UNIT 7 FEED PROCESSING AND

FODDER CONSERVATION
Structure
7.0 Objectives

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Processing of Feeds and Fodders

7.2.1 Why Processing?
7.2.2 Processing Techniques

7.3 Conservation of Fodder

7.4 HayMaking

7.5 Silage Making

7.6 Let Us Sum Up

7.7 Keywords

7.8 Suggested Reading

7.9 References

7.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

• describe the different methods of processing the feeds and fodders;

• conserve the surplus forage/fodder for meeting the challenge oflean periods;

• identify the different crops which can be used for hay and silage making; and

• explain the method of hay and silage making and the processes involved in
it.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have learnt about the production and management aspects
of green fodder and grass lands. In this unit, you will learn about the forage
conservation technology for safe preservation ofthe excess forage that is produced
in the season for making it available during the periods of shortage. This is
specially needed in view of the large area under rainfed systems (dry lands),
occasional droughts and also the dry months when forage availability is scarce.
Climatic factors play an important role in acute scarcity of green fodders on one
hand and surplus green fodder availability on the other. The surplus green fodder
is available during July-October and December-April followed by an acute scarcity
period between mid October to mid December and mid April to mid July. Thus,
it becomes imperative to conserve the surplus green fodder at appropriate time
so that they can be used during lean periods. Unless such measures are taken,
41
Livestock Feeding and it is not feasible to sustain and economize livestock production during the lean
Pasture Management periods. Silage and hay making are some of the ways to provide quality feed to
animals during the lean periods. Every effort should be made to preserve the
forages as silage or hay at the appropriate stage of the growth.

7.2 PROCESSING OF FEEDS AND FODDERS

In Indian feeding system, there are two classes of feeds. RO\Jghage are h~Ying
more than 18% crude fibre and concentrate less than 18% crude fibre. Protein
percentage varies according to stage of growth and processing technology applied.
In terms of nutrient present in these classes offeeds, roughages are short by 37%
energy as expressed in TDN (Total Digestible Nutrients) and 34% in terms of
Digestible Crude Protein (DCP). In commercial compounded feed mixtures, these
roughages and concentrates are mixed in proportion which is needed for
maintenance, growth, milk, wool, meat, work, egg production and other
physiological needs like young animals, pregnant animal or non-productive adult
animals.

7.2.1 Why Processing?

A balanced diet is required to achieve optimum conversion rate and it requires
several steps to get the complete or compounded feeds for different categories
of animals/birds. It should not be restricted to feed formulation only, as the
balanced feed formulated should not be ensured that it will give better result. It
is always essential that a proper processing (compounding or milling)of a complete
feed has been subjected to several steps of screening at the farm or feed mill. The
feed prepared at home or in your own farm or feed mill should be of guaranteed
quality, fresh and cheaper.

Feed processing means application of different kinds of treatments for improving

the nutritional quality offeedstuffs. Some of the treatments are simple and easy
to operate, while others require extensive and elaborate techniques. Do you know
why feed should be processed? The processing offeed has the following advantages:

a) Improves starch availability and protein utilization;

b) Eliminates or inactivates the anti-nutritional factors in feed ingredients;

c) Ensures preservation of nutrients in feed; and

d) Improves appearance and palatability of feed.

7.2.2 Processing Techniques

Some of the common feed/fodder processing techniques are described below:

i) Chopping Green Fodder and Hay

Do you think chaffing of green fodder is useful? Yes. It is essential to chop the
green fodder and hay before providing it to the animals because it not only helps
in easy digestion but also prevents the animals from choosing particular portion
of the fodder, for example, leaves and leaving behind the stems. Is it essential to
chop all types of fodder? The answer is No. The need for chopping the fodder
depends on the nature of the fodder and the type and class of animal to which
it has to be fed. As a thumb rule, there is no need of ct.~~ng fine-stemmed green
42
fodder like berseem, lucerne, grass etc. However, chaffing is advantageous only Feed Processing and
for thick-stemmed green fodder like jowar and maize. Because, if they are not Fodder Conservation

chaffed, the animal is likely to leave back the thick stems. Chaffing green fodders
like jowar and maize is also necessary before conserving them as silage. For
cattle, sheep and horses, very little can be gained by chopping hay. Chopping also
helps in preventing undue waste thereby making a considerable savings, especially
in the case of coarse and hard-stemmed hay.

ii) Grinding

Grinding is a process of reducing the particle size of feed which helps the digestive
enzymes to act effectively and quickly. The size of particle depends upon the
shape, size and hardness of the seed and age of the animal or birds. Grinding is
done because the outer covering of the seeds and grains are not digested easily
by the animals especially very young and old. Grams should be ground well for
cattle, pigs and horses, whereas, it may not be required for sheep and goats as
they chew very efficiently.

