Lesson 1 Power Sharing

Story of Belgium:
 Belgium is a small country in Europe.
 Area wise, it is smaller than Haryana (State).
 It has borders with France, the Netherlands, Germany and Luxembourg.
 Its Ethnic composition is very complex.
o Three languages; Dutch, French and German.
o Three regions; Flemish (59% Dutch speaking), Wallonia (40% French speaking) and Brussels.
o However, in Brussels (Capital Region): 20% Dutch speaking and 80% French speaking.
o There are 1% German speaking also.
But What was the problem in it?
 In Belgium, the French-speaking community was smaller in number but they were richer and more powerful.
 On the other hand, the Dutch-speaking majority got fewer benefits .
o For Example:- They could not get equal access to good education, government jobs, and economic opportunities for a
long time.
 This problem was even worse in the capital city, Brussels.
 Because of this, tensions grew between the two communities.

Story of Sri Lanka:

 Sri Lanka is an Island Nation (India’s neighbor).
 Its population is about two crore (same as in Haryana).
 Sri Lanka has a diverse population.
o Major Social groups: Sinhala-speakers (74%) and Tamil-speakers (18%).
 Moreover, There are two sub groups of Tamils: Sri Lankan Tamils(13%) and Indian Tamils (5%).
o other social groups: Christians (7%) and Rest (1%) .
o Religion: Buddhists (majority), Hindus, Muslims and Christians.
 Tensions took place due to discriminatory policies of Sri Lankan Government.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

 In 1948, after attaining Independence, Sinhala community took advantage of its majority.
 Since, It adopted a series of Majoritarian measures.
 Changes favored Sinhala community only.
o Recognition of Sinhala as the only official language in 1956.
o Preferential policies for Sinhala applicants (Govt. jobs & University position).
o Moreover, duty of State to protect and foster Buddhism.
 Against these, Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties.
o Demanded for recognition of Tamil as an official language,
o for regional autonomy and equality of opportunity in education and jobs.
 However, Sinhala government refused to do so.
 As a consequence, Demand for Tamil Eelam (State) arose. (1980s)
 Thus, the above mentioned changes paved way to a Civil War.

Accommodation in Belgium
 In Belgium, Leaders took care of every linguistic group. Thus, adopted Belgian Model.
 To make workable arrangements, they had to amend their constitution four times (Between 1970 and 1993).
 Although, Belgian measure is different and very innovative.
 So, The Elements of Belgian Model are:-
o Central Government: Equal representation of the ministers of both linguistic groups. And provision of Bilateral
agreement.
o State Government: State governments are not subordinate to Central government.
o Separate Government (Brussels): Both the communities have equal representation.
o Community Government: This third kind of government is elected by people belonging to one language community
irrespective of their place (Dutch, French and German). This government has power regarding cultural, educational and
language-related issues.
 Hence, Belgium model proved to be successful.

Why power sharing is desirable?

There are mainly two reasons. First, Prudential and second moral.
1. Prudential Reason: Power sharing is good (good for better outcomes) because it helps to reduce the possibility of conflict
between social groups.
2. Moral Reason: Power sharing is very spirit of democracy. It allows citizens to participate in government as they are the one
who get affected by its exercise.

Forms of Power-Sharing
Finally, Above reasons made us realize the value of power sharing. In modern democracies, power sharing arrangements can
take many forms. Let us discuss these forms.

1. Horizontal Distribution of power sharing: There are three organs of government; legislature, executive, judiciary. At
same level, they perform different functions. Also check and balance the functioning of each other. Thus, share the power
horizontally.
2. Vertical Distribution of power sharing: When power is shared among governments at different levels; Central/union,
State/regional, local. We call it vertical distribution of power sharing.
3. Power sharing among different social groups: In some countries constitutional and legal arrangements are made in
order to give minority communities a fair share in power. For instance, reserved constituencies in India and community
govt. in Belgium.
4. Power sharing among political parties, pressure groups and movements: As we know that power sharing means
division of power. This division can be of political parties in the form of coalition government. It can be of pressure groups
who influence public opinions and govt. policies. For Example: interest groups of traders, businessmen, industrialists,
farmers, students, industrial workers.

Lesson 2 Federalism
What is federalism?
Federalism is a system of government in which the power is divided between a central authority and various
constituent units of the country. To put it simple; there are two independent functionaries, one is at central level and
other is at state level. However in some countries, there is another body which functions at the local level. For
example: India has three tiers of government.

