Individual differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among
people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Approaches explaining individual differences in psychological
functioning.
1. Trait Approach: Personal traits cause change in behaviours.
[INTERNAL FACTORS]
2. Situationism is a view which states that situations and
circumstances in which one is
placed to influence one’s behaviour. [EXTERNAL FACTORS]
3. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively
more as a result of influence of external (situational) factors than
personality traits.
• Assessment:
1. Predict future behaviour intervention to affect a change in
behaviour.
2. First step in understanding a psychological attribute.
• Formal Assessment: Objective, standardised,
organised’psychologists are trained in making formal assessment.
Informal Assessment: It varies from case to case/one assessor to
another—open to subjective interpretation.
• Attributes:
1. Attributes chosen for assessment depend upon the purpose, e.g,
improvement of a weak student intellectual strengths and
weaknesses are measured.
2. An attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be
measured by using scientific procedures.
• Some Domains of Psychological Attributes
These are complex and multi-dimensional, expressed in terms of
dimensions (like cognitive, emotional, social).
Intelligence: Global capacity to understand the world, think
rationally, and use resources effectively. Intelligence tests
measure general cognitive competence, including the ability to
benefit from schooling. Success in life is not solely linked to
intelligence test scores.
Aptitude: Individual's underlying potential for acquiring skills.
Aptitude tests predict what a person can do with proper
environment and training.
Interest: Individual’s preference for engaging in specific
activities. Assessment helps in choosing subjects/courses and
jobs that promote satisfaction and performance.
Personality: Relatively enduring characteristics making a
person distinct. Personality tests assess unique traits (e.g.,
dominant/submissive, outgoing/withdrawn) to explain and
predict behaviour.
Values: Enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour,
guiding actions and judging others. Assessment determines
dominant values (e.g., political, religious).
• Assessment Methods
Psychological Test: Objective and standardised measure of
mental/behavioural characteristics. Widely used for diagnosis,
guidance, selection, placement, training. Includes objective and
projective tests.
Interview: Seeking information from a person on a one-to-one
basis. Used by counsellors, salespeople, employers, journalists.
Case Study: In-depth study of an individual's psychological
attributes, history, and environment. Used by clinical
psychologists and for studying great people. Based on data
from various methods (interview, observation, tests, etc.).
Observation: Systematic, organised, objective recording of
behaviour in real-time natural settings. Useful for phenomena
like mother-child interactions. Problems include little control
over situation and subjective interpretations by the observer.
Self-Report: Person provides factual information, opinions,
beliefs about themselves. Can be obtained via interview
schedule, questionnaire, test, or personal diary.
Intelligence
Definition: A key construct to understand individual differences
and adaptation to the environment. Oxford Dictionary: power
of perceiving, learning, understanding, knowing.
o Alfred Binet: Ability to judge well, understand well,
reason well.
o Wechsler: Global and aggregate capacity to think
rationally, act purposefully, deal effectively with
environment.
o Gardner & Sternberg: Intelligent individuals not only
adapt but actively modify or shape the environment.
o Source Definition: Global capacity to understand the
world, think rationally, and use available resources
effectively when faced with challenges.
1. Wechsler:
• Definition: The global and aggregate capacity of an individual to
think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively with his/her
environment.
• Understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e., its value
for adaption to the environment.
• Intelligence test most widely used.
2. Gardner and Sternberg:
• An intelligent individual not only adapts to the environment but
also actively modifies or shapes it.
• Approaches to Study Intelligence
A. Theories of Intelligence:
Broadly classified into psychometric/structural and information-
processing approaches.
Psychometric Approach: Considers intelligence as an aggregate
of abilities, expressed as a single index. Focuses on the
structure of intelligence or its dimensions.
Information-Processing Approach: Describes the processes
used in intellectual reasoning and problem solving. Focuses
on how an intelligent person acts and the cognitive functions
underlying intelligent behaviour
PSYCHOMETRIC THEORIES
Uni/One-Factor Theory (Alfred Binet):
• Definition: The ability to judge well, understand well, and reason
well.
• First psychologist who formalised the concept of intelligence in
terms of mental operations.
• Differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
• Conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of
abilities which can be used for solving any or every problem in an
individual’s environment.
2. Two-Factor Theory (Charles Spearman) [1927]:
• Employed a statistical method called factor analysis.
• Intelligence consists of a general factor (G-factor) and specific
factors (S-factor).
(i) G-Factor: It includes mental operations which are primary and
common to all performances.