iii) Mixing

Feed ingredients are generally mixed together in a mixer to provide a nutritionally

balanced diet. While farm mixing, the ground ingredients are piled up in layers on
the pucca floor, the largest ingredient at bottom and others over it as per their
quantity. The premix and mineral supplements are added on top. Then, the
ingredients are mixed either by hand or shovel, till a uniform mixture is obtained.
At least 3 to 5 turnings are required for proper mixing, The lot should be small
for efficient mixing. Combined mill and grinding or mixing units are now available
that have a capacity to produce about 100-500 kg of feed per hour specially
designed for the farm mixer and these units are comparatively less expensive.

iv) Pelleting

Pelleting is commonly practiced now-a-days which uses mixed rations, hay or

concentrates. It is not only cost effective; but also increases [Link], prevents
feed wastage and saves storage space. The processes involved in pellet making
include steam conditioning (food is heated to 65-80°C at moisture content of
about 17%) to soften feeds, pressing the softened material through a mould of
suitable size to turn into pellet, cooling of the pellets by coolers placed below the
pelleting machine and production of crumble in crumbling machine. The pellets
or crumbles should be firm and tough to withstand handling in bulk and not break
easily.

7.3 CONSERVATION OF FODDER

In India, availability of roughages and crop residue is seasonal and agroclimatic.
Hence, the excess green fodder produced during the season needs to be processed,
transported and stored. Preservation of fodder without much loss of nutrients is
the main aim of conservation. Fodder is cut before maturity ensuring optimum
availabilityof nutrients. Fodder could be preserved by sun drying (Hay), in artificial
driers and in airtight chambers (Silage).

a) Straw: Of all the foodstuffs, straw is perhaps the poorest in protein content
and have the largest percentage of crude fibre. They are comparatively poor
in phosphorus, available calcium and also in trace element, but are rich in
silica. Since, rice or wheat is our staple food, paddy or wheat is the commonly 43
Livestock Feeding and
Pasture Management it i~ not fe~sible to sustain and economize livestock production during the lean
pe~lOds. SIl~ge and hay making are some ofthe ways to provide quality feed to
arumals dur~g the lean periods. Every effort should be made to preserve the
forages as silage or hay at the aooronriate staze of the orowrh

Livestock Feeding and cultivated cereal crop. After harvesting the grain from the crop, the left
Pasture Management
portion is known as straw. These straws are collected from the field by the
farmers and stored after drying in big stock for feeding of animals. It is
usually stored on wooden or bamboo platform raised over the ground. This
is required to minimize spoilage in the heavy rainfall areas. Straw includes
stems and leaves of cereal crops left over after separating the grains. Eg.
Paddy straw, Wheat straw, Barley straw, Oat straw etc.

b) Stover: These include stems and leaves of millet crops left over after separating
the grains. Stover is generally much harder than straws and has to be cut into
smaller pieces before feeding. Eg. Stover of Maize, Jowar, Bajra etc.

c} Hay: Hay refers to a grass or clover that is cut while still green, dried and
used as a fodder. The contents of hay depend on availability of grasses and
climatic conditions. Grasses including rye grass, Italian rye grass, coastal
bermuda, orchard grass, and other native species, legumes such as alfalfa
and clovers (red and white) as well as Oat, barley, and wheat plant materials
are best suited for hay making. Hay is usually fed to an animal, particularly
in the winter or during times when drought or other conditions make pasture
unavailable.

The nutritive value of hay depends upon the stage of maturity at which the
crop is harvested for converting into hay. While the early cuttings are more
nutritious, late cuttings yield a larger weight. Good quality herbage at flowering
stage is cut early in the morning and left in the field. To obtain its greatest
nutritive value, farmers try to harvest hay at the point when all leaves are fully
developed and seed or flower heads are just a bit short of full maturity. After
4-5 hours, the cut fodder is turned and by next day afternoon, the moisture
content would come down to 25%. After drying, hay is forwarded for
cutting. Once hay is cut, dried and raked into windrows, it is usually gathered
into bales or bundles, and then transported to a central location for storage.
For safe storage, moisture content should not be more than 23% which can
be ensured hy frequent turning and spreading the hay over a wide area.

d) Silage: Silage making refers to preservation of chaffed cereal green fodder

in anaerobic condition by fermentation method. It is produced by harvesting
a forage crop at high moisture content (greater than 50 %) and subsequently
fermenting it in a pit or tower or bunker or trench or plastic silos. In anaerobic
condition (no air inside pit/tank), with the help of micro-organisms, sugar
contained in green fodder is converted into lactic acid, which help to preserve
the green fodder for longer duration (6 months or one year, if good care is
taken).