Key features of Federalism:

1. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
2. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own Jurisdiction in specific matters of
legislation, taxation and administration.
3. The jurisdictions (decision making power) of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the
constitution.
4. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level of government.
5. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of government.
6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial autonomy.
7. The Federal system has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country and to accommodate
regional diversity.
o Note: Two aspects; mutual trust and agreement to live together are crucial for the ideal federal system.

Kinds of Federations:
There are two kinds of routes through which federations have been formed.
 Coming together federations: When Independent States willingly come together and form a bigger unit with the
purpose of retaining identity and increasing security from outside threat. We call it coming together federations.
o In these federations, the central government and all the constituent states usually have equal power.
o For Example: The USA, Switzerland and Australia.
 Holding together federations: Some countries which are large in size and population choose the second route.
These countries decides to divide its power between the constituent States and the national governments.
o In this, the central government tends to be more powerful than states. Very often different constituent units of
the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers.
o For Example: India, Spain and Belgium.

Federal System Vs Unitary System

Federal System Unitary System

Power splits between the central government and The central government holds all power in
state governments. unitary system.

Both have their own authority and make laws Local governments follow orders from the
independently. center.

Example: India, Russia, Brazil Example: France, Japan, United Kingdom

What makes India a federal country?

Previously, we read about the cases of two small countries; Belgium and Sri Lanka. Now we will look into the
arrangements of a vast country India which is also famous for being a diverse country.

 India has three levels — Union, State, and Local (added in 1992).
 Each level governs the same people but in different areas.
o For Example:- Centre makes laws on banking; State on health; both on education (Concurrent List).
 Constitution divides powers regarding law making into Union, State, and Concurrent Lists.
o For Example:- Union government can make laws mentioned in the union list and State can make laws given in the
state list (under 7th Schedule)
 No level can change the Constitution alone. Some changes need both Centre and states (Art. 368).
 Supreme Court solves conflicts and protects the Constitution.
 Taxes are divided, but Centre keeps more control.
 India respects diversity by allowing language-based states and local governance.
Article 1 says that India, that is Bharat, shall be a union of states and the territory of India consists of that of the
states, union territories specified in the First Schedule and other acquired territories.
Note: Although there is no mention of the word “federalism” in our constitution. But Indian Union is based on the
principles of federalism. Now remind all the features again because we will match them with the provisions of the
Indian Constitution.

Three fold distribution of legislative powers:

 Union List: It is the list which comes under the jurisdiction of the union or central government as it includes the
subjects of national importance. Thus we need uniform policy on these matters throughout the country.
o There are 98 subjects in this list.
 Example: Defense of the country, foreign affairs, banking, communications and currency.
 State List: It contains subjects of State and local importance. The State Governments alone can make laws relating
to the subjects mentioned in the State List.
o There are 57 subjects in the state list.
 Example: Police, trade, commerce, agriculture and irrigation.
 Concurrent List: This list includes subjects of common interest to both the Union government as well as state
governments. Both levels of governments can make laws on the subjects mentioned in this list. However when
these governments do not agree on some laws with each other, the law made by the Union government prevails.
o Concurrent list has 52 subjects.
 Example: Education, forest, trade unions, marriage, adoption and succession.
Residuary Subjects: Some subjects do not come under any of the above given lists. It is because these subjects came
up after the constitution was made. The jurisdiction over residuary subjects has been given to the Union
Government. For Example: Computer Software.
Note: The Parliament cannot on its own change the power sharing arrangements. Any change to it has to be first passed
by both the Houses of Parliament with at least two-third majority. Then it has to be ratified by the legislatures of at
least half of the total States.

What are Union Territories?

 Some areas are too small to become independent States or cannot be merged with any existing State.
o Examples : Chandigarh, Lakshadweep, and Delhi.
 Union Territories have less power compared to States.
 Lastly, the Central Government directly controls the administration of Union Territories.

How is federalism practised?

 Along with constitutional provisions, the nature of democratic politics made federalism successful in India. Let’s
understand it better.

Linguistic States:
 The first major test for the democratic politics was the creation of linguistic States.
 The state boundaries you see today, did not exist at the time of independence.
 Although when demand arose for creation of states on the basis of language, the leaders had to redraw some
boundaries.
 o For Example: Andhra Pradesh became the first linguistic state in India.
 However, the recognition to all the states was not only on the basis of language but also on the basis of different
culture, ethnicity or geography.
o For Example: Nagaland, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand.

Language Policy:
 A second test for Indian federation is the language policy.
 Since there were many different languages in the country, our constitution did not give the status of national
language to any one language. Instead it worked towards the protection of other languages.
o India has no national language.
o Instead, India has 22 scheduled languages (under 8th schedule).
o Each state has its own official language (the government work takes place in the official language of the
concerned State).
o Furthermore, the central Government uses both English and Hindi for official purposes.

