COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

MODULE - I

Overview of Computer Graphics System: Video Display Devices – Raster Scan Systems – Random – Scan Definition of Computer Graphics-Computer graphics can be a series of images which is most often called
Systems - Graphics Monitors and Workstations – Input Devices – Hardcopy Devices – Graphics Software. a video or single image. Computer graphics is the technology that concerns with designs and pictures
on computers. That’s why, computer graphics are visual representations of data shown on a monitor made
Overview of Computer Graphics System on a computer.

Computer graphics is commonly seen as a computer science branch that deals with the computerized image “Computer graphics is the use of a computer to define, store, manipulate, interrogate, and represent the
fusion theory and technology. As simple as a triangle outline, a computer-generated image may represent a pictorial output.” An image in computer graphics is made up of a number of pixels.
scene. The computer has become a powerful tool for producing images quickly and economically.

When a computer is used to create images, the same process is followed as creating images manually. The
process’s primary computational steps give a boost to several important computer graphics areas.

Also on computers, the term computer graphics covers almost everything. Here in the computer graphics
program’s classroom, we think of computer graphics as drawing images on machines, often known
as rendering. The images can be photos, sketches, animations, or pictures of items imagined. Or they may
be pictures, we cannot see directly, like internal body parts.

We have put a great deal of our time to develop how computer images can replicate real-world scenes. We
want objects on computers not only to look more real, but also their colors to be more realistic and how
different materials appear. We can call it “real synthesis of the image.”
Types of Computer Graphics
The term computer graphics has been used to define “almost everything on the computer, including text or
sound.” Generally, the term computer graphics refer to the following things: There are two kinds of computer graphics are–

 Computer representation and manipulation of image data.  Interactive Computer Graphics

 Various technologies for creating and manipulating images.  Non-Interactive Computer Graphics
 Computer graphics study is a sub-field of computer science that studies methods for digitally
incorporating and manipulating visual content. Interactive Computer Graphics

The next area of computer graphics that deals with the placement of a triangle is called transformation. In interactive computer graphics, users have some controls over the image, i.e., the user can make any
Here we can use matrices to get the mapping of a triangle in image space. We can also set up the changes to the image produced.
transformation matrix to control the location and orientation of the displayed image. We can also resize the
triangle. Interactive Computer Graphics involves computer-user two-way communication.

For Example:

 Ping-pong game.
 Drawing on touch screens.
 Display weather forecast or other moving charts/graphs on the screen.
 Animating pictures or graphics in movies.
 Graphics animation in video games.

Working of Interactive Computer Graphics

The modern display of graphics is very simple to build. It is composed of three components:

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
 Display controller or video controller
 Digital memory or frame buffer
 Television monitor For Example:

1. Display controller or video controller- It’s a Memory Buffer and TV Monitor interface. Its task is to  Screen savers.
pass Frame Buffer’s contents to the monitor. The display controller reads each continuous byte of Memory  Map representation of the data.
frame buffer data and converts 0’s and 1’s into appropriate video signals.  Graphic elements are used in the text, document, and PDF presentation.
 Static images are used in mobile applications and websites.
In today’s term, the display controller is recognized as a display card, and one of our choices can be a  Business graphics are used as brochures, business cards, menu of the hotel.
VGA(Video Graphics Array) card with a resolution of 640×480. Display Controller is also capable of
displaying the image in colors. Representation of graphics

2. Digital memory or frame buffer-This is a place where images and pictures are stored as an array (matrix We can represent the graphics by following two ways:
of 0 & 1, 0 represents darkness, and 1 represents image or picture). It is also called a frame buffer.
1. Raster (Bitmap) Graphics
In today’s term frame buffer is called V-RAM (video RAM), and it helps to store the image in bit form. It 2. Vector Graphics
helps to increase the speed of graphics.
1. Raster Graphics: In raster graphics, the image is presented as a rectangular grid of colored squares.
3. Television monitor- Monitor helps us to view the display, and they make use of CRT(Cathode ray tube)
technology. Raster images are also called bitmap images. Bitmap images are stored as the collection of small individual
dots called pixels.

Bitmap images require high resolution and anti-aliasing for a smooth appearance.

For example– Paint, Photoshop, etc.

2. Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, the image is represented in the form of continuous geometric
objects: line, curve, etc.

Vector images are not based on pixel pattern. They use mathematical formulas to draw line and curves. The
lines and curves can be combined to create an image.

For Example– PowerPoint, Corel Draw, etc.

Advantages

1. Superior Quality.
2. More accurate outcomes or products.
3. Increased Productivity.
4. Lower cost of development.
5. Increases the ability to understand information and interpret patterns significantly.

Non- Interactive Computer Graphics

Non-interactive computer graphics are also known as passive computer graphics. It is a type of computer
graphics in which the user has no control over the image. The photo is completely controlled by the
instructions of the program, not by the user.
Fig: Raster (Composition of Paths) Vector (Composition of Pixels)

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Difference between Raster and Vector Graphics:  Horizontal & Vertical Deflection Plates: These plates are used to guide the path of the electron
the beam. The plates produce an electromagnetic field that bends the electron beam through the area
as it travels.
Raster Graphics Vector Graphics
 Phosphorus-coated Screen: The phosphorus coated screen is used to produce bright spots when the
high-velocity electron beam hits it.
Raster images are the collection of the The Vector images are composed of
pixel. paths.
The main element of a video monitor is the Cathode Ray Tube CRT, shown in the following illustration.
Scan conversion is required. Scan Conversion is not required.
The operation of CRT is very simple −
Vector Graphics are more costly  The electron gun emits a beam of electrons cathode rays.
Raster Graphics are less costly.
compared to raster graphics.  The electron beam passes through focusing and deflection systems that direct it towards specified
positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
Raster image takes less space to store. Vector image takes more space.
 When the beam hits the screen, the phosphor emits a small spot of light at each position contacted
by the electron beam.
Raster graphics can draw mathematical Vector graphics can only draw
 It redraws the picture by directing the electron beam back over the same screen points quickly.
curves, polygons, and boundaries. continuous and smooth lines.

File Extension: .BMP, .TIF, .JPG etc. File Extension: .SVG, .PDF, .AI etc.

Computer graphics is an art of drawing pictures on computer screens with the help of programming. It
involves computations, creation, and manipulation of data. In other words, we can say that computer
graphics is a rendering tool for the generation and manipulation of images.

Video Display Devices

Cathode Ray Tube

CRT stands for Cathode ray tube. It is a technology which is used in traditional computer monitor and There are two ways Random scan and Raster scan by which we can display an object on the screen.
television.
Raster Scan
Cathode ray tube is a particular type of vacuum tube that displays images when an electron beam collides
on the radiant surface. In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a time from top to bottom.
As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of
The primary output device in a graphical system is the video monitor. illuminated spots.

Component of CRT: Picture definition is stored in memory area called the Refresh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This memory area
holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity values are then retrieved from the
 Electron Gun: The electron gun is made up of several elements, mainly a heating filament (heater) refresh buffer and “painted” on the screen one row scan line at a time as shown in the following illustration.
and a cathode.
Each screen point is referred to as a pixel picture element or pel. At the end of each scan line, the electron
The electron gun is a source of electrons focused on a narrow beam facing the CRT. beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin displaying the next scan line.

 Focusing & Accelerating Anodes: These anodes are used to produce a narrow and sharply focused
beam of electrons.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

 Cartography − Drawing maps.

 Weather Maps − Real-time mapping, symbolic representations.
 Satellite Imaging − Geodesic images.
 Photo Enhancement − Sharpening blurred photos.
 Medical imaging − MRIs, CAT scans, etc. - Non-invasive internal examination.
 Engineering drawings − mechanical, electrical, civil, etc. - Replacing the blueprints of the past.
 Typography − The use of character images in publishing - replacing the hard type of the past.
 Architecture − Construction plans, exterior sketches - replacing the blueprints and hand drawings
of the past.
 Art − Computers provide a new medium for artists.
 Training − Flight simulators, computer aided instruction, etc.
 Entertainment − Movies and games.
 Simulation and modeling − Replacing physical modeling and enactments
Random Scan /Vector Scan
Color CRT Monitor: It is similar to a CRT monitor.
In this technique, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the picture is to be drawn
rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as in raster scan. It is also called vector display, The basic idea behind the color CRT monitor is to combine three basic colors- Red, Green, and Blue. By
stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display. using these three colors, we can produce millions of different colors.

Picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in an area of memory referred to as the refresh The two basic color display producing techniques are:
display file. To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of commands in the display
file, drawing each component line in turn. After all the line-drawing commands are processed, the system 1. Beam–Penetration Method: It is used with a random scan monitor for displaying pictures. There are
cycles back to the first line command in the list. two phosphorus layers- Red and Green are coated inside the screen. The color shown depends on how
far the electron beam penetrates the phosphorus surface.
Random-scan displays are designed to draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each second.
A powerful electron beam penetrates the CRT, it passes through the red layer and excites the green layer
within. A beam with slow electrons excites only the red layer. A beam with the medium speed of electrons,
a mixture of red and green light is emitted to display two more colors- orange and yellow.

Application of Computer Graphics

Computer Graphics has numerous applications, some of which are listed below −
Advantages:
 Computer graphics user interfaces GUIs − A graphic, mouse-oriented paradigm which allows the
user to interact with a computer. 1. Better Resolution
 Business presentation graphics − "A picture is worth a thousand words". 2. Half cost
3. Inexpensive
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Disadvantages: Advantages:

1. Only four possible colors 1. Display a wider range picture.

2. Time Consuming 2. Display realistic images.
3. In-line arrangement of RGB color.
[Link]–Mask Method: It is used with a raster scan monitor for displaying pictures. It has more range
of color than the beam penetration method. It is used in television sets and monitors. Disadvantages:

Structure: Difficult to cover all three beams on the same hole.

Poor Resolution.
1. It has three phosphorus color dots at each position of the pixel.
Liquid crystal display (LCD): The LCD depends upon the light modulating properties of liquid crystals.
First Dot: Red color LCD is used in watches and portable computers. LCD requires an AC power supply instead of DC, so it is
Second Dot: Green color difficult to use it in circuits. It generally works on flat panel display technology. LCD consumes less power
Third Dot: Blue color than LED. The LCD screen uses the liquid crystal to turn pixels on or off. Liquid Crystals are a mixture of
solid and liquid. When the current flows inside it, its position changes into the desired color.
1. It has three different guns. Each for one color.
2. It has a metal screen or plate just before the phosphorus screen, named “Shadow-Mask.” For Example: TFT(Thin Film Transistor)
3. It also has a shadow grid just behind the phosphorus coated screen with tiny holes in a triangular
shape. Advantages:

Working: A Shadow Mask is a metal plate with tiny holes present inside a color monitor. 1. Produce a bright image
2. Energy efficient
A Shadow Mask directs the beam by consuming the electrons so that the beam hits only the desired point 3. Completely flat screen
and displays a resulting picture.
Disadvantages:
It has three different guns. These guns direct their beams to shadow mask, which allows them to pass. It is
a task of a shadow mask to direct the beam on its particular dot on the screen and produce a picture on the 1. Fixed aspect ratio & Resolution
screen. 2. Lower Contrast
3. More Expensive
A Shadow Mask can display a wider range of pictures than beam penetration.
Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED is a device which emits when current passes through it. It is a
semiconductor device. The size of the LED is small, so we can easily make any display unit by arranging a
large number of LEDs. LED consumes more power compared to LCD. LED is used on TV, smartphones,
motor vehicles, traffic light, etc. LEDs are powerful in structure, so they are capable of withstanding
mechanical pressure. LED also works at high temperatures.

Advantages:

1. The Intensity of light can be controlled.

2. Low operational Voltage.
3. Capable of handling the high temperature.

Disadvantages:

More Power Consuming than LCD.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Direct View Storage Tube (DVST): It is used to store the picture information as a charge distribution
behind the phosphor-coated [Link] are two guns used in DVST:

[Link] Gun: It is used to store the picture information.

[Link] / Secondary Gun: It is used to display a picture on the screen.

Advantages:

1. Wall Mounted
2. Slim
3. Wider angle

Advantages: Disadvantages:

1. Less Time Consuming 1. Phosphorus loses luminosity over time.

2. No Refreshing Required 2. It consumes more electricity than LCD.
3. High-Resolution 3. Large Size
4. Less Cost
3D Display: It is also called stereoscope display technology. This technology is capable of bringing depth
Disadvantages: perception to the viewer. It is used for 3D gaming and 3D TVs.