To prepare best quality silage, preference is given to cereal green fodder like
maize, sorghum, Bajra, Hybrid Napier, Sugarcane tops, Oat etc. because
they contain more sugar content which is utilised in fermentation process to
make lactic acid by microorganisms. Moreover, these cereal fodder crops
have hard stem, which takes more time for drying. Good silage is yellow-
brown colour, with a characteristic acid fruity smell and just releases moisture
when squeezed. Jowar and maize are the best crops suitable for Silage
making. Others crops like non-leguminous fodders (except turnip), Hybrid
Napier, Sudan grass, Berseem, Oats, ~"wpea, millets are also suitable for
silage making.
44
 Feed Processing and
Check Your Progress 1 Fodder Conservation

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) What are the advantages of processing the feed?

2) What are the advantages of pelleting?

3) What are the different methods of conserving fodder?

7.4 HAYMAKING
The most prevalent method of keeping the excess forage for use is by drying and
stacking known as hay. Hay making is a process of drying the cut grass / crop
to reduce the moisture content from 70-90% to 20-23%. It is desired that the
crop/grass should be harvested at pre-flowering stage so that maximum nutrients
are preserved, But in most of the grain crops, the stovers are dried into hay after
the grain maturity.

a) Why Hay making?

Grasslands, grazing lands and pastures constitute a vast part of the earth's surface
but are rarely able to provide adequate (quantity and quality) year round feed to
support higher livestock production. In such a situation, supplementation offorages
or crop residues such as hay from cultivated land is unavoidable to achieve the
desired animal production. Moreover, majority [Link] animals are maintained in
mixed farming system and in such situation, crop residues have important role.
Hay making from grasslands is traditional, while hay also could be made from the
cultivated fodder crops. Thus, the major objective of making hay is to meet the
challenge offorage deficit during the lean periods.

Storing forage for use in the scarcity period is practiced since ancient time.
Storing of straws and crop residues as animal feed is probably as old as cereal
45
Livestock Feeding and cultivation. Hay making seems to be ancient but is the most important way of
Pasture Management
conserving forages/fodder despite its dependence on suitable weather at harvest
time and crop harvesting stage. Hay making is one of the traditional ways for
conservation of forage and crop residues for lean and scarcity period utilization
as well as to store in hay bank for the utilization during natural calamity.
b) Hay and its types
Hay is considered as roughage having more than 18% crude fibre and less than
20% crude protein. It is rarely a complete food and must be used as 1'1l1't of an
overall feeding system. Crop residues, straws and stovers, are also important as
lean-season feed for ruminants, and are often used in association with hay.
Hay may be classified based on the level of technology used and crop from which
hay is made. The main types of hay based on the technology are:
o Long hay: It is the traditional type of hay where crop is tied in small
bundles, turned and stored in a stack form. This is the most common type
of hay making.
ii) Chopped hay: This type of hay is prepared where drying conditions are
good and system is highlymechanized. It is less bulky and better for mechanical
handling.

iii) Baled hay: Initially prepared by hand (manually) and then by stationary
machines. Round bales are the simplest to make and most popular. Their
shape sheds rain and resists water better than traditional bales.
iv) Hand-trussed hay: It is widespread in manual Hay making, often as a
means of reducing shattering. Wafered and pelleted hay is dense and free-
flowing, so it is easy to transport, handle and store.
v) Dried grass: In this method, grass/crop residues are artificially dried at high
temperatures. This type is not economic.
vi) Barn-dried hay: Here, hay is prepared by air drying the raw material with
the help of fan. This type of hay is not widely prepared.
Depending on the crop from which hay is made, they may be classified as follows:
i) Legume hay: They are made out ofleguminous plants like lucerne and other
clovers. They are generally rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals as compared
to non-leguminous ones. This hay is usually fed to young calves in calf-starter
rations.
ii) Non-legume hay: They contain less proteins, minerals and vitamins. This
type of hay may be from crops or from grasses. Those made from green
crops like barley or oats are usually rich in carbohydrates.
iii) Mixed hay: These are made from amixed crop of leguminous and non-
leguminous plants. Such a crop is generally cut early, as they do not come
to the flowering stage simultaneously. The nutritive value of such hay will
depend on the proportion ofleguminous and non-leguminous plants.
c) Preferred crops
Crops with thin, soft stem are more suitable and convenient for hay making unlike
the hard thick stemmed crops. Oat is the best suited crop for hay making because
of [Link] and hollow stem and narrow leafto stem ratio. Cultivated fodder crops
46
likeberseem, lucerne, cowpea, sunhemp along with range legumes likeStylosanthe'i, Feed Processing and
Fodder Conservation
Siratro are other legumes suitable for hay making.
Hay from leguminous crops is more nutritive and usually used to supplement the
straws and stovers and other fibrous feeds fed to animals. Annual and perennial
crops (mainly grasses) also form good hay provided they are harvested at optimum , .

