the
receiver end.

4️⃣ Flow Control and Error Control

• Transport Layer also provides flow control and error control to ensure reliable
delivery.

🔹 Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer is responsible to
establish, manage, and terminate
connection between applications or
processes.

• The connection between two

applications is called a session.

📌 Functions of Session Layer

1️⃣ Dialog Control

• Session Layer acts as a dialog controller between processes.

• It creates a dialog between two processes.
• It decides whether communication is:
o Half Duplex
o Full Duplex

2️⃣ Synchronization
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 • Session Layer adds some check points while transmitting data sequence.
• If any error occurs in the middle of data transmission, then transmission will take
place from the checkpoints.
• This process is called synchronization and recovery.

🔹 Layer 6: Presentation Layer (Syntax Layer)

The Presentation Layer is related to defining the syntax and semantic
➡️ (Function/structure and meaning)
of information to be exchanged.

📌 Functions of Presentation Layer

1️⃣ Translation

• Different systems use different encoding schemes.

• This layer is responsible to translate into the encoding scheme.
• It converts the message into a common format.

2️⃣ Encryption and Decryption

• Encryption converts the plain text into cipher message (encrypted message).
• Decryption converts encrypted message back to plain text.

3️⃣ Compression and Decompression

• Compression reduces the number of bits.

• Decompression extracts data from compressed data.

🔹 Layer 7: Application Layer (Top Most Layer)

The Application Layer is the top most layer of the OSI model.

• Application Layer is close to the user.

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 • It enables the user to access the network.

📌 Services Provided by Application Layer

• Allows user to log into remote computer

(Telnet protocol)
• Send and receive email
(SMTP, POP3, IMAP4 protocols)
• Web access
(HTTP, HTTPS protocols)
• FTAM (File Transfer, Access, Management)
(FTP, TFTP protocols)
• Directory Service
o Services related to database
o Providing database source

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 TCP / IP Model
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol Model)

📌 Introduction

• The TCP/IP model is also known as the Internet Model.

• It was developed by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
of America.
• It was first used by the packet switching network ARPANET.
• The TCP/IP model is a protocol suite that is commonly used on the Internet
today.

📌 Number of Layers in TCP/IP Model

• TCP/IP is generally a 4-layer model.

• Previously, it was a 5-layer model.

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Page 65 of 92
Page 66 of 92
🔹 Important Conceptual Question

❓ Question

Assume that source (S) and destination (D) are connected through two intermediate
routers (R).
Determine how many times a packet has to visit:

• the Network Layer

• the Data Link Layer

during transmission from S to D.

✅ Answer

• Network Layer = 4 times

• Data Link Layer = 6 times

📘 Difference Between OSI Model and TCP / IP Model

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 OSI Model TCP / IP Model
Theoretical and conceptual Experimental / practical implementation.
model.
Seven layer model (vertical Four layer model (horizontal approach).
approach).
Internet working is not Internet working is supported.
supported.
Strict layering. Loosely layered.
Protocol independent model. Protocol dependent model.
All packets are delivered Reliability is provided by the TCP protocol; IP
reliably. packets do not guarantee reliable delivery.
Service, interface, and Service interfaces are defined, but the protocols
protocol are clearly defined. are not clearly defined beforehand.

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Network Performance
Performance of a network is dependent on the following factors:

1. Bandwidth
2. Throughput
3. Latency
4. Jitter
5. Round Trip Time

Kb = 103
Mb = 106 (Million)
Gb = 109 (Billion)
Tb = 1012 (Trillion)

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🔹 Basic Data Units

📌 Bit

• In data communication, bit is the smallest unit of information to be transmitted.

• It is either 0 or 1.

📌 Byte

• Byte is a combination of 8
binary digits.
• 1 Byte = 8 Bits

🔹 1. Bandwidth

• Bandwidth refers to the capacity of a link or channel.

• It is the maximum amount of data transmitted per second in a link.

📌 Measurement of Bandwidth

• Measured in bps (bits per second) in digital computer.

• Measured in Hertz (clock cycle per second) in analog computer.

📌 Formula of Bandwidth

• Bandwidth = fₕ − fₗ
o High frequency − Low frequency
Page 70 of 92
🔹 2. Throughput

• Throughput is the actual data rate of a channel or link.