1. The specific part of the image cannot be erased. For Example: Fog Display, Holographic Display, Retina Display Etc.
2. They do not display color.
Advantages:
Plasma Display: It is a type of flat panel display which uses tiny plasma cells. It is also known as the Gas-
Discharge display.  Impressive Picture Quality
 High Definition
 Motion Communicates
Components of plasma display:

1. Anode: It is used to deliver a positive voltage. It also has the line wires. Disadvantage:
2. Cathode: It is used to provide negative voltage to gas cells. It also has fine wires.
3. Gas Plates: These plates work as capacitors. When we pass the voltage, the cell lights regularly.  Expensive
4. Fluorescent cells: It contains small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is passed to this neon gas. It  Binocular Fusion
emits light.
Input Devices

Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer −

 Keyboard
 Mouse
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Function Keys
 Joy Stick
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
 Light pen
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
 Track Ball
specific purpose.
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet Control keys
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR) 4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
 Optical Character Reader(OCR) Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
 Bar Code Reader Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Special Purpose Keys
Keyboard
5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the computer. The Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided
for performing additional functions.
Mouse

Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm
size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding
signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons.
A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter text
into the computer.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

[Link] Keys & Description

Typing Keys
Advantages
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
 Easy to use
same layout as that of typewriters.
 Not very expensive
Numeric Keypad  Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set Joystick
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators. Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick
having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The
joystick can be moved in all four directions.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be stored on
the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Light Pen
Digitizer
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a
signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can
be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its photocell
sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

Track Ball
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in
various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square. The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for
mixing music.
Scanner
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information
is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation. MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every
day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is
used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR
is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR) It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. Output Devices

An output device is a component of hardware or the main physical part of a computer that can be touched
and seen. An output device is an electromechanical device.

“The Computer gives instructions and data from input devices and processes it and returns the result
called as output.”

For Example: Printer, Plotter, Monitor, Projector etc.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code, and stores Printers:
the text on the system memory.
A printer is a peripheral device which is used to represent the graphics or text on paper. The quality is
Bar Code Readers measured by its resolution. The resolution of any printer is measured in dot per inch (dpi).

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar The printer usually works with the computer and connected via a cable. In present, many digital device
coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or support printer features so that we can use Bluetooth, Wi-fi, and cloud technology to print.
may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Types of Printers

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed to the
computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Some types of printers are:

 Impact Printers
 Non-impact Printers

Impact Printers
Advantages
In impact printers, there is a physical contact established between the print head, ribbon, ink-cartridge, and
paper.  Inexpensive
 Widely Used
The printers hit print head on an ink-filled ribbon than the letter prints on the paper. Impact printers are  Other language characters can be printed
works like a typewriter.
Disadvantages
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the paper.
 Slow Speed
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −  Poor Quality

 Very low consumable costs Daisy Wheel

 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower) which is why
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require
a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
These printers are of two types −

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
Advantages
These are further divided into two types:
 More reliable than DMP
 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
 Better quality
 Daisy Wheel
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
Dot Matrix Printer
Disadvantages
In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of
 Slower than DMP
their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of pattern of dots and head
 Noisy
consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character which is why
 More expensive than DMP
it is called Dot Matrix Printer.
Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a
time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

These are of two types −  Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers
 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Drum Printer  Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is divided into a  High quality
number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters,  Supports many fonts and different character size
drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different character sets available in the
market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers Laser Printers
are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters
Advantages to be printed on a page.

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may
have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Character fonts can easily be changed.  Very high quality output
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.  Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
 Noisy
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters
by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable
features.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series
of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are
capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available. Flat-Panel Display Monitor
Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.
The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power
Advantages requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current
uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, and graphics
 High quality printing display.
 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels. The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.  Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)  Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
 Flat-Panel Display some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor Plotters:

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the A plotter is a special type of output device. It is used to print large graphs, large designs on a large paper. For
image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character, such as the Example: Construction maps, engineering drawings, architectural plans, and business charts, etc.
letter ‘e’ in the word help.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Graphics Monitors and Workstations

It was invented by “Remington rand” in 1953.
Graphics Monitor:
It is similar to a printer, but it is used to print vector graphics. i).The name itself giving some idea that, Monitor which is capable of displaying “Graphics”. Generally most
of the Monitors support Text modes.
ii).So Monitors which are capable of showing and supporting Graphics mode along with the Text modes.
Types of Plotter

1. Flatbed Plotter: In a flatbed plotter, the paper is kept in a stationary position on a table or a tray. A
flatbed plotter has more than one pen and a holder. The pen rotates on the paper upside-down and
right-left by the using of a motor.

Every pen has a different color ink, which is used to draw the multicolor design.
We can quickly draw the following designs by using a flatbed printer.

For: Cars, Ships, Airplanes, Dress design, road and highway blueprints, etc.
iii).Graphic monitors who can display pictures on its screen, of course it acts like an output device. The
Advantages of Flatbed Plotter monitors which support the following Graphic applications are said to be Graphic Monitors.

The Graphics Applications include,

1. Larger size paper can be used
A).Animation Software’s
2. Drawing Quality is similar to an expert
B).CAD Software’s
C).Drawing programs
Disadvantages of Flatbed Plotter D).Paint Application programs
E).Presentation Graphics Software’s (Excel likewise, creating pie and bar charts)
1. Slower than printers F).Desktop publishing (MS Office, Share points, Document managements)
2. More Expensive than printers So by now, you might have got an Idea of what is Graphic Monitor Actually is??
3. Do not produce high-Quality text printouts
Workstation:
2. Drum Plotter: It is also called “Roller plotter.” There is a drum in this plotter. We can apply the paper
on the drum. When the plotter works, these drums moves back and forth, and the image is drawn. i).Workstation is also a computer which varies generally with other General Computers
ii).Because these Workstations need good operating power of computer. They must be able to support high
Drum plotter has more than one pen and penholders. The pens easily moves right to left and left to right.
The movement of pens and drums are controlled by graph plotting [Link] is used in industry to produce power i.e. it must sustain good graphic capabilities.
large drawings (up to A0). iii).These kind of computers comes with the following specifications. Unlike normal general computers they

Advantages of Drum Plotter consists of,

A).Minimum of 64 Megabytes of RAM
1. Draw Larger Size image
B).Very good Resolution Graphics screen
2. We can print unlimited length of the image
C).High and Large Screen
Disadvantages of Drum Plotter D).GUI Graphical User Interface (which helps programs easier to use of the Computer’s Graphics)

1. Very costly E).Very good Mass storage Device like Disk Drive
F).Built-in Network Support and many factors
iv) We may also notice that, some of the workstations do not have any disk drives in it. So these kind of
disk drives are called as Diskless workstation.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

v) Workstations took place of and they lie between Personal computer (General Computers) and If coordinate values for a picture are specified is some other reference frame they must be converted
minicomputers as far as Computing power is concerned. to Cartesian coordinate before giving input to graphics package.

vi) These can be used as both types such as stand system (which only consists of one) and Local area Special-purpose package may allow use of other coordinates which suits application.
network. So basically in this LAN kind, workstations are typically connected together one and other. In general several different Cartesian reference frames are used to construct and display scene.
We can construct shape of object with separate coordinate system called modeling coordinates or
Operating Systems for Workstations: sometimes local coordinates or master coordinates.
The most generally used common operating systems are, Once individual object shapes have been specified we can place the objects into appropriate
positions called world coordinates.
UNIX:
UNIX is a multitasking operating system. Unix Operating System are to be written in High level Finally the World-coordinates description of the scene is transferred to one or more output device
reference frame for display. These display coordinates system are referred to as “Device
programming language, which we can simply say C language. This Unix Operating System is with very Coordinates” or “Screen Coordinates”.
flexible and so most commonly used in Workstations.
Generally a graphic system first converts the world-coordinates position to normalized device
Windows NT: coordinates. In the range from 0 to 1 before final conversion to specific device coordinates.
Windows NT is also referred as Windows New Technology. It is also a most commonly used Operating An initial modeling coordinates position ( Xmc,Ymc) in this illustration is transferred to a device
system for workstations. This Windows NT highly supports multitasking works and Windows NT has its
Xdc,Ydc).
other versions are such as Windows NT Server and Windows NT Workstation.
Graphic Function
Graphics software and standard
A general purpose graphics package provides user with Varity of function for creating and
There are mainly two types of graphics software: manipulating pictures.
1. General programming package The basic building blocks for pictures are referred to as output primitives. They includes character,
2. Special-purpose application package string, and geometry entities such as point, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas and shapes
defined with arrays of color points.
General programming package
Input functions are used for control & process the various input device such as mouse, tablet, etc.
A general programming package provides an extensive set of graphics function that can be used in
high level programming language such as C or FORTRAN. Control operations are used to controlling and housekeeping tasks such as clearing display screen
etc.
It includes basic drawing element shape like line, curves, polygon, color of element transformation
etc. All such inbuilt function which we can use for our purpose are known as graphics function

Example: - GL (Graphics Library). Software Standard

Special-purpose application package Primary goal of standardize graphics software is portability so that it can be used in any hardware
systems & avoid rewriting of software program for different system
Special-purpose application package are customize for particular application which implement
required facility and provides interface so that user need not to vory about how it will work Some of these standards are discuss below
(programming). User can simply use it by interfacing with application. Graphical Kernel System (GKS)
Example: - CAD, medical and business systems. This system was adopted as a first graphics software standard by the international standard
Coordinate representations organization (ISO) and various national standard organizations including ANSI.

Except few all other general packages are designed to be used with Cartesian coordinate GKS was originally designed as the two dimensional graphics package and then later extension was
specifications. developed for three dimensions.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
MODULE - II
PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic Standard)
Output Primitives: Line Drawing Algorithms – Loading the Frame Buffer – Line Function – Circle –
PHIGS is extension of GKS. Increased capability for object modeling, color specifications, surface Generating Algorithms - Attributes of Output Primitives: Line Attributes – Curve Attributes – Color and
rendering, and picture manipulation are provided in PHIGS. Gray scale levels– Area fill Attributes – Character Attributes – Bundled Attributes – Inquiry Functions.

Extension of PHIGS called “PHIGS+” was developed to provide three dimensional surface shading Output Primitives
capabilities not available in PHIGS.
Points and Lines

Point plotting is done by converting a single coordinate position furnished by an application program into
appropriate operations for the output device in use.
Line drawing is done by calculating intermediate positions along the line path between two specified
endpoint positions.
The output device is then directed to fill in those positions between the end points with some color.
For some device such as a pen plotter or random scan display, a straight line can be drawn smoothly from one
end point to other.
Digital devices display a straight line segment by plotting discrete points between the two endpoints.
Discrete coordinate positions along the line path are calculated from the equation of the line.
For a raster video display, the line intensity is loaded in frame buffer at the corresponding pixel positions.
Reading from the frame buffer, the video controller then plots the screen pixels.
Screen locations are referenced with integer values, so plotted positions may only approximate actual line
positions between two specified endpoints.
For example line position of (12.36, 23.87) would be converted to pixel position (12, 24).
This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be displayed with a stair step appearance

(“the jaggies”), as represented in fig 2.1.

Fig. 2.1: - Stair step effect produced when line is generated as a series of pixel positions.

The stair step shape is noticeable in low resolution system, and we can improve their appearance somewhat
by displaying them on high resolution system.
More effective techniques for smoothing raster lines are based on adjusting pixel intensities along the line
paths.
For raster graphics device-level algorithms discuss here, object positions are specified directly in integer
device coordinates.
Pixel position will referenced according to scan-line number and column number which is illustrated by
following figure.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 2.2: - Pixel positions referenced by scan-line number and column number.

 To load the specified color into the frame buffer at a particular position, we will assume we have
available low-level procedure of the form 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦)
Let us assume we have two points of the line (p1, q1) and (p2, q2).
 Similarly for retrieve the current frame buffer intensity we assume to have procedure 𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥(𝑥, 𝑦).
Now, we will put values of the two points in straight line equation, and we get
y = mx + a
Line Drawing Algorithms q2 = mp2 …(1)
q1 = mp1 + a …(2)
The Line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm which is used to represent the line segment on discrete
graphical media, i.e., printer and pixel-based media. We have from equation (1) and (2)
q2 – q1 = mp2 – mp1
A line contains two points. The point is an important element of a line. q2 – q1 = m (p2 –p1)
The value of m = (q2 – q1)/ (p2 –p1)
Properties of a Line Drawing Algorithm m = ▲q / ▲p

There are the following properties of a good Line Drawing Algorithm. Algorithms of Line Drawing

 An algorithm should be precise: Each step of the algorithm must be adequately defined. There are following algorithms used for drawing a line:
 Finiteness: An algorithm must contain finiteness. It means the algorithm stops after the execution of all
steps.  DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) Line Drawing Algorithm
 Easy to understand: An algorithm must help learners to understand the solution in a more natural way.  Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm
 Correctness: An algorithm must be in the correct manner.  Mid-Point Line Drawing Algorith
 Effectiveness: The steps of an algorithm must be valid and efficient.
 Uniqueness: All steps of an algorithm should be clearly and uniquely defined, and the result should be DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) Line Drawing Algorithm
based on the given input.
 Input: A good algorithm must accept at least one or more input. The Digital Differential Analyzer helps us to interpolate the variables on an interval from one point to another point.
 Output: An algorithm must generate at least one output.
We can use the digital Differential Analyzer algorithm to perform rasterization on polygons, lines, and triangles.
Equation of the straight line
Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm is also known as an incremental method of scan conversion. In this
algorithm, we can perform the calculation in a step by step manner. We use the previous step result in the next step.
We can define a straight line with the help of the following equation.
y= mx + a
Where, As we know the general equation of the straight line is:
(x, y) = axis of the line. y = mx + c
m = Slope of the line.
a = Interception point Here, m is the slope of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
m = (y2 – y1)/ (x2 – x1)

Now, we consider one point (xk, yk) and (xk+1, yk+1) as the next point.
Then the slope m = (yk+1 – yk)/ (xk+1 – xk)

Now, we have to find the slope between the starting point and ending point. There can be following three cases to
discuss:

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Step 3: We get m = 1, Third case is satisfied.