stage oftheir growth. In Indian conditions, most of the hay is prepared from the
crops like sorghum, maize and millets normally harvested after grain harvesting.
Grass from protected grasslands is also harvested at pre-maturity stage, dried and
stored as hay.
d) Factors affecting Hay making
Two main factors affecting the Hay making are:
D Season: Pasture (natural or sown) can be managed by grazing or taking
silage cuts as necessary, so that the herbage reaches a suitable stage for
curing when good weather is expected. If a farm intends to make a lot of
hay, consideration must be given to growing a range of species to extend the
season during which the various crops will be in peak condition for Hay
making, and thus make best use of the available equipment and labour.
ii) Stage of crop maturity: One of the major factors determining the quality
ofthe final product in Hay making is stage of maturity of the crop. Quality
of raw material reduces rapidly with increasing maturity, especially after
flowering. However, very young, leafy grass is less easy to handle than more
mature herbage. The protein and energy contents offodder are high at early
stage of crop growth but yield is less. Therefore, a compromise between
yield and quality has to be made, and usually, cutting at early to rnid-flowering
will give a reasonable product. As the crop matures beyond full stage, protein
and other nutrients are reduced which results in lowered nutrient digestibility.
The optimum time for harvesting a crop for hay making is 1/3 to Yz bloom
stage in grasses, grain milk stage in cereals and tender pod formation stage
in legumes. Further, Kharif crops may be harvested in early September
(termination of rainy season), while Rabi crops may be harvested in February/
March when temperature starts rising. In "good" Hay making climates,younger
material can be cured more successfully than in areas with moist climates, or
where there is danger oftropical storms. Cereals for hay are cut at a more
mature stage than are pasture grasses, often when the grains are fully formed.
Where there is an overall scarcity of forage, farmers may make hay even
when the quality of the crop is poor. For example, in tropics and subtropics,
a lot of hay is made from over-mature herbage because the weather during
the season when the grass is at its best quality is unsuitable for drying. The
product is poor, but even hay which is no better than straw is highly valued.
e) Haymaking Process
The following basic steps are involved in all the methods of haymaking;

D Selection of suitable plant varieties and its cultivation on good soil with
proper care in the form of irrigation, fertilization, etc. The seed-rate should
be high to ensure dense stand of the crop, which will result in fmer stems,
heavier yield and less weeds.
ii) Cutting the fodder at proper stage of maturity: For Lucerne, first cut is
done in the early bloom stage and second and subsequent cuts are done 47
LivestockFeeding and when one-tenth to one-fourth of the crops are in bloom or when new hoots
Pasture Management begin to develop from the crown. For grasses, cutting is done when they
begin to head out. For the grain crops, cutting is done when grains is in the
milk stage and for cowpea when pods are half to fully mature.
ill) Curing of the hay helps to preserve maximum nutrients and removes moisture
sufficiently to avoid moldiness and spoilage.
iv) Prevent shattering: During curing, losses due to shattering of leaves should
be minimized. In leguminous plants, shattering is more common and special
care must be taken to avoid it.
v) Prevent Bleaching and fermentation losses: When the temperature during
curing is too high or when moisture content has not been kept low enough,
severe losses due to bleaching and fermentation take place.
vi) Prevent leaching: Losses in nutrients due to leaching from rain are the
major loss when one tries to make hay during monsoon season. The leaching
losses are negligible if the rainfalls just after cutting of the crop. Losses
increase with the advancement of curing, ifleaching takes place.
vii) Moisture content of hay: Hay has to be prepared with the following
moisture content:
• For loose hay - 25-28 % moisture
• For baled hay - 22-25 % moisture
• For chopped hay - 19-22 % moisture
viii) Storing properly: Enough care must be taken to protect hay from rain and
sunlight.
f) Haymaking Method
The popular methods of haymaking are field curing, mow curing and artificial
drying. Though there are many methods, field drying-curing method which is
discussed below is the most suited method under Indian conditions. As the name
indicates, the harvested plants are cured in the field itself to make hay. The various
steps in this process are:
i) Harvesting: The standing crop meant for haymaking (Fig. 7.1) is harvested
using hand cutting instrument. It is highly desirable to mow in one direction.
Time of harvesting could be after 10 a.m., by which time the due dries up
and the sunshines nicely.