(ii) S-Factor: It includes specific abilities which allow individuals to
excel in their respective domains
3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (Louis Thurstone):
(i) Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas).
(ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in numerical and
computational skills).
(iii) Spatial Relations (visualizing patterns and forms).
(iv) Perceptual Speed To speed in perceiving details).
(v) Word Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly).
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling information).
(vii) Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules from presented
facts).
4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence (Arthur Jensen):
Abilities operates at two levels:
Level I – Associative learning. [output is equal to input, rote memory]
Level II – Cognitive competence. [output is more than input]
5. Structure of Intellect Model (J.P. Guilford) [1988]:
• Classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions—operations,
contents and products
(i) Operation: what the respondent does, e.g., cognition, memory
retention.
(ii) Contents: the nature of materials or information on which
intellectual
• operations are performed, e.g., visual, auditory.
(iii) Products: the form in which information is processed by the
respondent, e.g., relations, systems, transformations.
• Classification includes 6x5x6 categories—the model has 180 cells.
• Each cell is expected to have at least one (can have more than one)
factor or ability and is described in terms of all three dimensions.
B. Information-Processing Approach:
1. Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner): (INDEPENDENT
THEORY)
• Intelligence is not a single entity; distinct types of intelligences exist
independent of each other.
• Different types of intelligences interact and work together to find a
solution to a problem.
• Studied persons who had shown exceptional abilities in their
respective areas and described eight types of intelligence.
(i) Linguistic: The capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to
express one’s thinking and understand other. Persons high on this
‘word-smart’, poets and writers.
(ii) Logical-Mathematical: Skills in problem solving, thinking logically
and critically and abstract reasoning , e, scientists.
(iii) Spatial: The abilities involved in forming, using and transforming
mental images (visual images and patterns), sculptors, painters,
architects, interior decorators.
(iv) Musical: The capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical
rhythms and patterns.
(v) Bodily-Kinaesthetic: The use of the whole body or portions of it
creatively and
flexibly for display, construction of products and problem solving,
athletes, dancers, actors. .
(vi) Interpersonal: Skill of an individual to understand the needs,
motives feelings and behaviours of other people for better
understanding and relationship. High among psychologists
counsellors politicians.
(vii) INTRA PERSONAL: Refers to the awareness of one’s own
feelings, motives, desires, knowledge of one’s internal strengths and
limitations and using that knowledge to effectively relate to others,
philosophers.
(viii) Naturalistic: Complete awareness of our relationship with the
natural world and sensitivity to the features of the natural world,
botanists, zoologists.
2. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg) [1985]:
• Definition: The ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to
accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.
• Three Basic Types of Intelligence:
(i) Componential Intelligence/Analytical Intelligence: The analysis of
information to solve problems
Three components:
(a) Knowledge Acquisition—responsible for learning and acquisition
of the ways of doing things.
(b) Meta or Higher Order Component—planning concerning what to
do and how to do it.
(c) Performance Component—actually doing things .
(ii) Experiential/Creative Intelligence: Using past experiences
creatively to solve novel problems.
— Ability to integrate different experiences in an original way to
make new discoveries and inventions.
— Quickly find out what information is crucial in a given situation.
(iii) Contextual/Practical Intelligence: The ability to deal with
environmental demands encountered on a daily basis—
— may be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’
— easily adapt to their present environment/select a more
favourable environment, modify the environment to fit their needs.
3. Planning, Attention-arousal and Simultaneous-Successive (PASS)
Model of Intelligence (J.P. Das, Jack Nagliery, Kirby) [1994]
• Intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of
three neurological systems, called the functional units of brain
• These units are responsible for—
(i) Arousal/Attention:
— Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
— An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant
aspects of a problem.
— Too much or too little arousal would interfere with attention and
attend to stimuli.
(ii) Simultaneous and Successive Processing:
— Simultaneous: Perceive the relations among various concepts and
integrate – them into a meaningful pattern for comprehension, e.g.,
RSPM.
— Successive: Remember all the information serially so that the
recall of one leads to the recall of another, e.g., learning of digits,
letters. .
(iii) Planning:
— Allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement
them to reach a target, and evaluate their effectiveness.
— If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of
the task or situation.
• These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed
either formally (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or informally
from the environment.
• These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature, yet each
has its own distinctive function.
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) (Das and Nagliery):
• Battery of tests meant for individuals between 5-18 years of age.
• Consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic
cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling.
• Results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of
children with learning problems.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE:
The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly
from studies on twins and adopted children.