Case 1: If m < 1 Now move to next step.
Then x coordinate tends to the Unit interval.
xk+1 = xk + 1
yk+1 = yk + m xk yk xk+1 yk+1 (xk+1, yk+1)
Case 2: If m > 1
Then y coordinate tends to the Unit interval. 1 7 2 8 (2, 8)
yk+1 = yk + 1
xk+1 = xk + 1/m 3 9 (3, 9)
Case 3: If m = 1
Then x and y coordinate tend to the Unit interval. 4 10 (4, 10)
xk+1 = xk + 1
yk+1 = yk + 1 5 11 (5, 11)
We can calculate all intermediate points with the help of above three discussed cases.
6 12 (6, 12)
Algorithm of Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) Line Drawing
7 13 (7, 13)
Step 1: Start.
Step 2: We consider Starting point as (x1, y1), and endingpoint (x2, y2).
Step 3: Now, we have to calculate ▲x and ▲y. 8 14 (8, 14)
▲x = x2-x1
▲y = y2-y1 9 15 (9, 15)
m = ▲y/▲x
Step 4: Now, we calculate three cases. 10 16 (10, 16)
If m < 1
Then x change in Unit Interval 11 17 (11, 17)
y moves with deviation
(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1, yk+1)
If m > 1 Step 4: We will repeat step 3 until we get the endpoints of the line.
Then x moves with deviation Step 5: Stop.
y change in Unit Interval
(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1/m, yk+1/m)
If m = 1
Then x moves in Unit Interval
y moves in Unit Interval
(xk+1, yk+1) = (xk+1, yk+1)
Step 5: We will repeat step 4 until we find the ending point of the line.
Step 6: Stop.

Example: A line has a starting point (1,7) and ending point (11,17). Apply the Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm
to plot a line.

Solution: We have two coordinates,

Starting Point = (x1, y1) = (1,7)
Ending Point = (x2, y2) = (11,17) The coordinates of drawn line are-
P1 = (2, 8)
Step 1: First, we calculate ▲x, ▲y and m. P2 = (3, 9)
▲x = x2 – x1 = 11-1 = 10 P3 = (4, 10)
▲y = y2 – y1 = 17-7 = 10 P4 = (5, 11)
m = ▲y/▲x = 10/10 = 1 P5 = (6, 12)
Step 2: Now, we calculate the number of steps. P6 = (7, 13)
▲x = ▲y = 10 P7 = (8, 14)
Then, the number of steps = 10 P8 = (9, 15)
P9 = (10, 16)
P10 = (11, 17)
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

y = m (xk+1) +b – yk
Advantages of Digital Differential Analyzer
Now, we again put the value of y in the previous equation then we got,
 It is a simple algorithm to implement. d2 = yk+1 – y
 It is a faster algorithm than the direct line equation. = yk + 1 – m (xk+1) – b
 We cannot use the multiplication method in Digital Differential Analyzer.
 Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm tells us about the overflow of the point when the point changes its Now, we calculate the difference between d1 – d2
location. If d1 < d2
Then yk+1 = yk {we will choose the lower pixel as shown in figure}
Disadvantages of Digital Differential Analyzer If d1 => d2
Then yk+1 = yk+1 {we will choose the upper pixel as shown in figure}
 The floating-point arithmetic implementation of the Digital Differential Analyzer is time-consuming.
 The method of round-off is also time-consuming. Now, we calculate the values of d1 – d2
 Sometimes the point position is not accurate. (d1 – d2)= m (xk+1) +b – yk – yk – 1 + m (xk+1) + b

Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm We simplified the above equation and replaced the m with ▲y/▲x.
(d1 – d2) = 2 m (xk+1) -2yk + 2b-1
This algorithm was introduced by “Jack Elton Bresenham” in 1962. This algorithm helps us to perform scan
conversion of a line. It is a powerful, useful, and accurate method. We use incremental integer calculations to draw a We multiplied ▲x at both side then we got,
line. The integer calculations include addition, subtraction, and multiplication. ▲x (d1 – d2) = ▲x (2m (xk+1) -2yk + 2b-1)

In Bresenham’s Line Drawing algorithm, we have to calculate the slope (m) between the starting point and the ending We consider ▲x (d1 – d2) as a decision parameter (Pk), so
point. pk = ▲x (d1 – d2)

After calculation we got,

Pk = 2▲yxk + 2▲y – 2▲xyk +▲x (2b-1)

Then, the next coordinate of pk

pk+1 = 2▲yxk+1 + 2▲y – 2▲xyk+1 +▲x (2b-1)

Now, the difference between pk+1 – pk then,

pk+1 – pk = 2▲y (xk+1-xk) – 2▲x (yk+1-yk)
pk+1 = pk + 2▲y (xk+1-xk) – 2▲x (yk+1-yk) {Decision parameter coordinate}

Now, we put the value of xk+1 in above equation then we got,

pk+1 = pk + 2▲y – 2▲x (yk+1 – yk) {New decision parameter when m <1}

Similarly, if m >1, the new decision parameter for next coordinate will be
pk+1 = pk + 2▲y – 2▲x (xk+1 – xk) {New decision parameter when m >1}
If pk >= 0 {For coordinate y}
Then,
As shown in the above figure let, we have initial coordinates of a line = (xk, yk). The next coordinates of a line = (xk+1,
yk+1 = yk+1 {We will choose the nearest yk+1 pixel}
yk+1). The intersection point between yk and yk+1 = y. Let we assume that the distance between y and yk = d1. The
distance between y and yk+1 = d2. Now, we have to decide which point is nearest to the intersection point. The next coordinate will be (xk+1, yk+1)
If m < 1 then x = xk+1 { Unit Interval} If pk < 0
y = yk+1 { Unit Interval} Then,
As we know the equation of a line-
yk+1 = yk {We will choose the nearest yk pixel}
y = mx +b
Now we put the value of x into the line equation, then The next coordinate will be (xk+1, yk)
y = m(xk+1) +b …………. (1) Similarly,
The value of d1 = y – yk
If pk >= 0 {For coordinate x}
Now we put the value of d1 in equation (1).
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Then, If pk >= 0 Then Case 2 is satisfied.

xk+1 = xk+1 {We will choose the nearest xk+1 pixel}
Thus
The next coordinate will be (xk+1, yk+1) pk+1 = pk +2▲y-2▲x =3+ (2 x 4) – (2 x 5) = 1
If pk < 0 xk+1 =xk +1 = 9 + 1 = 10
yk+1 =yk +1 = 18 +1 = 19
Then,
xk+1 = xk {We will choose the nearest xk pixel}
Step 4: Now move to next step. We will calculate the coordinates until we reach the end point of the line.
The next coordinate will be (xk, yk+1) ▲x -1 = 5 – 1 = 4

pk pk+1 xk+1 yk+1

Algorithm of Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm
9 18
Step 1: Start.
Step 2: Now, we consider Starting point as (x1, y1) and ending point (x2, y2).
Step 3: Now, we have to calculate ▲x and ▲y. 3 1 10 19
▲x = x2-x1
▲y = y2-y1 1 -1 11 20
m = ▲y/▲x
Step 4: Now, we will calculate the decision parameter pk with following formula. -1 7 12 20
pk = 2▲y-▲x
Step 5: The initial coordinates of the line are (xk, yk), and the next coordinates are (xk+1, yk+1). Now, we are going to 7 5 13 21
calculate two cases for decision parameter pk
Case 1: If 5 3 14 22
pk < 0
Then Step 5: Stop.
pk+1 =pk +2▲y
xk+1 = xk +1
yk+1 = yk
Case 2: If
pk >= 0
Then
pk+1 =pk +2▲y-2▲x
xk+1 =xk +1
yk+1 =yk +1
Step 6: We will repeat step 5 until we found the ending point of the line and the total number of iterations =▲x-1.
Step 7: Stop.

Example: A line has a starting point (9,18) and ending point (14,22). Apply the Bresenham’s Line Drawing algorithm
to plot a line.

Solution: We have two coordinates,

Starting Point = (x1, y1) = (9,18) The Coordinates of drawn lines are-
Ending Point = (x2, y2) = (14,22) P1 = (9, 18)
P2 = (10, 19)
Step 1: First, we calculate ▲x, ▲y. P3 = (11, 20)
▲x = x2 – x1 = 14-9 = 5 P4 = (12, 20)
▲y = y2 – y1 = 22-18 = 4 P5 = (13, 21)
Step 2: Now, we are going to calculate the decision parameter (pk) P6 = (14, 22)
pk = 2▲y-▲x
=2x4–5=3 Advantages of Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm
The value of pk = 3
Step 3: Now, we will check both the cases.  It is simple to implement because it only contains integers.
 It is quick and incremental
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
 It is fast to apply but not faster than the Digital Differential Analyzer (DDA) algorithm.
 The pointing accuracy is higher than the DDA algorithm.
Algorithm
Disadvantages of Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm
Step 1 − Get the coordinates of the center of the circle and radius, and store them in x, y, and R respectively.
 The Bresenham’s Line drawing algorithm only helps to draw the basic line. Set P=0 and Q=R.
 The resulted draw line is not smooth.
Step 2 − Set decision parameter D = 3 – 2R.
Circle generating algorithm Step 3 − Repeat through step-8 while P ≤ Q.
Drawing a circle on the screen is a little complex than drawing a line. There are two popular algorithms for
generating a circle − Bresenham’s Algorithm and Midpoint Circle Algorithm. These algorithms are
based on the idea of determining the subsequent points required to draw the circle. Let us discuss the Step 4 − Call Draw Circle X,Y,P,QX,Y,P,Q.
algorithms in detail − Step 5 − Increment the value of P.
The equation of circle is X2+Y2=r2,X2+Y2=r2, where r is radius. Step 6 − If D < 0 then D = D + 4P + 6.
Step 7 − Else Set R = R - 1, D = D + 4P−QP−Q + 10.
Step 8 − Call Draw Circle X,Y,P,QX,Y,P,Q.

Draw Circle Method(X, Y, P, Q).

Call Putpixel (X + P, Y + Q).

Call Putpixel (X - P, Y + Q).
Call Putpixel (X + P, Y - Q).
Call Putpixel (X - P, Y - Q).
Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y + P).
Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y + P).
Call Putpixel (X + Q, Y - P).
Bresenham’s Algorithm Call Putpixel (X - Q, Y - P).

We cannot display a continuous arc on the raster display. Instead, we have to choose the nearest pixel Mid Point Algorithm
position to complete the arc.
Step 1 − Input radius r and circle center (xc,yc)(xc,yc) and obtain the first point on the circumference of
From the following illustration, you can see that we have put the pixel at X,YX,Y location and now need the circle centered on the origin as
to decide where to put the next pixel − at N X+1,YX+1,Y or at S X+1,Y−1X+1,Y−1. (x0, y0) = (0, r)
Step 2 − Calculate the initial value of decision parameter as
P0P0 = 5/4 – r
See the following description for simplification of this equation.
f(x, y) = x2 + y2 - r2 = 0

f(xi - 1/2 + e, yi + 1)
= (xi - 1/2 + e)2 + (yi + 1)2 - r2
= (xi- 1/2)2 + (yi + 1)2 - r2 + 2(xi - 1/2)e + e2
= f(xi - 1/2, yi + 1) + 2(xi - 1/2)e + e2 = 0

This can be decided by the decision parameter d.

 If d <= 0, then NX+1,YX+1,Y is to be chosen as next pixel.

 If d > 0, then SX+1,Y−1X+1,Y−1 is to be chosen as the next pixel.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Attributes of output primitives

Attributes
The features or characteristics of an output primitive are known as Attribute. In other words,
any parameter that affects the way a primitive is to be displayed is known as Attribute. Some
attributes, such as colour and size, are basic characteristics of primitive. Some attributes
control the basic display properties of primitives. For example, lines can be dotted or dashed,
thin or thick. Areas can be filled with one colour or with multiple colours pattern. Text can
appear from left to right, slanted or vertical.