48 Fig. 7.1: Standing fodder crop Fig. 7.2: Harvested fodder in rows
 ii) Wilting: The crop is left there itself in the swath loosely spread in rows Feed Processing and
(Fig. 7.2) to dry partially. This could last 2 or 4 days depending on the Fodder Conservation
sunshine and crop type. During this period, the material should be
raked up at the rows itself, daily so that even the plants lying at the
bottom also get dried thoroughly. The aim is to let the plants wilt nicely
until the moisture comes down to roughly 40% so that shattering of
leaves is minimum.

ill) Further Drying: After wilting forage to about 40% moisture in the
swath (material), it is first rolled into small loose fluffy bundles known
as 'windrows'. The process of heap making follows this, that is, making
windrows into small conical heaps after hay had been cured partially in
the windrows (Fig. 7.3). The conical heaps should be protected with
hay caps (plastic sheets) when rain is expected.

iv) Storing: The most common method of storing dry fodder in India is as
heaps or stacks in the open (Fig. 7.4) covered with plastic sheets or
small branches of trees, to prevent wind and rain spoilage. Some farmers
stack hay and other dry fodders in a shed. But, baling them using
presses or baling machines is better, as it also reduces the volume due
to pressing ofloose hay. The bales can be tied together using vegetable
threads (Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.4: Storing hay as a big stack

Fig. 7.3: Drying in small stacks Fig. 7.5: Storing hay as bales
g) Properties of Good Hay

i) The fodder cut at the proper stage will have the maximum nutrients and,
therefore, will make better hay. Delay in harvesting fodder for haymaking
will make the stems woody and lignified with the resultant deterioration
in the nutritive value. Thus, crops cut at the proper stage can only make
good quality hay.

n) Good hay will be having a major proportion of the leaves prescribed.

Shattering ofleaves during the process of haymaking will, therefore,
reduce the quality of hay.
49
Livestock Feeding and ill) Green colour of hay is an indication of its quality. It means that a greater
Pasture Management proportion of the leaves have been preserved and losses due to bleaching,
leaching, fermentation, etc. have been minimized.

iv) It should be made out of thin-stemmed crops so that it is soft and

palatable.

v) The crop used for haymaking should be free from weeds and poisonous
plantS.
VI) Hay should not have more than 20-23% moisture when stored. Ifthere
is more moisture, fermentation will take place, generating a great deal
of heat. Ultimately, it may lead to spontaneous combustion. Even if it
does not catch fire, the nutritive value would have seriously affected.

vii) Good hay will be free from dust and mold.

viii) It will have a pleasant aroma, which adds to its palatability.

h) Feeding and Storage

Hay is mostly fed mixed with some green fodder. Ammoniation process is also
carried out to enrich it and make it more digestible. Chaffing improves intake and
digestibility. In many dry regions of our country, the hay is directly offered from
the stack resulting into lots ofwastages. Thus, chaffing and mixture with green
fodder / feed is required for higher livestock production.

Once the hay is made, it can be kept for long periods if properly stored. The aim
in storing hay is to keep it dry and to protect it from wastage due to rats, pests,
stray livestock, fire or wind. If possible, it is better to store hay close to the point
of use rather than in the field itself Stacks ofloose material are the traditional
method of storing large quantities of hay. Storage of hay and straw in the forks
of trees is widespread, especially for straw, in order to keep it out of reach of
wandering livestock. House-top (roof) storage is very common on smallholdings
in semi-arid areas. In parts ofIndia and Nepal, wooden shelters are commonly
constructed near the homestead for milch stock, usually buffaloes. Homes with
flat roof can serve as storage platforms for straw and hay, as well as protecting
the stock from the sun.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) Justify why it is essential to practice hay making in our country?

50
2) Identify the major factors affecting hay making. Feed Processing and
Fodder Conservation

3) List out the steps in field drying-curing method of hay making ..

4) Name two crops best suited for hay making.

7.5 SILAGE MAKING

Silage making is another important method of conserving green fodder. Silage can
be called the fermented product of green forages where the acids produced by
anaerobic fermentation ofthe sugars present in these forages preserve them The
method consists of chaffing of green forage and storing it in specially constructed
underground or above ground structures ensuring that no air or moisture enters
these structures. The green forage thus stored ferments under anaerobic conditions
without appreciable loss to the nutritive value of the material preserved. The acids
formed during the process of fermentation act as preservatives. The product thus
obtained is termed 'silage'.

a) Advai tages of Silage

1. The ensiling process is the only means by which the entire forage plant
can be preserved in a succulent form.

2. The crops can be harvested and stored at the time of its development
when it has the maximum nutritive value.

3. Silage retains higher proportions of nutrients than hay because losses

due to shattering and leaching! bleaching are minimized.
4. Silage preserves 85% of feed energy. Hay under best conditions
preserves only 80% and under poor conditions 50-60%.