📌 Throughput reduces due to:

• Noise
• Congestion
• Errors

❓ Question (Throughput)

A network whose bandwidth is 10 Mbps, but it can transmit only 12000 frames per
minute,
in which each frame carries 10000 bits, calculate the throughput of the network?

Step 1: Understand what throughput means

✨ Throughput is the actual rate of successful data transmission, not what the network
can carry, but what it does carry.

So, we must calculate:

How many bits are actually transmitted per second

Step 2: Calculate total bits transmitted per minute

Bits per minute = Number of frames × Bits per frame

= 12,000 × 10,000
= 120,000,000 bits per minute

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Step 3: Convert minutes to seconds

There are 60 seconds in 1 minute.

120,000,000
Bits per second =
60
= 2,000,000 bits per second

Step 4: Convert bits per second to Mbps

1 Mbps = 106 bits per second

2,000,000 bps = 2 Mbps
✅ Answer

• Throughput = 2 Mbps

🔹 3. Latency (Delay)

• Latency (delay) refers to how much time is taken by a bit to travel from one
point to another.
• It is the time taken by data to pass through the channel.

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📌 Delay

• Delay means how long time is taken to transmit data from one end to another.

📌 Latency (Delay) depends on four factors:

i. Propagation Time
ii. Transmission Time
iii. Queuing Time
iv. Processing Time

Latency (Delay) = Propagation Time + Transmission Time + Queuing Time +

Processing Time.

i. Propagation Time (PT)

• The time required to travel a bit from source to destination.

Formula:

• PT = Distance / Speed
• Propagation speed depends on:
o Transmission media
o Frequency of the signal

ii. Transmission Time (TT)

• Transmission time depends on:

o Size of the message
o Bandwidth of the channel
• It is the time required to put the entire packet over a link.

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Formula:

• Transmission Time = Message Size / Bandwidth

iii. Queuing Time (QT)

• The time taken by a particular packet in a queue is called Queuing Time.

• More traffic on the network = more queuing time.

iv. Processing Time

• The time taken by a node to process a packet.

• Includes:
o Header check
o Error check
o Routing decision

🔹 4. Jitter

• Jitter is the variation in latency.

🔹 5. Round Trip Time (RTT)

• RTT (Round Trip Time) refers to the time taken to send a packet from one end
of the network to the other end and back.

Page 74 of 92
🔹 Numerical Questions

❓ Q1. Propagation Time

What is the propagation time if the distance between two nodes is 12000 km?
Assume the propagation speed is 2.4 × 10⁸ meters per second.
📌 Given

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 • Distance between two nodes = 12,000 km
• Propagation speed = 2.4 × 10⁸ m/s

🧮 Step 1: Convert Distance into Meters

Propagation speed is given in meters per second, so distance must also be in meters.

12,000 km = 12,000 × 1000 = 12 × 106 m

🧮 Step 2: Use the Propagation Time Formula

Distance
Propagation Time =
Propagation Speed
12 × 106
=
2.4 × 108

🧮 Step 3: Simplify

12
= × 10−2
2.4
= 5 × 10−2 seconds

🧮 Step 4: Convert Seconds into Milliseconds

1 second = 1000 milliseconds

5 × 10−2 s = 0.05 s = 50 milliseconds

✅ Answer

• 50 milliseconds

❓ Q2. Propagation Time and Transmission Time

What is the propagation time and transmission time if:

• Message size = 2.5 KB

• Bandwidth = 1 Gbps
• Distance between sender and receiver = 12000 km
• Speed of light = 2.4 × 10⁸ m/s

🔹 Part A: Propagation Time

This is already calculated in Question 1.

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 Propagation Time = 50 ms
🔹 Part B: Transmission Time

Transmission time depends on message size and bandwidth.

🧮 Step 1: Convert Message Size into Bits

1 KB = 1024 bytes, 1 byte = 8 bits
2.5 KB = 2.5 × 1024 × 8 = 20,480 bits
🧮 Step 2: Convert Bandwidth into Bits per Second
1 Gbps = 109 bits/s
🧮 Step 3: Apply Transmission Time Formula
Message Size
Transmission Time =
Bandwidth
20,480
= seconds
109
= 2.048 × 10−5 seconds
🧮 Step 4: Convert Seconds into Milliseconds

2.048 × 10−5 s = 0.02048 ms

✅ Answer

• 0.02 millisecond

📘 Difference Between Bandwidth, Bitrate, and Throughput

Basis Bandwidth Bitrate (Data Rate) Throughput
Definition Bandwidth refers to Bitrate refers to the Throughput refers to
the capacity of a number of bits the actual data rate
communication link transmitted per achieved by the
or channel. second. channel or link.
Meaning It indicates the It indicates how fast It indicates how
maximum possible data is being sent. much data is
data transfer actually delivered
capability of a link. successfully.
Nature Theoretical or Configured or Practical and real-
maximum value. nominal time value.
transmission speed.