CORRELATION OF INTELLIGENCE
• Separated early in childhood-—show considerable similarity in
their intellectual, personality and behavioural characteristics.
• Adopted Children—children’s intelligence is more similar to their
biological rather than adoptive parents.
• Role of Environment—as children grow in age, their intelligence
level tends to move closer to that of their adoptive parents. Studies
show children's IQ moves closer to adoptive parents over time.
Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into higher socio-
economic families show large IQ increases. Environmental
deprivation lowers intelligence. Rich nutrition, good family
background, quality schooling increase intelligence. Environment
shapes development within the hereditary range.
Disadvantaged Children—adopted into families with higher socio-
economic status exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
1. Environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition,
good family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.
2. There is a general consensus among psychologists that intelligence
is a product of complex interaction of heredity (nature) and
environment (nurture).
3. Heredity sets a range within which an individual’s development is
actually shaped by the support and opportunities of the
environment.
• Assessment of Intelligence
1905: Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon made the first successful
attempt to formally measure intelligence.
1908: Gave the concepts of Mental Age (MA) is the measure of a
person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age-
group.
Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
Retardation was being two mental age years below the chronological
age.
1912: William Stern, a German psychologist, devised the concept of
Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to ratio between MA and CA.
Formula—mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by
100 (to avoid the decimal point
First formal measurement attempt: Alfred Binet and Theodore
Simon (1905).
Mental Age (MA): Measure of intellectual development
relative to age group (Binet, 1908). MA of 5 means
performance equals average 5-year-old.
Chronological Age (CA): Biological age from birth.
Bright child: MA > CA; Dull child: MA < CA. Retardation initially
defined as 2 mental age years below chronological age.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): (William Stern, 1912).
o Formula: IQ = (MA / CA) * 100 .
o Multiplier 100 avoids decimal.
o MA = CA => IQ = 100.
o MA > CA => IQ > 100.
o MA < CA => IQ < 100.
o Example: 10-year-old with MA 12 => IQ = (12/10)*100 =
120.
o Average IQ is 100.
IQ Distribution: IQ scores in the population tend to
approximate a normal curve (bell-shaped curve) , symmetrical
around the mean (100) [49, 50, Figure 1.2]. Most scores fall in
the middle range. Few have very high or very low scores.
Classification based on IQ: [50, 51, Table 1.1]
o Above 130: Very superior (2.2%).
o 120 – 130: Superior (6.7%).
o 110 – 119: High average (16.1%).
o 90 – 109: Average (50.0%) .
o 80 – 89: Low average (16.1%).
o 70 – 79: Borderline (6.7%).
o Below 70: Intellectually disabled (2.2%).
6. Variations of Intelligence (Extremes)
Intelligence tests help identify persons at the extremes of
intellectual functioning.
Intellectual Disability:
Term for children with intellectual deficiency who have
difficulty learning simple skills.
AAMD Definition: "Significantly sub-average general intellectual
functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive
behaviour and manifested during the developmental period".
Three basic features:
o Significantly sub-average intellectual functioning: IQs
below 70.
o Deficits in adaptive behaviour: Capacity to be
independent and deal effectively with environment.
o Manifested during developmental period: Between 0
and 18 years.
Wide variation in abilities within this group.
Levels based on IQ:
o Mild (IQs 55 to ~70): Slower development, can function
independently, hold jobs/families.
o Moderate (IQs 35-40 to ~50-55): Lag in language/motor
skills, can be trained in self-care/simple social skills, need
moderate supervision.
o Severe (IQs 20-25 to ~35-40): Difficulties strongly marked.
o Profound (IQs below 20-25): Incapable of managing life,
need constant care.
o
VARIATIONS IN INTELLIGENCE
1. Intelligence Deficiency (Mentally Retarded/Challenged):
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views
mental retardation as significantly sub-average general
intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in
adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental
period
In order to be judged as mentally retarded, a person must show:
(i) Significantly sub average intellectual functioning, e.g., IQ below
70.
(ii) Deficits in adaptive behaviour or the capacity to be
independent and deal effectively with one’s environment.
Deficits must be observed during the developmental period, i.e.,
between 0-18 years.
Mild retardation—development is typically slower than that of
their peers but they can function quite independently, hold jobs
and families. Level of retardation increases—lag behind their
peers in language and motor skills, need to be trained in self-care
skills and simple social and communication skills.
2. Intellectual Giftedness:
Lewis Term an (1925): Study to show how intelligence was related
to occupational success and life adjustment. These individual
show higher performance because of their outstanding
potentialities.
Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior
performance in a wide variety of areas.
• Teacher’s perspective: depends on a combination of high ability,
high creativity and high commitment.
• Early signs of intellectual superiority: during infancy show larger
attention span, good memory, sensitivity to environmental
changes, early appearance of language skills.
• Other characteristics are advanced logical thinking and problem
solving, high speed in processing information, high-level creative
thinking, high self-esteem, independence.
• Incorrect to equate with brilliant academic performance: each
gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and
characteristics, e.g., athletes.
Talent refers to remarkable ability in a specific field, e.g., social,
and are often called prodigies.
Types of Intelligence Tests,
Individual or Group Test
Individual: Administered to one person at a time. Requires rapport,
sensitivity to subject's feelings. Allows oral, written, or object
manipulation answers.
Group: Administered to several persons simultaneously. No
opportunity to be familiar with subjects' feelings. Generally seek
written, often multiple-choice, answers.
Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
o Culture-Biased: Many tests developed in Western cultures
reflect urban, middle-class ethos. Items and norms may not
respect cultural perspectives of Asia/Africa. Educated middle-
class white subjects often perform better.
o Culture-Fair/Culturally Appropriate: Designed to minimise
discrimination against individuals from different cultures. Items
assess common experiences or require no language usage.
Non-verbal and performance tests help reduce cultural bias.
Designing a universally applicable test is nearly impossible.
Verbal, Non-verbal or performance Tests
o Verbal: Require verbal responses (oral or written).
Administered only to literate people.
o Non-Verbal: Use pictures/illustrations. Example: Raven’s
Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test (completing a pattern from
options) [63, Figure 1.3].
o Performance: Require manipulating objects/materials. Written
language not necessary. Example: Kohs’ Block Design Test
(arranging blocks to match design).
o Major advantage of performance tests: Easily administered
across different cultures.
CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE
A major characteristic of intelligence is that it helps individuals to
adapt to their environment. The cultural environment provides a
context for intelligence to develop. ‘
Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes and
achievements in art and literature.
Sternberg:
• Notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that
intelligence is a product of culture.
Vygotsky (Russian psychologist):
• Culture provides a social context in which people live, grow and
understand the world around them.
• Elementary mental functions (e.g., walking, crying) are Universal;
the manner in which higher mental functions such as problem-
solving and thinking operate are largely culture produced.
• Equal attention given to cognitive and non-cognitive processes
and their integration:
(i) Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to context, understanding,
discrimination, problem-solving and effective communication).
(ii) Social competence (respect for social order, commitment to
elders, the young and the needy, concern about others and
recognising others perspectives).
(iii) Emotional competence (self-regulation and self-monitoring of
emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct and self-evaluation).
(iv) Entrepreneurial competence (commitment, persistence,
patience, hard work, vigilance and goal-directed behaviour).
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate
appraisal, expression and regulation of emotions. It is the feeling side
of intelligence.
(i) Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence
in the same way as IQ is used to express intelligence.
(ii) Salovey and Mayer: The ability to monitor one’s own and other’s
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use the information to
guide one’s thinking and actions.
CREATIVITY
• Creativity refers to the ability to produce ideas, objects and
problem solutions that are novel and appropriate.
• It refers to the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to
came up with unique solutions to problems.
• Creativity involves the production of same thing new and original it
may be an idea, object or solution to a problem.
• Creativity can get manifested in different levels and in different
areas.
• Everyday creativity/Day to day creativity. It could be reflected in
day to day activities like writing, teaching, storytelling, flower
arrangement, dance etc.
• Special talent creativity/Higher order creativity. It is related to
outstanding creative achievements e.g. inventions and discoveries.
• Creativity is always reality oriented, appropriate, constructive and
socially desirable.
• Everyday creativity could be seen in terms of the level and the
areas in which they exhibit creativity and that all may not be
operating at the same level.
• Researches suggest that children mostly express their imagination
through physical activities and in non-verbal ways, although when
language and intellectual functions are fully developed and store of
knowledge is adequately available then creativity is expressed
through verbal modes too.
• There is no disagreement that creativity in determined by both
heredity and environment.
• Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity.
• Environmental factors stimulate the development of creativity.
• No amount of training can transform an average person to develop
special talent creativity or higher order creativity like Tagore, Einstein
or Shakespear.
CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE:
• Certain level of intelligence in necessary to be creative, but a high
level of intelligence, however does not ensure that a person would
certainly be creative.