5. Silage can be made from thick stem crops those are not suitable for hay
making.

6. Silage can be made in almost any kind of weather. 51

Livestock Feeding and 7. Silage crops have more yield than other hay-crops.
Pasture Management
8. Silage requires less storage space than hay.

9. Less fire hazard with silage compared to hay and other dry crops.

10. Silage is more palatable, digestible and slightly laxative.

11. No wastage in feeding, as cobs, shucks and coarser stems are eaten.

1'-. Silage is a better source of protein and carotene.

13. Weeds can also be utilized along with main fodder crop.

14. Nutritive value of ensiled forage could be increased by adding suitable

additive.

b) Crops used for Ensiling

Almost all forage crops are suitable for silage making. Even some crops that are
unsuitable as green fodder or hay due to bitterness or bad flavour are suitable as
silage as they appear to lose these qualities during ensiling. Weedy crops and
crops with thick stalks can be ensiled equally well. Can you guess which crop is
commonly used for silage making? Maize is a popular crop for silage as it gives
high yield. Besides, at the stage of cutting for ensiling, it possesses the required
dry matter percentage and available sugars. Thus, normal fermentation is ensured
without addition of any preservatives. Sorghum is another important silage crop.
The sweet sorghum is better for silage than the grain sorghum. Grasses and
legumes when used for silage are usually referred to as hay-crop silages.

c) Obtaining Good Silage

Good silage should have a mild, pleasant odour, an acid taste and a slightly
greenish colour. It should be free from sliminess and mold growth and should have
sufficient acid to prevent further degradation. Successful ensilage can be achieved
when the following conditions are satisfied:

1. Select the right crop. It will be difficult to list all the crops that can be used
for making silage. The important ones are: all grasses, lucerne, cowpea, oats,
barley, red clover, etc.

2. Select forage species having naturally high sugar content like maize and
sorghum.

3. Avoid legumes having low sugar and high protein contents, which favours the
growth ofthe undesirable bacteria. Otherwise, make mixed silage combining
maize plus lucerne, sorghum plus berseern, and so on.

4. Do not cut immature crops for silage making as they have high protein and'
low sugar contents.

5. Crops may be cut late in the day as sugar content increases during hours of
sunlight.

6. For crops deficient in sugar, add molasses as uniformly as possible before

ensiling.

7. Avoid cutting crops when soaked in rain or dew. If necessary, wilt the crop
in the field before transporting to the silo.
52
 8. Consolidate and rapidly seal the silo as the oxidation of sugars can Feed Processing and
produce water. Fodder Conservation

9. Prevent seepage of rainwater inside the silos.

d) Types of Silos
A very large number of different types of silos are in existence. These vary from
massive concrete structures with complete equipment to simple plastic bags.
i) Tower silos are cylindrical concrete structures about 8-10 m in diameter
and 15 m in height. Fresh forage is blown in at the top and when ready for
use, silage is removed through a series of openings at one side.
ii) Trench silos as the name implies are shallow horizontal pits. The length of
the trench can be 2-3 m (A) for few animals or long (B) for more animals
(Fig. 7.6). It is very readily accessible and therefore labour costs are low.
A low water table and clay soil are desirable in the location of trench silos.
Often, the trench can be dug into the side of a hill to increase accessibility.

WOOD
BOARDs~-:L---.z:.'!~~~~71
WOOD
PARTITIONS

Fig. 7.6: Trench silo Fig. 7.7: Pit silo

iii) Pit silos, as the name implies, are small silo pits of desired size dug into
earth at a place higher than the surroundings for silage making (Fig.
7.7).

iv) Tub silos are upright silos of a very wide diameter that are easy to
unload by hand.

v) Bunker silos are suitably made with concrete or bricks in areas where
soil is loose and caving in is feared, and where water table is high. They
are above ground structures composed of walls between which ensilage
is compressed. The walls may be of wood, or concrete. Forage is put
in and taken out of bunker and trench silos in much the same way.
Carts, trucks or tractor trolleys loaded with chaffed fodder can be
driven in, unloaded and driven through. Forage is then packed with
tractors equipped with blades.

VI) Clamp silos can be used where soil is suitable and water table is high.
A shallow trench is dug and the soil is piled on either side to increase
the height ofthe walls. Pack ensilage as high as possible and as compactly
as possible. A good plastic seal is installed on top.