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Unit of Measured in bps (bits Measured in bps Measured in bps
Measurement per second) or Hz (in (bits per second). (bits per second).
analog systems).
Dependency Depends on the Depends on the Depends on noise,
physical medium and sender and congestion, errors,
channel capacity. communication and network
technology. conditions.
Effect of Noise Not affected by noise May remain fixed Directly affected
& Congestion or congestion. even if conditions and often reduced
degrade. due to noise,
congestion, and
errors.
Relation to Sets the upper limit of Represents the Represents the
Performance network performance. intended actual performance
transmission speed. experienced.
Example A link has bandwidth Data is sent at 8 Data is actually
of 10 Mbps. Mbps. received at 6 Mbps.

📘 OSI Model and TCP / IP Model – Application Layer & WWW

🔹 Layer 7: Application Layer

• Application Layer is the top most / highest layer of the protocol suite.
• It provides services to the user.
• It is the only layer that provides services to Internet users.
• Communication at this layer is provided through local connection.

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🔹 Application Layer Protocols

There are two types of protocols in the Application Layer:

i. Standard Application Layer Protocols

• These protocols are standardized and documented by Internet authorities.

Examples:

• HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

• SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

ii. Non-Standard Application Layer Protocols

• These protocols are created by programmers.

• The user can write a program and utilize the services of the Transport Layer.

🔹 Questions (Application & Transport Layer)

❓ Q1. Which of the following transport layer protocol is used to send email?

A. SMTP
B. HTTP
C. TCP
D. UDP
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✅ Answer

• TCP – Connection oriented

❓ Q2. Which protocol in application layer is used to read email on web browser?
✅ Answer

• HTTP

🔹 Components of WWW (World Wide Web)

A. Structural Components

1. Web Client / Web Browser

2. Web Browser
3. WAP Caches
4. Internet

B. Semantic Components

1. HTML – Hypertext Markup Language

2. XML – Extensible Markup Language
3. HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
4. URL – Uniform Resource Locator

🔹 Web Page / Web Documents

1️⃣ Static Documents

• HTML
• XML
• XHTML
• XSL

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2️⃣ Dynamic Documents

• JSP
• CSS
• CGI – Common Gateway Interface

3️⃣ Active Documents

• Java Applet (Bytecode)

• JavaScript

🔹 Protocols

🔹 HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol

• HTTP works on port number 80.

• HTTP is an Application Layer protocol.
• It is used to define how client–server programs are written to retrieve web pages
from the web.
• HTTP is used to access data available on the web.
• HTTP can be used to transfer data in the form of:
o Plain text
o Audio
o Video

📌 Nature of HTTP

• HTTP is a stateless request–reply (response) protocol.

• It provides client–server services.

📌 HTTP Communication

• HTTP Client → Request

• HTTP Server → Response

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📌 Reliability

• HTTP uses the services of TCP.

• Therefore, HTTP is a connection-oriented and reliable protocol.

📌 Data Format

• HTTP is a text-oriented protocol (hypertext).

• It includes Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

📘 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

🔹 HTTP Message Format

An HTTP message has the following structure:

START_LINE <CRLF>
MESSAGE_HEADER <CRLF>
<CRLF>
MESSAGE_BODY <CRLF>

• CRLF → Carriage Return Line Feed3

🔹 HTTP Request and Response Messages

📌 HTTP Request (Request Message)

• HTTP request message is sent by the client.

• It consists of:
o Request line
o Header
o Sometimes a body

📌 HTTP Response (Response Message)

• HTTP response message is sent by the server.

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 • It consists of:
o Status line
o Header
o Sometimes a body

🔹 HTTP Connections

There are two types of HTTP connections:

1. Persistent Connection (HTTP 1.1)

2. Non-Persistent Connection (HTTP 1.0)

🔹 Non-Persistent Connection (HTTP 1.0)

• In this connection, one TCP connection is made for each request/response.