Let di = f(xi - 1/2, yi + 1) = -2(xi - 1/2)e - e2 Line Attributes:

Thus,
Basic attributes of a straight line are its type, its width, and its colour. In some graphics packages, line
If e < 0 then di > 0 so choose point S = (xi - 1, yi + 1). can also be displayed using selected pen or brush options.
di+1 = f(xi - 1 - 1/2, yi + 1 + 1) = ((xi - 1/2) - 1)2 + ((yi + 1) + 1)2 - r2
= di - 2(xi - 1) + 2(yi + 1) + 1 1. Line Type: The line type attribute includes solid lines, dashed lines, and dotted lines. We
= di + 2(yi + 1 - xi + 1) + 1 modify the line drawing algorithm to generate such lines by setting the length and space. A
dashed line could be displayed by generating spaces that is equal to length of solid part. A
If e >= 0 then di <= 0 so choose point T = (xi, yi + 1) dotted line can be displayed by generating very short dashes with spacing equal to or greater
di+1 = f(xi - 1/2, yi + 1 + 1) than the dash size. Similar methods are used to produce other line-type variations.
= di + 2yi+1 + 1
Raster line-algorithms displays line type attribute by plotting pixels. For various dashed,
The initial value of di is dotted patterns, the line-drawing algorithms outputs part of pixels followed by spaces. Plotting
d0 = f(r - 1/2, 0 + 1) = (r - 1/2)2 + 12 - r2 dashes with a fixed number of pixels results in unequal-length dashes for different line angles.
= 5/4 - r {1-r can be used if r is an integer}
For example, the length of dash diagonally is more than horizontal dash for same number of
When point S = (xi - 1, yi + 1) is chosen then pixels. For precision drawings, dash length should remain approximately same for any line
di+1 = di + -2xi+1 + 2yi+1 + 1 angle. For this, we can adjust the pixel number according to line slope.

When point T = (xi, yi + 1) is chosen then 2. Line Width: A line with more width can be displayed as parallel lines on a video monitor.
di+1 = di + 2yi+1 + 1 In raster lines, a standard width line is generated with single pixels at each point. Width lines
are displayed by plotting additional pixels along next parallel line paths. For lines with slope
less than 1, we can display thick lines by plotting a vertical length of pixels at each x position
Step 3 − At each XKXK position starting at K=0, perform the following test − along the line. Similarly, for lines with slope greater than 1, we can plot thick lines with
If PK < 0 then next point on circle (0,0) is (XK+1,YK) and horizontal widths for each point.
PK+1 = PK + 2XK+1 + 1
Else The problem with implementing width options using horizontal and vertical pixel widths is
PK+1 = PK + 2XK+1 + 1 – 2YK+1 that the width of line is depended on the slope. A 45-degree line will be displayed thinner as
compared to vertical or horizontal line plotted with same number of pixel widths.
Where, 2XK+1 = 2XK+2 and 2YK+1 = 2YK-2.
Step 4 − Determine the symmetry points in other seven octants.
Step 5 − Move each calculate pixel position X,YX,Y onto the circular path centered
on (XC,YC)(XC,YC) and plot the coordinate values.
X = X + XC, Y = Y + YC
Step 6 − Repeat step-3 through 5 until X >= Y.
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Line without Joins Bevel Join

Miter Join Round Join

3. Pen and Brush Options: In some graphic packages, lines can be displayed with pen or
brush selection. Options in this category include shape, size and pattern. These shapes are
stored in a Pixel Mask that identifies the pixel positions that are to be set along the line path.
Lines generated with pen or brush shaped can be displayed in various widths by changing the
Another problem is that it produces lines whose ends are either horizontal or vertical. We
size of the mask. Lines can also be displayed with selected patterns.
can adjust the shape of the line ends by adding Line Caps.

One kind of line cap is the Butt Cap. It is obtained by adjusting the end positions of lines so
that the thick line is displayed with square ends that are perpendicular to the line. Another line
cap is the Round Cap obtained by adding a filled semicircle to each butt cap. The semicircle
has diameter equal to thickness of line. The third type of line cap is the Projecting Square Cap.
Here, the butt cap is extended to half of line width.

(a) (b) (c)

Thick Lines drawn with (a) Butt Cap (b) Round Cap and (c) Projecting Square Cap 4. Line Colour: A system displays a line in the current colour by setting the colour value in
the frame buffer at pixel locations. The number of colour choices depends on the number of
Generating thick connected line segments require other considerations. The methods that we bits available per pixel in the frame buffer. A line drawn in the background colour is invisible.
have considered for displaying thick lines will not produce smoothly connected line segments. COLOR AND GRAYSCALE LEVELS
It leaves gaps at the boundaries between lines of different slope. There are three possible
methods for smoothly joining two line segments. A Miter Join is obtained by extending the Various color and intensity-level options can be made available to a user, depending on the capabilities
outer boundaries of each of the two lines until they meet. A Round Join is produced by covering and design objectives of a particular system. General purpose raster-scan systems, for example, usually
the connection between the two segments with a circular boundary whose diameter is equal to provide a wide range of colors, while random-scan monitors typically offer only a few color choices, if
the line width. A Bevel Join is generated by displaying the line with butt caps and filling in any. Color options are numerically coded with values ranging from 0 through the positive integers. For
the triangular gap where the segments meet. CRT monitors, these color codes are then converted to intensity level settings for the electron beams. With
color plotters, the codes could control ink-jet deposits or pen selections.

In a color raster system, the number of color choices available depends on the amount of storage provided
per pixel in the frame buffer. Also, color-information can be stored in the frame buffer in two ways: We
can store color codes directly in the frame buffer, or we can put the color codes in a separate table and use
pixel values as an index into this table. With the direct storage scheme, whenever a particular color code

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

is specified in an application program, the corresponding binary value is placed in the frame buffer for
each-component pixel in the output primitives to be displayed in that color. A minimum number of colors
can be provided in the scheme with 3 bits of storage per pixel, as shown in Table. Each of the three bit
positions is used to control the intensity level (either on or off) of the corresponding electron gun in an
RGB monitor. The leftmost bit controls the red gun, the middle bit controls the green gun, and the
rightmost bit controls the blue gun. Adding more bits per pixel to the frame buffer increases the number
of color choices. With 6 bits per pixel, 2 bits can be used for each gun. This allows four different intensity
settings for each of the three color guns, and a total of 64 color values are available for each screen pixel.
With a resolution of 1024 by 1024, a full-color (24bit per pixel) RGB system needs 3 megabytes of storage
for the frame buffer. Color tables are an alternate means for providing extended color capabilities to a user
without requiring large frame buffers. Lower-cost personal computer systems, in particular, often use color
tables to reduce frame-buffer storage requirements.
COLOR TABLES (Fig: 2:1, Color Lookup Table)
Figure 2.1 illustrates a possible scheme for storing color values in a color lookup table (or video lookup There are several advantages in storing color codes in a lookup table. Use of a color table can provide a
table), where frame-buffer values are now used as indices into the color table. In this example, each pixel "reasonable" number of simultaneous colors without requiring large frame buffers. For most applications,
can reference any one of the 256 table positions, and each entry in the table uses 24 bits to specify an RGB 256 or 512 different colors are sufficient for a single picture. Also, table entries can be changed at any
color. For the color code 2081, a combination green-blue color is displayed for pixel location (x, y). time, allowing a user to be able to experiment easily with different color combinations in a design, scene,
Systems employing this particular lookup table would allow a user to select any 256 colors for or graph without changing the attribute settings for the graphics data structure. Similarly, visualization
simultaneous display from a palette of nearly 17 million colors. Compared to a full color system, this applications can store values for some physical quantity, such as energy, in There are several advantages
scheme reduces the number of simultaneous colors that can be displayed, in storing color codes in a lookup table. Use of a color table can provide a "reasonable" number of
but it also reduces the frame buffer storage requirements to 1 megabyte. Some graphics systems provide simultaneous colors without requiring large frame buffers. For most applications, 256 or 512 different
9 bits per pixel in the frame buffer, permitting a user to select 512 colors that could be used in each display. colors are sufficient for a single picture. Also, table entries can be changed at any time, allowing a user to
be able to experiment easily with different color combinations in a design, scene, or graph without
changing the attribute settings for the graphics data structure. Similarly, visualization applications can
store values for some physical quantity, such as energy, in the frame buffer and use a lookup table to try
out various color encodings without changing the pixel values. And in visualization and image-processing
applications, color tables are a convenient means or setting color thresholds so that all pixel values above
or below a specified threshold can be set to the same color. For these reasons, some systems provide both
capabilities for color-code storage, so that a user can elect either to use color tables or to store color codes
directly in the frame buffer.

GRAYSCALE
With monitors that have no color capability, color functions can be used in an application program to set
the shades of gray, or grayscale, for displayed primitives. Numeric values over the range from 0 to 1 can
be used to specify grayscale levels, which are then converted to appropriate binary codes for storage in the
raster. This allows the intensity settings to be easily adapted to systems with differing grayscale
capabilities.
(Table 2.1, The eight color codes for a three-bit per pixel frame buffer) Table lists the specifications for intensity codes for a four-level grayscale system. In this example, any
intensity input value near 0.33 would be stored as the binary value 01 in the frame buffer, and pixels with
this value would be displayed as dark gray. If additional bits per pixel are available in the frame buffer,
the value of 0.33 would be mapped to the nearest level. With 3 bits per pixel, we can accommodate 8 gray

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Soft Fill
levels; while 8 bits per pixel would give us 256 shades of gray. An alternative scheme for storing the We may want to fill area again due to 2 reasons:
intensity information is to convert each intensity code directly to the voltage value that produces this
grayscale level on the output device in use.  It is blurred (unclear) when painted first time, or
 It is repainting of a color area that was originally filled with semitransparent brush,
INTENSITY CODES FOR A FOUR-LEVEL GRAYSCALE SYSTEM
where current color is then mixture of the brush color and the background color
Intensity Stored Intensity Displayed “b e h i n d ” the area.
Codes Values Gray Scale
In the frame Buffer (Binary Code) So that the fill color is combined with the background colors are referred to as Soft-fill.

0.0 0 (00) Black Character Attributes:

0.33 1 (01) Dark gray
The appearance of displayed characters is controlled by attributes such as font, size, colour and
0.67 2 (1 0) Light gray orientation. Attributes can be set both for entire character strings and for individual
characters, known as Marker symbols.
1 .O 3 (11) White
1. Text Attributes: There are many text options available, such as font, colour, size, spacing,
Area-Fill Attributes: and orientation.

Options for filling a region include a choice between a solid colour and a patterned fill. These options  Text Style: The characters in a selected font can also be displayed in various underlining
styles (solid, dotted, dashed, double), in bold, in italics, shadow style, etc. Font options
can be applied to polygon regions or regions with curved boundaries.
can be made available as predefined sets of grid patterns or as character sets designed with
Areas can be displayed with various fill styles: hollow, solid, pattern and hatch. lines and curves.
 Text Colour: Colour settings for displayed text are stored in the system attribute list and
Hollow areas are displayed using only the boundary outline, with interior colour the same as the
transferred to the frame buffer by character loading functions. When a character string is
background colour. displayed, the current colour is used to set pixel values in the frame buffer corresponding
A Solid fill is displayed in a single colour including the borders. Fill style can also be with a to the character shapes and position.
specific pattern or design. The Hatch fill is used to fill area with hatching pattern.  Text Size: We can adjust text size by changing the overall dimensions, i.e., width and
height, of characters or by changing only the width. Character size is specified in Points,
where 1 point is 0.013837 inch or approximately 1/72 inch. Point measurements specify the
size of the Character Body. Different fonts with the same point specifications can have
different character sizes depending upon the design of the font.