53
Livestock Feeding and vii) Plastic sheets are used in different ways to produce silage. Silos of
Pasture Management various sizes can be prepared with plastic film.

viii) Silage bags are made of smaller tubes of plastic. They are small silos
of 50 kg or even less. Thus, for small livestock operation, inexpensive
silage structures are available. The ends of each tube are double tied
making a bag with a handle at each end.

The shape and size of silo varies with the quantity of the forage to be ensiled
and the economic [Link] village conditions, normally pits and bunkers
are used as silo. However, at commercial dairy farms and government livestock
farms where large quantities of silage are to be made, towers or buns are
common silos. The silos may be kaccha or pacca and may be of rectangular
and cylindrical in shape. In peri-urban dairying, plastic bag silos are tried.
They are convenient for use and the losses are minimum.

e) Silage Making Process

The following steps are involved in silage making:

1) The fodder crops to be used for silage making should be harvested or

wilted in field to attain a moisture level of65-75% (25-35% DM).

ii) Harvested fodder can be ensiled as such or chopped. But the silage
crops are usually chopped into fairly small pieces (2.5-5 cm). Chopping
facilitates good packaging of fodder and handling of silage thereafter.

ill) The chopped fodder are compactly packed inside the silo/ trench and
sealed off from the outer atmosphere.

iv) Ensure even distribution of chopped fodder in the pit/ trench. Press
(trample) the chopped material either by feet or with a tractor or bullocks
as per the size of pit to exclude air as much as possible. Pack the
fodder up to I meter (3-4 feets) at the top of silo or above ground
level of pit.

v) Every Yz meter thick layer of chaffed fodder is to be regularly pressed

(trampled).

VI) Cover the fodder with 14 - 15 cm thick layer ofkarbi or wheat busha/
paddy straw from all sides. Put mud on it and finally plaster it to seal
the material preventing the entry of air and water. See that the silo is
completely air tight.

vii) Alternatively, a plastic sheet may also be used to cover the packed
fodder. Edge of the sheet may be sealed by mud plastering.

viii) Keep occasional watch and if there is any crack or hole plug it
immediately. Silage would be ready within 45 days.

ix) Ground shelled corn, cane molasses, limestone, urea and various
commercial preparations are sometimes added to reduce fermentation
losses. Salt and urea are added @ 0.5 and 1%, respectively to cereals
and grasses to improve their palatability and nitrogen content. In grass
silage, molasses are added at 3.0-3.5% to improve the sugar content.

x) Open the silo pit from one end only and take \J..:t the required quantity,
54 while the remaining silage is kept covered.
Note: One m' of silage weighs 650 kg. The forage crop from 0.3 hectare in Feed Processing and
a circular silo 3m diameter and 2.5 m depth is enough to feed 5 animals Fodder Conservation

@ 20 kg/day for 150 days. If crops low in carbohydrates is used for

silage making, then molasses or whey is added to encourage acid
production by fermentation.

f) Feeding and Storage

Initially, for few days, animals may not like the taste of silage. Help them to
develop the taste by mixing 5-10 kg of silage in their green fodder ration for the
first week. Once the taste is developed, 20-34 kg of silage along with other
fodders may be fed per head! day. The silo pit has to be filled within a short time
assuring every step like chaffing, packing, sealing etc. Air tight silo will only assure
a better quality. When opening for feeding, it has to be opened from one side and
closed immediately.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) Define silage?

2) Name two crops best suited for silage making.

3) In grass silage, _ is added at 3.0-3.5% to improve the sugar

content.

7.6 LET US SUM UP

• Silage and hay making are some of the ways to provide quality feed to
animals during the lean periods.

• The processing of feed improves starch availability and protein utilization,

eliminates anti-nutritional factors, ensures preservation of nutrients in feed
and improves appearance and palatability of feed. Some of the common
feed!fodder processing techniques are chopping of green fodder, grinding,
mixing and pelleting.

• Fodder can be preserved as Straw, Stover, Hay and Silage. The most
prevalent method of keeping the excess forage for use is by drying and
stacking known as hay. 55
Livestock Feeding and • Crops with thin, soft and pliable stem are more suitable and convenient for
Pasture Management
hay making. Thin-stemmed crops like lucerne, oats and grasses are suited
for hay making. Two main factors affecting the hay making are season and
stage of crop maturity. Field drying-curing method is commonly practiced
method of hay making in India. The steps in hay making process are
Harvesting, Wilting, further drying and storage.