• Only one single object can be sent over one TCP connection.

📌 Working:

• The client opens a TCP connection and sends

a request.
• The server sends a response.
• The client reads the data until end-of-file
marker is encountered.
• After that, the connection is closed.

🔹 Persistent Connection (HTTP 1.1)

• HTTP 1.1 uses persistent connection by default.

• Multiple objects can be sent over one TCP connection.

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📌 Working:

• The server keeps the connection open after

sending a response.
• The client can send more requests using the
same connection.
• The server closes the connection:
o When the client requests it, or
o When a timeout occurs.

🔹 Numerical / Conceptual Question

❓ Question

Assume that:

• A web page is requested through a web browser.

• Browser cache is initially empty.
• Browser is configured to send HTTP requests in non-persistent mode.
• The web page contains:
o Text
o Five very small images

What is the minimum number of TCP connections required to display the web page
completely?

✅ Answer

• 6 TCP connections

📌 (1 for HTML page + 5 for images)

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🔹 HTTP Cookies

(Web Cookies / Internet Cookies / Cookies)

• A cookie is a small piece of data

that is:
o Sent from a website, and
o Stored on the user’s
computer while browsing.
• HTTP is a stateless protocol, so cookies are used to add state to HTTP.
• Cookies are designed to provide a reliable mechanism to remember information
about a website.

📌 Types of Cookies

• Authentication Cookies
• Tracking Cookies
• Session Cookies
• Persistent Cookies

🔹 HTTP Caching

• HTTP caching allows a user to retrieve web documents faster.

• It reduces the load on the server.

📌 HTTP caching is implemented at:

• Proxy Server
• Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• Web Browser

🔹 HTTP Security

• HTTP itself does not provide security.

• HTTP can be run over SSL (Secure Socket Layer).

➡️ In this case, HTTP is referred to as HTTPS.

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📌 HTTPS Features:

• Confidentiality
• Client and Server Authentication
• Data Integrity
• Port number: 403 (as per your notes)

📘 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

🔹 FTP – File Transfer Protocol

• FTP is a standard Internet protocol provided by TCP/IP.

• It is used for transmitting files from one host to another host.
• Files can be downloaded with the help of FTP.

🔹 FTP Client Components

The FTP client has three components:

1. User Interface
2. Control Process
3. Data Transfer Process

🔹 Types of FTP Connections

FTP uses two separate TCP connections:

1️⃣ Control (Command) Connection

• Works on port number 21

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 • Used for sending commands and receiving responses

2️⃣ Data Connection

• Works on port number 20

• Used for actual file data transfer

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🔹 File Data Structures in FTP

There are three types of file data structures:

1️⃣ File Structure

• Default structure
• Does not have a specific structure
• Data is stored as a continuous byte stream

2️⃣ Record Structure

• File is divided into records

• Can be used with text files only

3️⃣ Page Structure

• File is divided into pages

• Each page has:
o Page number
o Page header
• Pages can be used:
o Randomly, or
o Sequentially by storing

🔹 FTP Transmission Modes

FTP supports three transmission modes:

1️⃣ Stream Mode

• Default mode
• Data is delivered from FTP to TCP as a continuous stream of bytes

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2️⃣ Block Mode

• Data from FTP to TCP is delivered in the form of blocks

3️⃣ Compressed Mode

• Data is compressed and then delivered from FTP to TCP

🔹 FTP Data Transfer Operations

FTP supports the following data transfers:

1. Retrieving Files – Server → Client

2. Storing Files – Client → Server
3. Directory Listing – Server → Client

🔹 FTP Security

• FTP sends data in plain text format at the Application Layer.

• Security is provided using SSL (Secure Socket Layer) at the Transport Layer.

➡️ This secured version is called SSL-FTP (FTPS).

📘 Electronic Mail
(SMTP, MIME, POP, IMAP)

• ARPANET (1969) was the first network.

• The first email was sent by Ray Tomlinson.