Topline Kern

f q
Capline

H
Hollow Solid Pattern
Polygon fill styles
Ba
seline
Descenders
Bottomline
Character
Diagonal hatch Diagonal Cross-hatch
Polygon fill using hatch patterns

Other fill options include specifications for the edge type, edge width and edge colour. These
attributes are same as the line attributes. That is, we can display polygon edges as dotted,
dashed, thick or of different colours, etc.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Character Body
The distance between Topline and Bottomline is same for all characters in a particular size
g
and font, but the width may be different. A smaller body width is assigned to narrow
characters such as i, j, l, e t c . compared to broad characters such as W or M. The Character n

Height is the distance between the Baseline and Capline of characters. Kerned characters, i

such as f and j, extend beyond the character-width limits. And letters with descenders, such r
as g, j, p, q, extend below the baseline. t
s
The size can be changed in such a way so that the width and spacing of characters is adjusted
to maintain the same text proportions. For example, doubling the height also doubles the
gnirts String A text displayed with the four text-path options
character width and the spacing between characters. Also, only the width of the character s
can be changes without affecting its height. Similarly, spacing between characters can be s
increased without changing height or width of individual characters. t
r
The effect of different character-height setting, character-width setting, and character
spacing on a text is shown below. i
n

HEIGHT1 WIDTH1 SPACING1 g

 Text Alignment: Another attribute for character strings is alignment. This attribute
HEIGHT2 WIDTH2 SPA CI NG2 specifies how text is to be positioned with respect to the start coordinates. Vertical
alignment can be top, cap, half, base and bottom. Similarly, horizontal alignment can be
HEIGHT3 WIDTH3 SPACING3 left, centre and right.

top
Effect of changing Height, Width and Spacing
cap
 Text Orientation: The text can be displayed at various angles, known as orientation. A TEXT ALIGNMENT half
procedure for orienting text rotates characters so that the sides of character bodies, from
bottom
baseline to topline at aligned at some angle. Character strings can be arranged vertically or
horizontally.
right
Orientation left
Alignment values for a string

A text orientated by 45 degrees in anticlockwise and clockwise direction Text Attributes

In text we are having so many style and design like italic fonts, bold fonts etc.
For setting the font style in PHIGS package we have one function which is:
 Text Path: In some applications the character strings are arranged vertically or setTextFont (tf)
horizontally. This is known as Text Path. Text path can be right, left, up or down. Where tf is used to specify text font
It will set specified font as a current character.
For setting color of character in PHIGS we have function:
setTextColorIndex (tc)
Where text color parameter tc specifies an allowable color code.
For setting the size of the text we use function.

setCharacterheight (ch)
For scaling the character we use function.
Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC / Department of Computer Science / KKL

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL

COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

setCharacterExpansionFacter (cw)
Where character width parameter cw is set to a positive real number that scale the character body
width.
Spacing between character is controlled by function
setCharacterSpacing (cs)
Where character spacing parameter cs can be assigned any real value.
The orientation for a displayed character string is set according to the direction of the character up
vector:
setCharacterUpVector (upvect)
Parameter upvect in this function is assigned two values that specify the 𝑥 and 𝑦 vector components
Text is then displayed so that the orientation of characters from baseline to cap line is in the direction of
the up vector.
For setting the path of the character we use function:
setTextPath (tp)
Where the text path parameter tp can be assigned the value: right, left, up, or down.
It will set the direction in which we are writing.
For setting the alignment of the text we use function.
setTextAlignment (h, v)
Where parameter h and v control horizontal and vertical alignment respectively.
For specifying precision for text display is given with function.
setTextPrecision (tpr)
Where text precision parameter tpr is assigned one of the values: string, char, or stroke.
The highest-quality text is produced when the parameter is set to the value stroke.
Marker Attributes
A marker symbol display single character in different color and in different sizes.
For marker attributes implementation by procedure that load the chosen character into the raster at
defined position with the specified color and size.
We select marker type using function.
setMarkerType (mt)
Where marker type parameter mt is set to an integer code.
Typical codes for marker type are the integers 1 through 5, specifying, respectively, a dot (.), a
vertical cross (+), an asterisk (*), a circle (o), and a diagonal cross (x). Displayed marker types are
centered on the marker coordinates.
We set the marker size with function.
SetMarkerSizeScaleFactor (ms)
Where parameter marker size ms assigned a positive number according to need for scaling.
For setting marker color we use function.
setPolymarkerColorIndex (mc)
Where parameter mc specify the color of the marker symbol

Bundled Attributes

A particular set of attribute values tor a primitive on each output device is then chosen by specifying the
appropriate table index. Attributes specified in this manner called bundled attributes

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

MODULE - III

2D Geometric Transformations: Basic Transformation – Matrix Representations – Composite

Transformations – Window to View port Co-Ordinate Transformations - Clipping: Point
Clipping – Line Clipping – Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping – Liang Barsky Line Clipping –
Polygon Clipping – Sutherland – Hodgeman Polygon Clipping – Curve Clipping – Text
Clipping.

2D Transformations

Transformation means changing some graphics into something else by applying rules. We can
have various types of transformations such as translation, scaling up or down, rotation, From the above figure, you can write that −
shearing, etc. When a transformation takes place on a 2D plane, it is called 2D transformation.
X’ = X + tx
Transformations play an important role in computer graphics to reposition the graphics on the
screen and change their size or orientation. Y’ = Y + ty

Homogenous Coordinates The pair (tx, ty) is called the translation vector or shift vector. The above equations can also be
represented using the column vectors.
To perform a sequence of transformation such as translation followed by rotation and scaling,
we need to follow a sequential process − P=[X][Y]P=[X][Y] p' = [X′][Y′][X′][Y′]T = [tx][ty][tx][ty]

 Translate the coordinates, We can write it as −

 Rotate the translated coordinates, and then
 Scale the rotated coordinates to complete the composite transformation. P’ = P + T

To shorten this process, we have to use 3×3 transformation matrix instead of 2×2 Rotation
transformation matrix. To convert a 2×2 matrix to 3×3 matrix, we have to add an extra dummy
coordinate W. In rotation, we rotate the object at particular angle θ thetatheta from its origin. From the
following figure, we can see that the point PX,YX,Y is located at angle φ from the horizontal
In this way, we can represent the point by 3 numbers instead of 2 numbers, which is X coordinate with distance r from the origin.
called Homogenous Coordinate system. In this system, we can represent all the
transformation equations in matrix multiplication. Any Cartesian point PX,YX,Y can be Let us suppose you want to rotate it at the angle θ. After rotating it to a new location, you will
converted to homogenous coordinates by P’ (Xh, Yh, h). get a new point P’ X′,Y′X′,Y′.

Translation

A translation moves an object to a different position on the screen. You can translate a point in
2D by adding translation coordinate (tx, ty) to the original coordinate X,YX,Y to get the new
coordinate X′,Y′X′,Y′.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Using standard trigonometric the original coordinate of point PX,YX,Y can be represented as X' = X . SX and Y' = Y . SY
−
The scaling factor SX, SY scales the object in X and Y direction respectively. The above
X=rcosϕ......(1)X=rcosϕ......(1) equations can also be represented in matrix form as below −

Y=rsinϕ......(2)Y=rsinϕ......(2) (X′Y′)=(XY)[Sx00Sy](X′Y′)=(XY)[Sx00Sy]

Same way we can represent the point P’ X′,Y′X′,Y′ as − OR

x′=rcos(ϕ+θ)=rcosϕcosθ−rsinϕsinθ.......(3)x′=rcos(ϕ+θ)=rcosϕcosθ−rsinϕsinθ.......(3) P’ = P . S

y′=rsin(ϕ+θ)=rcosϕsinθ+rsinϕcosθ.......(4)y′=rsin(ϕ+θ)=rcosϕsinθ+rsinϕcosθ.......(4) Where S is the scaling matrix. The scaling process is shown in the following figure.

Substituting equation 11 & 22 in 33 & 44 respectively, we will get

x′=xcosθ−ysinθx′=xcosθ−ysinθ

y′=xsinθ+ycosθy′=xsinθ+ycosθ

Representing the above equation in matrix form,

[X′Y′]=[XY][cosθ−sinθsinθcosθ]OR[X′Y′]=[XY][cosθsinθ−sinθcosθ]OR

P’ = P . R

Where R is the rotation matrix

If we provide values less than 1 to the scaling factor S, then we can reduce the size of the object.
R=[cosθ−sinθsinθcosθ]R=[cosθsinθ−sinθcosθ] If we provide values greater than 1, then we can increase the size of the object.

The rotation angle can be positive and negative. Reflection

For positive rotation angle, we can use the above rotation matrix. However, for negative angle Reflection is the mirror image of original object. In other words, we can say that it is a rotation
rotation, the matrix will change as shown below − operation with 180°. In reflection transformation, the size of the object does not change.

R=[cos(−θ)−sin(−θ)sin(−θ)cos(−θ)]R=[cos(−θ)sin(−θ)−sin(−θ)cos(−θ)] The following figures show reflections with respect to X and Y axes, and about the origin
respectively.
=[cosθsinθ−sinθcosθ](∵cos(−θ)=cosθandsin(−θ)=−sinθ)=[cosθ−sinθsinθcosθ](∵cos(−θ)=cosθ
andsin(−θ)=−sinθ)

Scaling

To change the size of an object, scaling transformation is used. In the scaling process, you
either expand or compress the dimensions of the object. Scaling can be achieved by multiplying
the original coordinates of the object with the scaling factor to get the desired result.

Let us assume that the original coordinates are X,YX,Y, the scaling factors are (SX, SY), and
the produced coordinates are X′,Y′X′,Y′. This can be mathematically represented as shown
below −

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The transformation matrix for X-Shear can be represented as −

Xsh=⎡⎣⎢100shx10001⎤⎦⎥Xsh=[1shx0010001]

Y' = Y + Shy . X

X’ = X

Y-Shear

The Y-Shear preserves the X coordinates and changes the Y coordinates which causes the
horizontal lines to transform into lines which slopes up or down as shown in the following
figure.

Shear

A transformation that slants the shape of an object is called the shear transformation. There are The Y-Shear can be represented in matrix from as −
two shear transformations X-Shear and Y-Shear. One shifts X coordinates values and other
shifts Y coordinate values. However; in both the cases only one coordinate changes its Ysh⎡⎣⎢1shy0010001⎤⎦⎥Ysh[100shy10001]
coordinates and other preserves its values. Shearing is also termed as Skewing.
X’ = X + Shx . Y
X-Shear
Y’ = Y
The X-Shear preserves the Y coordinate and changes are made to X coordinates, which causes
the vertical lines to tilt right or left as shown in below figure. Matrix representation of transformations.

For translation,
P‘= P+T
x‘ = x + tx
y‘ y ty

This can also be written as ,

x‘ = 1 0 tx . x
y‘ 0 1 ty y
1 001 1

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

 Translate point (Xp, Yp) to the origin.

For rotation,  Rotate it about the origin.
x‘ = Cosθ -Sinθ . x  Finally, translate the center of rotation back where it belonged.
y‘ Sinθ Cosθ y
We have learnt matrix representations of transformation. We can set up a matrix for any
This can be written as, sequence of transformations as a composite transform matrix by calculating the matrix
x‘ = Cos@ -Sin @ 0 . x
product of the individual transform.
y‘ Sin @ Cos @ 0 y
1 0 0 1 1
For e.g. suppose we want to perform rotation of an object about an arbitrary point. This
For scaling, can be performed by applying a sequence of three simple transforms a translation,
P‘= S.P followed by a rotation followed by another translation. For e.g. suppose we are asked
to rotate the triangle through 900 .
This can be written as,
x‘ = Sx 0 0. x This can be done by first translate the object to the origin. Rotate it by 900 and again translate
y‘ 0 Sy 0 y it by tx = 2, ty=0.
1 0 0 1 1
Translate the object to tx=2, ty= 0
Composite Transformation
Here we have done one translation, one rotation , one translation again. Complex
If a transformation of the plane T1 is followed by a second plane transformation T2, then the transformation can be described as concatenation of simple ones. Suppose we wish to derive a
result itself may be represented by a single transformation T which is the composition of T1 transformation which will rotate a point through a clockwise angle @ about the point (Rx, Ry).
and T2 taken in that order. This is written as T = T1∙T2. The rotation transformation be applied to rotate points only about the origin. So we must
translate points so that (Rx, Ry) becomes the origin.
Composite transformation can be achieved by concatenation of transformation matrices to
obtain a combined transformation matrix. x‘ = x . 1 0 -Rx

y‘ y 0 1 -Ry
A combined matrix −
1 1 0 0 1
[T][X] = [X] [T1] [T2] [T3] [T4] …. [Tn] then rotation can be applied

Where [Ti] is any combination of x‘‘ = x‘ Cos@ -Sin@ 0

y‘‘ y‘ Sin@ Cos@ 0
 Translation 1 1 0 0 1
 Scaling
Finally, we translate point so that the origin is returned to
 Shearing
(Rx,Ry)
 Rotation
 Reflection x‘‘‘ = x‘‘ 1 0 Rx
y‘‘‘ y‘‘ 0 1 Ry
The change in the order of transformation would lead to different results, as in general matrix 1 1 0 0 1
multiplication is not cumulative, that is [A] . [B] ≠ [B] . [A] and the order of multiplication.
The basic purpose of composing transformations is to gain efficiency by applying a single
composed transformation to a point, rather than applying a series of transformation, one after Window to view port co-ordinate transformation
another. “The process of selecting and viewing an image with different views, called windowing.”
For example, to rotate an object about an arbitrary point (Xp, Yp), we have to carry out three All the objects in the real world have a size. We can measure the size and location of an
steps − object by the unit.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Step 2: Resize the window to viewport size– To Convert the size of the window into the
size of the viewport, we will use the following formulas:
For Example-We use the meter unit to measure both size and the location of the object.
Sx = XVmax – XVmin / XWmax – XWmin
When we represent the image of an object on the screen, then we use the screen coordinate
system. The screen coordinate system is used to define the location of the object. When we Sy = YVmax – YVmin / YWmax – YWmin
select the screen coordinate system, then the image can be displayed on the screen.
Step 3: Translation of window (Position of window and viewport must be same)– If the
“The Capability to show some part of an object in a window is known as windowing.” lower-left corner of viewport is (0, 0), then the window lower-left corner is already shifted on
origin after following step 1.
“The rectangular area describes in the world coordinate system is called the window.”
If the lower-left corner is not equal to (0, 0), then the translation factor should be positive (+).
Viewport:
“The viewport can be defined as an area on the screen which is used to display the object.”
The window is an area space for the object. Viewport surrounds the object. We need the
coordinate transformation to display the object on the screen. We can define many viewports
on a different area of the screen and also see the same object from a different angle in the
viewport.
Window to Viewport transformation:
“Window to viewport transformation is a process of converting two-dimensional or world
into a device coordinate.”
The object inside the clipping window is mapped to the viewport. The viewport is displayed
inside the interface window on the screen. We can use the clipping window to select the part
of an object, and the viewport is used to display the selected part of the object on the screen
or output device.