• Silage is the fermented product of green forages where the acids produced
by anaerobic fermentation of the sugars present in these forages preserve
them. Maize and Sweet sorghum are the best suited crops for silage making.
The forage crop from 0.3 hectare in a circular silo 3m diameter and 2.5 m
depth is enough to feed 5 animals @ 20 kg/day for 150 days.

7.7 KEYWORDS
Ammoniation Treating or combining with ammonia (NH3).

Bleaching Paling in colour of hay take place when the

temperature during curing is too high or when
moisture content has not been kept low enough.
The green colour of the hay is more or less
proportional to the carotene content. Hence,
bleaching means loss of nutrients.

Bunker A large storage container.

Curing A slow extended drying process for preserving a

product ego grass, crop residues.

/
I Degradation A decline to a lower condition, quality, or level.

Forage Plant matter, fresh or preserved, gathered and fed

to animals.

Fermentation Under some conditions, there is loss of nutrients

during curing due to fermentation, producing
undesirable gases, bad odours or even a
spontaneous fire.

Fluffy Soft and light.

Heap A group of things placed one on top ofthe other.

Leaching The outflow of dissolved nutrients from hay or

silagedue to high moisture content or outside water
getting into them (rain).

Mow A stack or heap of grain or hay in a barn; a heap

or pile.

Piled To accumulate; A quantity of objects stacked or

thrown together in a heap; A large accumulation
or quantity.

Raked To scrape; scratch.

56
Shattering Process of leaves of fodder crops fallingoff during Feed Processing and
hay making, if drying is done too fast and the Fodder Conservation
material is handled roughly. Loss ofleaves means
loss of most nutrients.

Sliminess Like slime; offensively foul, covered with slime.

Stalks A stem or similar structure that supports a plant

part such as a flower, flower cluster, or leaf.

Swath A path or strip (as cut by one course of mowing).

Wilt To cause to droop or lose freshness.

7.8 SUGGESTED READING

Kundu, S.S., Mahanta, S.K., Sultan Singh and Pathak, P. S. 2005. Animal Feed
Technology, Satish Serial Publishing House, New Delhi.

Kundu, S.S., Mahanta, S.K., Sultan Singh and Pathak, P. S. 2005. Roughage
Processing Technology, Satish Serial Publishing House, New Delhi.

Ranjhan, S.K. 1980. Animal Nutrition in Tropics. Vikas Publishing House,

New Delhi.

Sastry, N.S.R. and Thomas, c.K. 2005. Livestock Production Management.

4th Revised Edition, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana-Delhi.

7.9 REFERENCES
Kundu, S.S., Mahanta, S.K., Sultan Singh and Pathak, P. S. 2005. Animal Feed
Technology, Satish Serial Publishing House, New Delhi.

Kundu, S.S., Mahanta, S.K., Sultan Singh and Pathak, P. S. 2005. Roughage
Processing Technology, Satish Serial Publishing House, New Delhi.

Ranjhan, S.K. 1980. Animal Nutrition in Tropics. Vikas Publishing House,

New Delhi.

Sastry, N.S.R. 1995. Livestock Sector of India: Regional Aspects. International

Book Distributing Company, Lucknow.

Sastry, N.S.R. and Thomas, C.K. 2005. Livestock Production Management.

4th Revised Edition, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana-Delhi.

7.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1

1) Processing of feed helps in:

• Improving starch availability and protein utilization;

• Eliminating or inactivating the anti-nutritional factors in feed ingredients;

57
Livestock Feeding and • Ensuring preservation of nutrients in feed; and
Pasture Management
• Improving appearance and palatability of feed.

2) Pelleting is commonly practiced now-a-days which uses mixed rations, hay

or concentrates. It is not only cost effective; it also increases feed intake,
prevents feed wastage and saves storage space.

3) Fodder could be preserved by sun drying (Hay), in artificial driers and in

airtight chambers (Silage). Podder can be preserved as Straw, Stover, Hay
and Silage.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Grasslands, grazing lands and pastures are rarely able to provide adequate
year round feed to support higher livestock production. Therefore,
supplementation offorages or crop residues such as hay is unavoidable to
achieve the desired animal production. The major objective of making hay
is to meet the challenge of forage deficit during the lean periods.

2) Two main factors affecting the hay making are season and stage of crop
maturity.

3) The steps in Hay making process are Harvesting, WIlting, further drying and
storage.

4) Lucerne, Oats are the best crops suited for hay making.

Check Your Progress 3

I) Silage is the fermented product of green forages where the acids produced
by anaerobic fermentation of the sugars present in these forages preserve
them

2) Maize, Sweet sorghum are the best crops suited for silage making.

3) Mollases.

58