🔹 Email (Electronic Mail)

• Email is one of the oldest and most popular services of the Internet.
• It is mainly used for Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).
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🔹 Main Components of Email System

Email has three main components:

1️⃣ User Agent (UA)

• Used by the user to compose, send, and read emails

2️⃣ Message Transfer Agent (MTA)

• Responsible for sending email from sender to receiver

• Uses SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

3️⃣ Message Access Agent (MAA)

• Used by the receiver to access email from mail server

Protocols used:

• IMAP – Internet Message Access Protocol

• POP – Post Office Protocol

📘 Email Communication: Same System vs Different System

🔹 Case 1: When Sender and Receiver Are on the Same Email System

📌 Requirements

• Two User Agents (UA) are required to read the email:

o One User Agent on sender side
o One User Agent on receiver side
• No Message Transfer Agent (MTA) is required.

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📌 Explanation

• Since both sender and receiver are on the same email system,
the message does not need to travel between different mail servers.
• Therefore, SMTP and MTA are not required.
• The email is handled locally within the same system using User Agents only.

🔹 Case 2: When Sender and Receiver Are on Different Email Systems

📌 Requirements

• Two User Agents (UA) are required:

o One User Agent on sender side
o One User Agent on receiver side
• Two Message Access Agents (MAA) are required:
o One for client
o One for server
• A pair of Message Transfer Agents (MTA) is required:
o One MTA on sender side
o One MTA on receiver side

📌 Explanation

• Since sender and receiver are on different systems,

the email must travel from one mail server to another.
• MTA (using SMTP) is required to transfer the email between servers.
• MAA (POP/IMAP) is required for the receiver to access the email from the mail
server.

🌟 Quick Exam Memory Hook

• Same system → UA + UA → ❌ MTA

• Different system → UA + UA → ✅ MTA pair + ✅ MAA

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Page 92 of 92
📘 Namespace, Domain Name System (DNS) & SNMP

🔹 Namespace

• Namespace is required for proper mapping of a domain to an address.

• A proper method is required that has control over binding, access, and name.
• The name must be unique because addresses are unique.

🔹 Mapping Example
[Link]

🔹 Types of Namespace

1️⃣ Flat Namespace

• Name is assigned to an address.

• It is a sequence of characters without any structure.

2️⃣ Hierarchical Namespace

• A name consists of multiple parts.

• Names are arranged in levels.

🔹 Domain Name Space

• To support hierarchical namespace, a domain name space is designed.

• Domain name space is designed in an inverted tree structure.
• The root is at the top.

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📌 Characteristics of Domain Name Space

• Each node in the tree has a label.

• A label is a string of maximum 63 characters.
• The root node label is a null string.
• The name of labels of each node forms the domain name.
• Domain name is a sequence of characters separated by dots (.).
• Naming is done from bottom to top up to the root.
• A subtree of a domain is called a domain name space.

🔹 Types of Domain Names

1️⃣ PQDN – Partially Qualified Domain Name

• Not terminated by a null string.

2️⃣ FQDN – Fully Qualified Domain Name

• Terminated with a null string.

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🔹 Domains in the Internet

1️⃣ Generic Domain

• Used to identify registered hosts.

• Each node of the tree is called a domain.
• Represents the type of organization.

Examples:

• org → organization
• edu → education
• co → company
• com → commercial

2️⃣ Country Domain

• Generic domains that belong to a particular country.

Examples:

• in → India
• au → Australia
• uk → United Kingdom
• jp → Japan
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3️⃣ Inverse Domain

• Mapping the address with name is called inverse domain.

• Recursive and iterative are the types of resolution.

🔹 DNS (Domain Name System) Port Number

• DNS uses port number 53

📌 Transport Layer Protocols Used:

• TCP → When response message size is more than 512 bytes

• UDP → When response message size is less than 512 bytes

📘 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

🔹 SNMP

• SNMP is a framework used to manage devices on the Internet using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
• SNMP is an Application Layer protocol.
• It is used to monitor and manage routers and network devices.

📌 SNMP Transport Layer Support

• SNMP uses the services of UDP protocol.