It may be possible that sometimes the size of viewport is greater or smaller than the
window. In that situation, we have to enlarge or compress the size of the window
according to the viewport. We can perform it using some mathematical calculations.

Steps for Window to Viewport Transformation: We can follow the following steps for A point on window = (XW, YW)
transform window to viewport:
Corresponding point on viewport = (XV, YV)
Step 1: Translation of the window towards the Origin– If we shift the window towards the
 To calculate (XV, YV) –
origin, the upper left, and the lower-left corner of the window will be negative (-). The
translation factor also should be negative (-).

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The X-coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if X lies in between Wx1 ≤ X ≤
Wx2. Same way, Y coordinate of the given point is inside the window, if Y lies in between
Normalized point on window = (XW- XWmin / XWmax – XWmin)
Wy1 ≤ Y ≤ Wy2.
(YW- YWmin / YWmax – YWmin)
Normalized point on viewport = (XV- XVmin / XVmax – XVmin)
(YV- YVmin / YVmax – YVmin)
 Now, the position of object in viewport and window are same-
For Coordinate x:
(XW- XWmin / XWmax – XWmin) = (XV- XVmin / XVmax – XVmin)
For Coordinate y:
(YW- YWmin / YWmax – YWmin) = (YV- YVmin / YVmax – YVmin) Line Clipping
Now, we get The concept of line clipping is same as point clipping. In line clipping, we will cut the portion
of line which is outside of window and keep only the portion that is inside the window.
XV = XVmin + (XW- XWmin) Sx
Cohen-Sutherland Line Clippings
YV = YVmin + (YW- YWmin) Sy
This algorithm uses the clipping window as shown in the following figure. The minimum
Here Sx and Sy are the scaling factor for x and y coordinate.
coordinate for the clipping region is (XWmin,YWmin)(XWmin,YWmin) and the maximum
Sx = XVmax – XVmin / XWmax – XWmin coordinate for the clipping region is (XWmax,YWmax)(XWmax,YWmax).
Sy = YVmax – YVmin / YWmax – YWmin
Some Important Points:
1. We can select the world coordinate system according to the application program.
2. We can select the screen coordinate system according to the desired design.
3. Viewing transformation is a connection between the world and the screen coordinates.
Advantages:
We can easily represent images on the display screen according to the user’s needs.
We will use 4-bits to divide the entire region. These 4 bits represent the Top, Bottom, Right,
Clipping and Left of the region as shown in the following figure. Here, the TOP and LEFT bit is set to
The primary use of clipping in computer graphics is to remove objects, lines, or line segments 1 because it is the TOP-LEFT corner.
that are outside the viewing pane. The viewing transformation is insensitive to the position of
points relative to the viewing volume − especially those points behind the viewer − and it is
necessary to remove these points before generating the view.
Point Clipping
Clipping a point from a given window is very easy. Consider the following figure, where the
rectangle indicates the window. Point clipping tells us whether the given point X,YX,Y is
within the given window or not; and decides whether we will use the minimum and
maximum coordinates of the window.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

There are 3 possibilities for the line − Algorithm

 Line can be completely inside the window This line should be accepted. Step 1 − Assign a region code for each endpoints.
 Line can be completely outside of the Step 2 − If both endpoints have a region code 0000 then accept this line.
window ThislinewillbecompletelyremovedfromtheregionThislinewillbecompletelyre
Step 3 − Else, perform the logical AND operation for both region codes.
movedfromtheregion.
Step 3.1 − If the result is not 0000, then reject the line.
 Line can be partially inside the
window Wewillfindintersectionpointanddrawonlythatportionoflinethatisinsideregion Step 3.2 − Else you need clipping.
Wewillfindintersectionpointanddrawonlythatportionoflinethatisinsideregion.
Step 3.2.1 − Choose an endpoint of the line that is outside the window.
Region code
Step 3.2.2 − Find the intersection point at the window boundary base on region code
– A four-digit binary code assigned to every line endpoint in a picture.
Step 3.2.3 − Replace endpoint with the intersection point and update the region code.
– Numbering the bit positions in the region code as 1 through 4 from right to left.
Step 3.2.4 − Repeat step 2 until we find a clipped line either trivially accepted or trivially
rejected.
Step 4 − Repeat step 1 for other lines.

Liang-Barsky Line Clipping

Rewrite the line parametric equation as follows:

• Bit values in the region code

• Determined by comparing endpoint coordinates to the clip boundaries
• A value of 1 in any bit position: The point is in that relative position.
• Determined by the following steps:
• Calculate differences between endpoint coordinates and clipping boundaries.
• Use the resultant sign bit of each difference calculation to set the corresponding
bit value.
• The possible relationships:
• Completely contained within the window
• 0000 for both endpoints.
• Completely outside the window • pk = 0, parallel to one of the clipping boundary
• Logical and the region codes of both endpoints, its result is not 0000.
• Partially • qk < 0, outside the boundary
• qk >= 0, inside the parallel clipping boundary
• pk < 0, the line proceeds from outside to the inside
• pk > 0, the line proceeds from inside to outside

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

While processing an edge of a polygon with clipping window, an intersection point is found
if edge is not completely inside clipping window and the a partial edge from the intersection
point to the outside edge is clipped. The following figures show left, right, top and bottom
edge clippings −

Polygon Clipping
Sutherland Hodgman Algorithm
A polygon can also be clipped by specifying the clipping window. Sutherland Hodgeman
polygon clipping algorithm is used for polygon clipping. In this algorithm, all the vertices of
the polygon are clipped against each edge of the clipping window.
First the polygon is clipped against the left edge of the polygon window to get new vertices Text Clipping
of the polygon. These new vertices are used to clip the polygon against right edge, top edge, Various techniques are used to provide text clipping in a computer graphics. It depends on the
bottom edge, of the clipping window as shown in the following figure. methods used to generate characters and the requirements of a particular application. There
are three methods for text clipping which are listed below −
 All or none string clipping
 All or none character clipping
 Text clipping

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The following figure shows all or none string clipping − This clipping method is based on characters rather than the entire string. In this method if the
string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the
window, then
 You reject only the portion of string being outside.
 If the character is on the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard only that
portion of character that is outside of the clipping window.
Curve Clipping
Curve-clipping procedures will involve nonlinear equations and this requires more processing
In all or none string clipping method, either we keep the entire string or we reject entire string than for objects with linear boundaries. The bounding rectangle for a circle or other curved
based on the clipping window. As shown in the above figure, STRING2 is entirely inside the object can be used first to test for overlap with a rectangular clip window.
clipping window so we keep it and STRING1 being only partially inside the window, we If the bounding rectangle for the object is completely inside the window, we save the
reject. object.
The following figure shows all or none character clipping −
If the rectangle is determined to be completely outside window, we discard the object. In
either case, there is no further computation necessary. But if the bounding rectangle test fails,
we can look for other computation-saving approaches.
For a circle, we can use the coordinate extents of individual quadrants and then octants for
preliminary testing before calculating curve-window intersections.
For an ellipse, we can test the coordinate extents of individual quadrants Fig: Clipping a
filled Circle

This clipping method is based on characters rather than entire string. In this method if the
string is entirely inside the clipping window, then we keep it. If it is partially outside the
window, then −
 You reject only the portion of the string being outside
 If the character is on the boundary of the clipping window, then we discard that entire
character and keep the rest string.
The following figure shows text clipping −

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

MODULE - IV area by dragging it [Link] a multitasking environment, multiple windows can be open at the
same time, all of them performing different tasks.
Graphical User Interfaces and Interactive Input Methods: The User Dialogue – Input of
Graphical Data – Input Functions – Interactive Picture Construction Techniques – Three There are multiple types of windows in a graphical user interface, such as container window,
Dimensional Concepts: 3D-Display Methods – #Three Dimensional Graphics Packages browser window, text terminal window, child window, message window etc.

Graphical User Interface Menu

GUI is an interface that allows users to interact with different electronic devices using icons A menu contains a list a choices and it allows users to select one from them. A menu bar is
and other visual indicators. The graphical user interfaces were created because command line displayed horizontally across the screen such as pull down menu. When any option is clicked
interfaces were quite complicated and it was difficult to learn all the commands in it. in this menu, then the pull down menu appears.

In today’s times, graphical user interfaces are used in many devices such as mobiles, MP3 Another type of menu is the context menu that appears only when the user performs a specific
players, gaming devices, smartphones etc. action. An example of this is pressing the right mouse button. When this is done, a menu will
appear under the cursor.
The below diagram provides the position of the graphical user interface with respect to the
computer system: Icons

Files, programs, web pages etc. can be represented using a small picture in a graphical user
interface. This picture is known as an icon. Using an icon is a fast way to open documents, run
programs etc. because clicking on them yields instant access.

Controls

Information in an application can be directly read or influences using the graphical control
elements. These are also known as widgets. Normally, widgets are used to display lists of
similar items, navigate the system using links, tabs etc. and manipulating data using check
boxes, radio boxes etc.

Tabs

A tab is associated with a view pane. It usually contains a text label or a graphical icon. Tabs
are sometimes related to widgets and multiple tabs allow users to switch between different
widgets. Tabs are used in various web browsers such as Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera,
Safari etc. Multiple web pages can be opened in a web browser and users can switch between
them using tabs.

Elements in Graphical User Interface In order to be able to interact with the graphical image input methods are required. These can
be used to just change the location and orientation of the camera, or to change specific settings
Graphical User Interface makes use of visual elements mostly. These elements define the of the rendering itself. Different devices are more suitable for changing some settings then
appearance of the GUI. Some of these are described in detail as follows: others. In this chapter we will specify different types of these devices and discuss their
advantages.
Window
Input methods Input methods can be classified using the following categories: – Locator –
This is the element that displays the information on the screen. It is very easy to manipulate a Stroke – String – Valuator – Choice – Pick
window. It can be opened or closed with the click of an icon. Moreover, it can be moved to any

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

unnecessarily bind the user to a certain location. Other input methods are required in these
cases, such as a wireless gamepad or a 3-D stylus, that is tracked to identify its 3-D location.
Input methods
Input Modes
Locator
In addition to multiple types of logical input devices, we can obtain the measure of a device in
A device that allows the user to specify one coordinate position. Different methods can be used,
three distinct modes: 1) Request mode, 2) Sample mode, and 3) Event mode. It defined by the
such as a mouse cursor, where a location is chosen by clicking a button, or a cursor that is
relationship between the measure process and the trigger. Normally, the initialization of an
moved using different keys on the keyboard. Touch screens can also be used as locators; the
input device starts a measure process.
user specifies the location by inducing force onto the desired coordinate on the screen.
1) Request mode:
Stroke
In this mode the measure of the device is not returned to the program until the device is
A device that allows the user to specify a set of coordinate positions. The positions can be
triggered. A locator can be moved to different point of the screen. The Windows system
specified, for example, by dragging the mouse across the screen while a mouse button is kept
continuously follows the location of the pointer, but until the button is depressed, the location
pressed. On release, a second coordinate can be used to define a rectangular area using the first
coordinate in addition.
String
will not be returned.
A device that allows the user to specify text input. A text input widget in combination with the
keyboard is used to input the text. Also, virtual keyboards displayed on the screen where the 2) Sample mode:
characters can be picked using the mouse can be used if keyboards are not available to the
Input is immediate. As soon as the function call in the user program is encountered, the measure
application.
is returned, hence no trigger is needed. For both of the above modes, the user must identify
Valuator which devices is to provide the input. request_locator (device_id, &measure); sample_locator
(device_id, &measure); identifier location Think of a flight simulator with many input devices.
A device that allows the user to specify a scalar value. Similar to string inputs, numeric values
can be specified using the keyboard. Often, up-down-arrows are added to increase or decrease
the current value. Rotary devices, such as wheels can also be used for specifying numerical
values. Often times, it is useful to limit the range of the numerical value depending on the
value.
Choice 3) Event mode:
A device that allows the user to specify a menu option. Typical choice devices are menus or The previous two modes are not sufficient for handling the variety of possible human-computer
radio buttons which provide various options the user can choose from. For radio buttons, often interactions that arise in a modern computing environment. The can be done in three steps: 1)
only one option can be chosen at a time. Once another option is picked, the previous one gets Show how event mode can be described as another mode within the measure trigger paradigm.
cleared. 2) Learn the basics of client-servers when event mode is preferred, and 3) Learn how OpenGL
Pick uses GLUT to do this. In an environment with multiple input devices, each with its own trigger
and each running a measure process. Each time that a device is triggered, an event is generated.
A device that allows the user to specify a component of a picture. Similar to locator devices, a The
coordinate is specified using the mouse or other cursor input devices and then back-projected
into the scene to determine the selected 3-D object. It is often useful to allow a certain “error device measure, with the identifier for the device, is placed in an event queue. The user program
tolerance” so that an object is picked even though the user did not exactly onto the object but executes the events from the queue. When the queue is empty, it will wait until an event appears
close enough next to it. Also, highlighting objects within the scene can be used to traverse there to execute it. Another approach is to associate a function called a callback with a specific
through a list of objects that fulfill the proximity criterion. type of event. This is the approach we are taking.