• Researchers have found that both high and low level of creativity
can be formed in highly intelligent children and also children of
average intelligence.
• Relation between creativity and intelligence is positive.
KEY WORDS
• Aptitude: A combination of characteristics indicative of individual’s
potential to acquire some specific skills with training.
• Aptitude Tests: Tests meant to measure individual’s potential to
predict future performance.
• Beliefs: The cognitive component of the thoughts or ideas
regarding a topic.
• Case Study: An intensive study of an individual or a situation to
develop general principles about behaviour.
• Cognition: The process of knowing. The mental activities
association with thought, decision making, language, and other
higher mental processes.
• Cognitive Assessment System: A battery of tests designed to
measure the four PASS (Planning-Attention-Simultaneous-Successive)
process.
• Componential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it refers
to ability to think critically and analytically.
• Contextual Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the
practical intelligence
used in solving everyday problems.
• Creativity: The ability to produce ideas, objects, and problem
solutions that are novel and appropriate.
• Culture-fair Test: A test that does not discriminate examinees on
the basis of their culture
experiences.
• Emotional Intelligence: A cluster of traits or abilities relating to the
emotional side of life abilities such as recognising and managing
one’s own emotions, being able to motivate oneself and restrain
one’s impulses, recognising and managing others’ emotions, and
handling interpersonal relationship in an effective manner. It is
expressed in the form of an emotional quotient (EQ) score.
• Experiential Intelligence: In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, it is the
ability to use past experiences creatively to solve novel problems.
• Factor Analysis: Mathematical procedure, involving correlations,
for sorting trait terms or test responses into clusters or factors; used
in the development of test designed to discover basic personality
traits. It identifies items that are homogeneous or internally
consistent and independent of others.
• Fluid Intelligence: Ability to perceive complex relationship, reason
abstractly, and solve
problems.
• Genetics: The study of how the qualities of living things are passed
on in their genes.
• Group Test: A test designed to be administered to more than one
individual at the same time, in contrast to individual test.
• Individual Differences: Distinctiveness and unique variations
among people’s characteristics and behaviour patterns.
• Individual Test: A test that must be given to a single individual at a
time, typically by a specially trained person. The Binet and Wechsler
intelligence tests are examples of individual test.
• Intellectual Giftedness: Exceptional general intellectual efficiency
shown in superior performance in a wide range of tasks.
• Intelligence: The capacity to understand the world, to think
rationally, and to use resources efficiency when faced with
challenges.
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ): An index derived from standardised
intelligence tests
indicating a ratio of mental age to chronological age.
• Intelligence Test: Test designed to. measure person’s level of
intelligence.
• Interest: An individual’s preference for one or more specific
activities.
• Interview: Purposeful conversation through face to face
interaction.
• Mental Age (MA): A measure of intellectual functioning combined
with varying degrees of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Mental Retardation: Sub-average intellectual functioning
combined with varying degrees
of deficits in adaptive behaviour.
• Normal Probability Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency
distribution. Most scores are found near the middle and fewer and
fewer 6ccur towards the extremes. Many psychological
characteristics are distributed in this manner.
• Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison
of one person’s score on the test to the scores of others who have
taken the same test.
• Observational Method: Employing systematic, organised and
objective procedures to record behavioural phenomena occurring
naturally in real time.
• Observation method: Employing systematic organised and
objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally.
• Performance Test: A test in which the role of language is
minimised, the task requiring overt motor responses other than
verbal.
• Planning: In Das PASS model of intelligence, it involves goal setting,
strategy selection, and monitoring of goal-oriented.
• Problem-solving Behaviour: The activity and mental processes
involved in overcoming the obstacles, physical or conceptual, which
lie between an animal and its goal.
• Psychological Test: An objective and standardised in instrument for
measuring an individual’s mental and behavioural traits; used by
psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and
understand more about themselves.
• Self-awareness: Insight into one’s own motives, potential and
limitation.
• Sensitivity: Tendency to respond to very low levels of physical
stimulation. –
• Simultaneous Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model
that involves integrating elements of the stimulus situation into
composite and meaningful patterns.
• Situationism: A principle which states that situations and
circumstances outside oneself have the power to influence
behaviour.
• Successive Processing: Cognitive processing in the PASS model
where elements of the stimulus situation are responded to
sequentially.
• Values: Refers to the enduring beliefs about an ideal made of
behaviour.
• Verbal Test: Test in which a subject’s ability understand in making
and use words and concepts is important in parking the required
responses.