Port Numbers:

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 • UDP 161 → Agent
• UDP 162 → Manager

🌟 Quick Revision Snapshot

• Namespace → unique name–address mapping

• Domain name space → inverted tree structure
• FQDN → ends with null string
• PQDN → does not end with null string
• DNS port → 53
• SNMP ports → 161 (agent), 162 (manager)

📘 Transport Layer (OSI Model)

Data

Application
Layer

Segment

🔹 Transport Layer – Overview

• The Transport Layer lies between the Application Layer and the Network /
Internet Layer.
• It is called the heart of the OSI model.
• The Transport Layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model.
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 • It is the core part of the Internet model.
• It responds to service requests from the Session Layer.
• It issues service requests to the Network Layer.
• The Transport Layer provides transparent data transfer between hosts.
• It supports:
o Process to process delivery
o End to end control over the system

🔹 Transport Layer Services

The Transport Layer provides the following services:

1. Process to process (end to end) communication

2. Encapsulation and Decapsulation
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
4. Port Addressing
5. Error Control
6. Flow Control
7. Congestion Control

🔹 1. Process to Process (End to End) Communication

• The Transport Layer is responsible for delivering data to and from the
appropriate application process.
• This is achieved using multiplexing.

📌 Socket Address

• Socket Address = IP Address + Port Number

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🔹 Port Addressing

• Port number size = 16 bits

• 16 bits = 2¹⁶ = 65,536 ports
• Port range: 0 to 65,535
• For process to process delivery, a unique address is required.
• Each process is assigned a 16-bit port number.

PORT Service Description Transport

Protocol
7 Echo Port just echoes whatever is sent to it. TCP and
This feature can be used in many UDP
attacks, such as Smurf/Fraggle.
20 File Transfer Port used by FTP protocol to send data TCP
/21 Protocol (FTP) to the client
22 Secure Shell (SSH) Used as secure replacement protocol TCP and
for Telnet UDP
23 Telnet Port used by Telnet to remotely TCP
connect to a workstation or
server(unsecured)
25 Simple Mail Transfer Used to send E-Mail over internet TCP
Protocol (SMTP)
53 Domain Name Port for DNS requests, network routing, TCP and
System (DNS) and zone transfers UDP

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 67 Dynamic Host Used on networks that do not use static UDP
/68 Configuration IP address assignment.
Protocol (DHCP)
80 Hypertext Transfer Used for browsing web-pages on a TCP
Protocol (HTTP) browser
110 Post Office Protocol Port used to retrieve complete contents TCP
(POP3) of a server mailbox
143 Internet Message Internet Message Access Protocol TCP and
Access Protocol (IMAP4) is a new protocol to read an UDP
(IMAP4) email with a wider range of operations
194 Internet Relay Chat allows communication in form of text TCP and
Protocol(IRC) between multiple parties, one or more UDP
clients can connect to a centralized
server.
443 HTTP with Secure Port used for secure web traffic TCP and
Sockets Layer (SSL) UDP
3389 Remote Desktop Port used by remote desktop to TCP and
Protocol(RDP) remotely manage other windows UDP
system

📌 Port Number Classification (by ICANN)

ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) divides port
numbers into three parts:

1️⃣ Well Known Ports (0 – 1023)

• Permanent port numbers

• Used by servers
• Universal port numbers
• Cannot be chosen randomly

2️⃣ Registered Ports (1024 – 49151)

• Not assigned or controlled

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3️⃣ Dynamic / Short-Lived Ports

(Ephemeral Ports)
(49152 – 65535)

• Defined by the client itself

• Neither controlled nor assigned
• Used as temporary or private port numbers

🔹 2. Encapsulation and Decapsulation

• Encapsulation → Sender’s end

• Decapsulation → Receiver’s end
• To send a message from one application to another application,
the Transport Layer protocol encapsulates and decapsulates the message.

🔹 3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing (MUX) → Many to one → Sender side
• Demultiplexing (D-MUX) → One to many → Receiver side

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📌 Explanation
• When data is received from multiple sources, it is called Multiplexing.
• When data is delivered to multiple destinations, it is called Demultiplexing.

🔹 Flow Control
• Flow control is the process through which the data transmission rate is
controlled between sender and receiver.

📌 Types of Flow Control

1️⃣ Stop and Wait

• Sends only one segment/frame at a time

• Sender waits for acknowledgment before sending the next segment
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2️⃣ Sliding Window
• Sends multiple segments/frames at a time
• Improves efficiency and throughput

🌟 Quick Revision Highlights

• Transport Layer = Layer 4
• Core of OSI + Internet model
• Process to process delivery
• Socket = IP + Port
• Port range = 0–65535
• MUX → sender | D-MUX → receiver
• Flow control → Stop & Wait / Sliding Window

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