Certain applications do not allow the use of mouse or keyboard. In particular, 3-D
environments, where the user roams freely within the scene, mouse or keyboard would

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

In the 2D system, we use only two coordinates X and Y but in 3D, an extra coordinate Z is
added. 3D graphics techniques and their application are fundamental to the entertainment,
Interactive picture construction techniques games, and computer-aided design industries. It is a continuing area of research in scientific
Interactive picture- construction methods are commonly used in variety of applications, visualization.
including design and painting packages. These methods provide user with the capability to Furthermore, 3D graphics components are now a part of almost every personal computer and,
position objects, to constrain fig. to predefined orientations or alignments, to sketch fig., and although traditionally intended for graphics-intensive software such as games, they are
to drag objects around the screen. Grids, gravity fields, and rubber band methods are used to increasingly being used by other applications.
aid in positioning and other picture construction operations. The several techniques used for
interactive picture construction that are incorporated into graphics packages are:
(1) Basic positioning methods:- coordinate values supplied by locator input are often used
with positioning methods to specify a location for displaying an object or a character string.
Coordinate positions are selected interactively with a pointing device, usually by positioning
the screen cursor.
(2) Constraints:-A constraint is a rule for altering input coordinates values to produce a
specified orientation or alignment of the displayed coordinates. The most common constraint
is a horizontal or vertical alignment of straight lines.
(3) Grids:- Another kind of constraint is a grid of rectangular lines displayed in some part of
the screen area. When a grid is used, any input coordinate position is rounded to the nearest
Parallel Projection
intersection of two grid lines.
(4) Gravity field:- When it is needed to connect lines at positions between endpoints, the Parallel projection discards z-coordinate and parallel lines from each vertex on the object are
graphics packages convert any input position near a line to a position on the line. The extended until they intersect the view plane. In parallel projection, we specify a direction of
conversion is accomplished by creating a gravity area around the line. Any related position projection instead of center of projection.
within the gravity field of line is moved to the nearest position on the line. It illustrated with a The appearance of the solid object can be reconstructed from the major views
shaded boundary around the line.
(5) Rubber Band Methods:- Straight lines can be constructed and positioned using rubber
band methods which stretch out a line from a starting position as the screen cursor.
(6) Dragging:- This methods move object into position by dragging them with the screen
cursor.
(7) Painting and Drawing:- Cursor drawing options can be provided using standard curve
In parallel projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is infinite. In
shapes such as circular arcs and splices, or with freehand sketching procedures. Line widths,
this type of projection, we connect the projected vertices by line segments which correspond
line styles and other attribute options are also commonly found in painting and drawing to connections on the original object.
packages.
Parallel projections are less realistic, but they are good for exact measurements. In this type
THREE DIMENSIONAL DISPLAY METHODS of projections, parallel lines remain parallel and angles are not preserved. Various types of
parallel projections are shown in the following hierarchy.
To obtain display of a three-dimensional scene that has been modeled in world coordinates.
We must first set up a coordinate reference for the "camera". This coordinate reference defines
the position and orientation for the plane of the camera film which is the plane we want to us
to display a view of the objects in the scene. Object descriptions are then transferred to the
camera reference coordinates and projected onto the selected display plane. We can then
display the objects in wireframe (outline) form, or we can apply lighting surface rendering
techniques to shade the visible surfaces.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Isometric Projections

Orthographic projections that show more than one side of an object are called axonometric
Orthographic Projection orthographic projections. The most common axonometric projection is an isometric
projection where the projection plane intersects each coordinate axis in the model coordinate
In orthographic projection the direction of projection is normal to the projection of the plane. system at an equal distance. In this projection parallelism of lines are preserved but angles are
There are three types of orthographic projections − not preserved. The following figure shows isometric projection −
 Front Projection
 Top Projection
 Side Projection

Perspective Projection

In perspective projection, the distance from the center of projection to project plane is finite
and the size of the object varies inversely with distance which looks more realistic.
The distance and angles are not preserved and parallel lines do not remain parallel. Instead,
they all converge at a single point called center of projection or projection reference point.
Oblique Projection There are 3 types of perspective projections which are shown in the following chart.
 One point perspective projection is simple to draw.
In oblique projection, the direction of projection is not normal to the projection of plane. In
oblique projection, we can view the object better than orthographic projection.  Two point perspective projection gives better impression of depth.
There are two types of oblique projections − Cavalier and Cabinet. The Cavalier projection  Three point perspective projection is most difficult to draw.
makes 45° angle with the projection plane. The projection of a line perpendicular to the view
plane has the same length as the line itself in Cavalier projection. In a cavalier projection, the
foreshortening factors for all three principal directions are equal.
The Cabinet projection makes 63.4° angle with the projection plane. In Cabinet projection,
lines perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at ½ their actual length. Both the
projections are shown in the following figure −

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Three-Dimensional and Stereoscopic View

Three-dimensional views can be obtained by reflecting a raster image from a vibrating flexible
mirror. The vibrations of the mirror are synchronized with the display of the scene on the CRT.
As the mirror vibrates, the focal length varies so that each point in the scene is projected to a
position corresponding to its depth.
Stereoscopic devices present two views of a scene: one for the left eye and the other for the
right eye.
Graphics Packages

The following figure shows all the three types of perspective projection − A graphics package is an application that can be used to create and manipulate images on a
computer.
There are two main types of graphics package:
 painting packages
 drawing packages
Painting packages
 A painting package produces images by changing the colour of pixels on the screen.
DEPTH CUEING
 These are coded as a pattern of bits to create a bitmapped graphics file.
A simple method for indicating depth with wireframe displays is to vary the intensity of objects
 Bitmapped graphics are used for images such as scanned photographs or pictures taken
according to their distance from the viewing position. The viewing position are displayed with
with a digital camera.
the highest intensities, and lines farther away are displayed with decreasing intensities.
Advantages
Visible Line and Surface Identification
 The main advantage offered by this type of graphic is that individual pixels can be
We can also clarify depth relation ships in a wireframe display by identifying visible lines in
changed which makes very detailed editing possible.
some way. The simplest method is to highlight the visible lines or to display them in a different
color. Another technique, commonly used for engineering drawings, is to display the nonvisible Disadvantages of painting packages
lines as dashed lines. Another approach is to simply remove the nonvisible lines
 Individual parts of an image cannot be resized;
Surface Rendering
 only the whole picture can be increased or decreased in size.
Added realism is attained in displays by setting the surface intensity of objects according to
 Information has to be stored about every pixel in an image which produces files that
the lighting conditions in the scene and according to assigned surface characteristics. Lighting
specifications include the intensity and positions of light sources and the general background use large amounts of backing storage space.
illumination required for a scene. Surface properties of objects include degree of transparency Examples of graphics packages that produce bitmapped images include:- MS Paint, PC
and how rough or smooth the surfaces are to be. Procedures can then be applied to generate the Paintbrush, Adobe Photoshop and JASC’s Paint Shop Pro.
correct illumination and shadow regions for the scene.
Drawing packages
Exploded and Cutaway View
 A drawing package produces images that are made up from coloured lines and shapes
Exploded and cutaway views of such objects can then be used to show the internal structure such as circles, squares and rectangles.
and relationship of the object Parts
 When an image is saved it is stored in a vector graphics file as a series of instructions,
which can be used to recreate it.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Main advantages of vector graphics are: MODULE - V

 They use less storage space than bitmap graphics;
3D Geometric and Modeling Transformations: Translation – Scaling – Rotation – Other
 Each part of an image is treated as a separate object, which means that individual parts Transformations. Visible Surface Detection Methods: Classification of Visible Surface
can be easily modified. Detection Algorithm –Back face Detection – Depth-Buffer Method – A Buffer Method – Scan-
Line Method –Applications of Computer Graphics.
Disadvantages of drawing packages
 They don’t look as realistic as bitmap graphics. 3D Geometric and Modelling Transformations

Examples of drawing graphics packages include CorelDraw, Micrographix Designer and Three Dimensional Transformations
computer aided design (CAD) packages such as AutoCAD. The geometric transformations play a vital role in generating images of three Dimensional
objects with the help of these transformations. The location of objects relative to others can be
easily expressed. Sometimes viewpoint changes rapidly, or sometimes objects move in relation
to each other. For this number of transformation can be carried out repeatedly.
Translation
It is the movement of an object from one position to another position. Translation is done using
translation vectors. There are three vectors in 3D instead of two. These vectors are in x, y, and
z directions. Translation in the x-direction is represented using Tx. The translation is y-direction
is represented using Ty. The translation in the z- direction is represented using Tz.
If P is a point having co-ordinates in three directions (x, y, z) is translated, then after translation
its coordinates will be (x1 y1 z1) after translation. Tx Ty Tz are translation vectors in x, y, and z
directions respectively.
x1=x+ Tx
y1=y+Ty
z1=z+ Tz
Three-dimensional transformations are performed by transforming each vertex of the object. If
an object has five corners, then the translation will be accomplished by translating all five
points to new locations. Following figure 1 shows the translation of point figure 2 shows the
translation of the cube.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Multiply co-ordinates of point with translation matrix

= [5+0+0+30+6+0+30+0+7+20+0+0+1] = [8991]
x becomes x1=8
y becomes y1=9
Matrix for translation z becomes z1=9
Scaling
Scaling is used to change the size of an object. The size can be increased or decreased. The
scaling three factors are required Sx Sy and Sz.
Sx=Scaling factor in x- direction
Sy=Scaling factor in y-direction
Matrix representation of point translation Sz=Scaling factor in z-direction

Point shown in fig is (x, y, z). It become (x1,y1,z1) after translation. Tx Ty Tz are translation
vector.
Example: A point has coordinates in the x, y, z direction i.e., (5, 6, 7). The translation is done
in the x-direction by 3 coordinate and y direction. Three coordinates and in the z- direction by
two coordinates. Shift the object. Find coordinates of the new position.
Solution: Co-ordinate of the point are (5, 6, 7)
Translation vector in x direction = 3 Matrix for Scaling
Translation vector in y direction = 3
Translation vector in z direction = 2
Translation matrix is

Scaling of the object relative to a fixed point

Following are steps performed when scaling of objects with fixed point (a, b, c). It can be
represented as below:

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

1. Translate fixed point to the origin Rotation

2. Scale the object relative to the origin It is moving of an object about an angle. Movement can be anticlockwise or clockwise. 3D
rotation is complex as compared to the 2D rotation. For 2D we describe the angle of rotation,
3. Translate object back to its original position.
but for a 3D angle of rotation and axis of rotation are required. The axis can be either x or y or
Note: If all scaling factors Sx=Sy=[Link] scaling is called as uniform. If scaling is done with z.
different scaling vectors, it is called a differential scaling.
Following figures shows rotation about x, y, z- axis
In figure (a) point (a, b, c) is shown, and object whose scaling is to done also shown in steps
in fig (b), fig (c) and fig (d).

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Following figure show rotation of the object about the Y axis

Following figure show rotation of the object about the Z axis

Shearing
It is change in the shape of the object. It is also called as deformation. Change can be in the x
-direction or y -direction or both directions in case of 2D. If shear occurs in both directions, the
object will be distorted. But in 3D shear can occur in three directions.
Matrix for shear

Reflection
It is also called a mirror image of an object. For this reflection axis and reflection of plane is
selected. Three-dimensional reflections are similar to two dimensions. Reflection is 180° about
the given axis. For reflection, plane is selected (xy,xz or yz). Following matrices show
reflection respect to all these three planes.
Reflection relative to XY plane

Reflection relative to YZ plane

Reflection relative to ZX plane

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

15. A hidden surface algorithm is generally designed to exploit one or more of these
coherence properties to increase efficiency.
16. Hidden surface algorithm bears a strong resemblance to two-dimensional scan
conversions.

Types of hidden surface detection algorithms

Classification of Visible Surface Detection Method 1. Object space methods

Hidden Surface Removal 2. Image space methods

1. One of the most challenging problems in computer graphics is the removal of hidden Object space methods: In this method, various parts of objects are compared. After
parts from images of solid objects. comparison visible, invisible or hardly visible surface is determined. These methods generally
decide visible surface. In the wireframe model, these are used to determine a visible line. So
2. In real life, the opaque material of these objects obstructs the light rays from hidden these algorithms are line based instead of surface based. Method proceeds by determination of
parts and prevents us from seeing them. parts of an object whose view is obstructed by other object and draws these parts in the same
3. In the computer generation, no such automatic elimination takes place when objects are color.
projected onto the screen coordinate system. Image space methods: Here positions of various pixels are determined. It is used to locate the
4. Instead, all parts of every object, including many parts that should be invisible are visible surface instead of a visible line. Each point is detected for its visibility. If a point is
displayed. visible, then the pixel is on, otherwise off. So the object close to the viewer that is pierced by
a projector through a pixel is determined. That pixel is drawn is appropriate color.
5. To remove these parts to create a more realistic image, we must apply a hidden line or
hidden surface algorithm to set of objects. These methods are also called a Visible Surface Determination. The implementation of these
methods on a computer requires a lot of processing time and processing power of the computer.
6. The algorithm operates on different kinds of scene models, generate various forms of
output or cater to images of different complexities. The image space method requires more computations. Each object is defined clearly. Visibility
of each object surface is also determined.
7. All use some form of geometric sorting to distinguish visible parts of objects from those
that are hidden.
8. Just as alphabetical sorting is used to differentiate words near the beginning of the Differentiate between Object space and Image space method
alphabet from those near the ends.
Object Space Image Space
9. Geometric sorting locates objects that lie near the observer and are therefore visible.
10. Hidden line and Hidden surface algorithms capitalize on various forms of coherence to
1. Image space is object based. It 1. It is a pixel-based method. It is
reduce the computing required to generate an image.
concentrates on geometrical relation concerned with the final image, what is
11. Different types of coherence are related to different forms of order or regularity in the among objects in the scene. visible within each raster pixel.
image.
12. Scan line coherence arises because the display of a scan line in a raster image is usually 2. Here surface visibility is determined. 2. Here line visibility or point visibility is
very similar to the display of the preceding scan line. determined.

13. Frame coherence in a sequence of images designed to show motion recognizes that
successive frames are very similar. 3. It is performed at the precision with 3. It is performed using the resolution of
which each object is defined, No the display device.
14. Object coherence results from relationships between different objects or between resolution is considered.
separate parts of the same objects.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

4. Calculations are not based on the 4. Calculations are resolution base, so the
resolution of the display so change of change is difficult to adjust. Considerations for selecting or designing hidden surface algorithms:
object can be easily adjusted.
Following three considerations are taken:

5. These were developed for vector 5. These are developed for raster devices. 1. Sorting
graphics system. 2. Coherence
3. Machine
6. Object-based algorithms operate on 6. These operate on object data.
continuous object data. Sorting: All surfaces are sorted in two classes, i.e., visible and invisible. Pixels are colored
accordingly. Several sorting algorithms are available i.e.
7. Vector display used for object method 7. Raster systems used for image space 1. Bubble sort
has large address space. methods have limited address space.
2. Shell sort

8. Object precision is used for application 8. There are suitable for application where 3. Quick sort
where speed is required. accuracy is required. 4. Tree sort
5. Radix sort
9. It requires a lot of calculations if the 9. Image can be enlarged without losing
image is to enlarge. accuracy. Different sorting algorithms are applied to different hidden surface algorithms. Sorting of
objects is done using x and y, z co-ordinates. Mostly z coordinate is used for sorting. The
10. If the number of objects in the scene 10. In this method complexity increase efficiency of sorting algorithm affects the hidden surface removal algorithm. For sorting
increases, computation time also with the complexity of visible parts. complex scenes or hundreds of polygons complex sorts are used, i.e., quick sort, tree sort, radix
increases. sort.
For simple objects selection, insertion, bubble sort is used.
Coherence
Similarity of object and Image space method
It is used to take advantage of the constant value of the surface of the scene. It is based on how
In both method sorting is used a depth comparison of individual lines, surfaces are objected to much regularity exists in the scene. When we moved from one polygon of one object to another
their distances from the view plane. polygon of same object color and shearing will remain unchanged.
Types of Coherence
1. Edge coherence
2. Object coherence
3. Face coherence
4. Area coherence
5. Depth coherence
6. Scan line coherence
7. Frame coherence
8. Implied edge coherence

1. Edge coherence: The visibility of edge changes when it crosses another edge or it also
penetrates a visible edge.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

2. Object coherence: Each object is considered separate from others. In object, coherence It is applied very efficiently on surfaces of polygon. Surfaces can be processed in any order.
comparison is done using an object instead of edge or vertex. If A object is farther from object To override the closer polygons from the far ones, two buffers named frame buffer and depth
B, then there is no need to compare edges and faces. buffer, are used.
3. Face coherence: In this faces or polygons which are generally small compared with the size Depth buffer is used to store depth values for x,yx,y position, as surfaces are
of the image. processed 0≤depth≤10≤depth≤1.
4. Area coherence: It is used to group of pixels cover by same visible face. The frame buffer is used to store the intensity value of color value at each position x,yx,y.
5. Depth coherence: Location of various polygons has separated a basis of depth. Depth of The z-coordinates are usually normalized to the range [0, 1]. The 0 value for z-coordinate
surface at one point is calculated, the depth of points on rest of the surface can often be indicates back clipping pane and 1 value for z-coordinates indicates front clipping pane.
determined by a simple difference equation.
6. Scan line coherence: The object is scanned using one scan line then using the second scan
line. The intercept of the first line.
7. Frame coherence: It is used for animated objects. It is used when there is little change in
image from one frame to another.
8. Implied edge coherence: If a face penetrates in another, line of intersection can be
determined from two points of intersection.
Algorithms used for hidden line surface detection

1. Back Face Removal Algorithm

2. Z-Buffer Algorithm
3. Painter Algorithm
4. Scan Line Algorithm Algorithm
5. Subdivision Algorithm
Step-1 − Set the buffer values −
6. Floating horizon Algorithm
Depthbuffer x,yx,y = 0
Visible Surface Detection Algorithm
Framebuffer x,yx,y = background color
When we view a picture containing non-transparent objects and surfaces, then we cannot see
Step-2 − Process each polygon OneatatimeOneatatime
those objects from view which are behind from objects closer to eye. We must remove these
hidden surfaces to get a realistic screen image. The identification and removal of these surfaces For each projected x,yx,y pixel position of a polygon, calculate depth z.
is called Hidden-surface problem.
If Z > depthbuffer x,yx,y
There are two approaches for removing hidden surface problems − Object-Space
Compute surface color,
method and Image-space method. The Object-space method is implemented in physical
coordinate system and image-space method is implemented in screen coordinate system. set depthbuffer x,yx,y = z,
When we want to display a 3D object on a 2D screen, we need to identify those parts of a screen framebuffer x,yx,y = surfacecolor x,yx,y
that are visible from a chosen viewing position.
Advantages
Depth Buffer Z−Buffer Method
 It is easy to implement.
This method is developed by Cutmull. It is an image-space approach. The basic idea is to test
 It reduces the speed problem if implemented in hardware.
the Z-depth of each surface to determine the closest visiblevisible surface.
 It processes one object at a time.
In this method each surface is processed separately one pixel position at a time across the
surface. The depth values for a pixel are compared and the closest smallestzsmallestz surface Disadvantages
determines the color to be displayed in the frame buffer.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

 It requires large memory. In general, if V is a vector in the viewing direction from the
eye or"camera"or"camera" position, then this polygon is a back face if
 It is time consuming process.
V.N > 0
Scan-Line Method
Furthermore, if object descriptions are converted to projection coordinates and your viewing
It is an image-space method to identify visible surface. This method has a depth information
direction is parallel to the viewing z-axis, then −
for only single scan-line. In order to require one scan-line of depth values, we must group and
process all polygons intersecting a given scan-line at the same time before processing the next V = (0, 0, Vz) and V.N = VZC
scan-line. Two important tables, edge table and polygon table, are maintained for this.
So that we only need to consider the sign of C the component of the normal vector N.
The Edge Table − It contains coordinate endpoints of each line in the scene, the inverse slope
In a right-handed viewing system with viewing direction along the negative ZVZV axis, the
of each line, and pointers into the polygon table to connect edges to surfaces.
polygon is a back face if C < 0. Also, we cannot see any face whose normal has z component
The Polygon Table − It contains the plane coefficients, surface material properties, other C = 0, since your viewing direction is towards that polygon. Thus, in general, we can label any
surface data, and may be pointers to the edge table. polygon as a back face if its normal vector has a z component value −
C <= 0

To facilitate the search for surfaces crossing a given scan-line, an active list of edges is formed.
The active list stores only those edges that cross the scan-line in order of increasing x. Also a Similar methods can be used in packages that employ a left-handed viewing system. In these
flag is set for each surface to indicate whether a position along a scan-line is either inside or packages, plane parameters A, B, C and D can be calculated from polygon vertex coordinates
outside the surface. specified in a clockwise
Pixel positions across each scan-line are processed from left to right. At the left intersection direction unlikethecounterclockwisedirectionusedinaright−handedsystemunlikethecounterclo
with a surface, the surface flag is turned on and at the right, the flag is turned off. You only ckwisedirectionusedinaright−handedsystem.
need to perform depth calculations when multiple surfaces have their flags turned on at a certain Also, back faces have normal vectors that point away from the viewing position and are
scan-line position. identified by C >= 0 when the viewing direction is along the positive ZvZv axis. By examining
Back-Face Detection parameter C for the different planes defining an object, we can immediately identify all the
back faces.
A fast and simple object-space method for identifying the back faces of a polyhedron is based
on the "inside-outside" tests. A point x,y,zx,y,z is "inside" a polygon surface with plane
parameters A, B, C, and D if When an inside point is along the line of sight to the surface, the
polygon must be a back
face weareinsidethatfaceandcannotseethefrontofitfromourviewingpositionweareinsidethatface
andcannotseethefrontofitfromourviewingposition.
We can simplify this test by considering the normal vector N to a polygon surface, which has
Cartesian components A,B,CA,B,C.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL
COMPUTER GRAPHICS COMPUTER GRAPHICS

A-Buffer Method The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm. The depth and opacity values are
used to determine the final color of a pixel.
The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer method. The A-buffer method is a
visibility detection method developed at Lucas film Studios for the rendering system Renders Application of Computer Graphics
Everything You Ever Saw REYESREYES.
1. Education and Training: Computer-generated model of the physical, financial and
The A-buffer expands on the depth buffer method to allow transparencies. The key data economic system is often used as educational aids. Model of physical systems, physiological
structure in the A-buffer is the accumulation buffer. system, population trends or equipment can help trainees to understand the operation of the
system.
For some training applications, particular systems are designed. For example Flight Simulator.
Flight Simulator: It helps in giving training to the pilots of airplanes. These pilots spend much
of their training not in a real aircraft but on the ground at the controls of a Flight Simulator.
Advantages:
1. Fuel Saving
2. Safety
Each position in the A-buffer has two fields − 3. Ability to familiarize the training with a large number of the world's airports.
 Depth field − It stores a positive or negative real number 2. Use in Biology: Molecular biologist can display a picture of molecules and gain insight into
 Intensity field − It stores surface-intensity information or a pointer value their structure with the help of computer graphics.
3. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can use
computer-generated maps which display data useful to them in their planning work.
4. Architect: Architect can explore an alternative solution to design problems at an interactive
graphics terminal. In this way, they can test many more solutions that would not be possible
without the computer.
5. Presentation Graphics: Example of presentation Graphics are bar charts, line graphs, pie
charts and other displays showing relationships between multiple parameters. Presentation
Graphics is commonly used to summarize
o Financial Reports
If depth >= 0, the number stored at that position is the depth of a single surface overlapping the o Statistical Reports
corresponding pixel area. The intensity field then stores the RGB components of the surface o Mathematical Reports
color at that point and the percent of pixel coverage. o Scientific Reports
o Economic Data for research reports
If depth < 0, it indicates multiple-surface contributions to the pixel intensity. The intensity field o Managerial Reports
then stores a pointer to a linked list of surface data. The surface buffer in the A-buffer includes o Consumer Information Bulletins
− o And other types of reports
 RGB intensity components 6. Computer Art: Computer Graphics are also used in the field of commercial arts. It is used
 Opacity Parameter to generate television and advertising commercial.

 Depth 7. Entertainment: Computer Graphics are now commonly used in making motion pictures,
music videos and television shows.
 Percent of area coverage
8. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,
 Surface identifier business analysts for the study of a large amount of information.

Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL Dr. D. UDAYA / Assistant Professor AAGASC/Department of Computer Science / KKL