Centre-State relations:
 Till 1990, the central government alone enjoyed most powers.
 There was no autonomy for states.
 However, with the beginning of the era of coalition government at the centre, many regional parties got the
chance to demand for state autonomy.
 In the support of States, the Supreme Court made it difficult for the Central Government to dismiss the state
government.
Note: The seventh schedule of the Indian constitution specifies the distribution of powers and responsibilities
between the state and the centre by dividing them into three lists — Union, State, and Concurrent.

Role of Judiciary:
 Judiciary oversees implementation of constitutional rules.
 Handles disputes between Union and State governments about power division.
 High Courts and Supreme Court decide on such disputes.
 Ensures both governments follow their constitutional powers.
 Union and State governments can collect taxes to fulfill their duties.

Decentralization in India
 The power sharing between centre and state governments was not enough for running a vast country efficiently.
 In order to work at grass root level, decentralization of power was necessary.
 Now, first understand the meaning of decentralization.
o When the central and state governments are legally made bound to share some powers with local governments,
it is called decentralization.
Note: In 1992, the 73rd and 74th constitutional amendment acts gave recognition to the third tier.

Constitutional amendment Act of 1992 / features of

Decentralization / Steps taken for making the third tier more
powerful and effective are :

1. It is constitutionally mandatory to hold regular elections to local government bodies.

2. Seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
3. Also, reservation of one-third seats for women has come into effect.
4. State Election Commission has been set up for conducting panchayat and municipal elections.
5. Lastly, it is obligatory for the State governments to share some powers and revenue with local government
bodies.

Panchayati Raj Institutions / Rural Local Government:

 Village level:
There is gram panchayat at the village level. It consists of panch and sarpanch.
o
All the adult population living in the respected villages, directly elect the wards members.
o
The gram panchayat works under the supervision of the gram sabha.
o
 All the voters in the village are its members.
 It has to meet twice or thrice in a year to approve the annual budget of the gram panchayat and review the
performance of the gram panchayat.
 Block level:
o A few gram panchayats are grouped together to form a panchayat samiti or block or mandal.
o Also, it links the village level and the District level local bodies.
 District Level:
o All the panchayat samities or mandals in a district together constitute the zilla (district) parishad.
o Most members of zilla parishad are elected. However, there are some other officials (Members of the Lok Sabha
and MLA’s of that district) also who are its members.
o Moreover, zilla parishad chairperson is the political head of the zilla parishad.

Urban Local Government :

 In cities, Local Self-Governments are of two types — Municipalities for smaller cities and Municipal
Corporations for bigger cities.
 The political head of the municipalities is called Municipal Chairperson.
1. The Municipal Committe/ Nagar Panchayat
o These areas are at their transitional stage.
o The population size is more than 10,000 and less than 25,000 in these towns.
2. Municipal Council/ Nagar Palika
o These are set up in towns where the population is more than 25,000 and less than 1 million.
3. The Municipal Corporation/ Nagar Nigam
 Municipal corporations work in the big cities where the population is more than 1 million.
 The political head of Municipal Corporation is called the mayor.

Lesson 2-Sectors of Indian Economy

Sectors on the basis of the nature of work:
Primary Sector: This sector forms the base for all sectors.

 The activity in which a person produces goods by directly using natural resources comes under the primary sector.
 For Example: Agriculture, dairy, fishing, forestry, mining etc.
 Another name for this sector is Agriculture and related sectors.
 Secondary Sector: Backbone of Development.

 Activities in which manufacturing of natural products take place. Moreover, we associate it with industrial activities.
 For Example: Cement industry, cotton mills, car factories etc.
 Lastly, We also call this sector the industrial sector.

Tertiary Sector: Backbone of 21st Century Global Economy

 These activities help in development of the first two sectors.

 It provides support for the production process.
 For Example: Transportation, communication, banking etc.
 Also known as the service sector.

Comparing the three Sectors:

These three sectors produce a large number of goods and Services. Now, let’s discuss the total
production and employment in each sector. But wait, before we study this, we need to know the
answer to the question given below.

How do we figure out the total production in each sector?

Or

How do we count the various goods and services and know the total production in each sector?
 To find total production in a sector, we add the money value of the final goods and services that sector produces
in a year.
 We do not add the value of parts or raw materials separately, because their value is already included in the final
product (this avoids double counting).
 When we add the total (sum) of all sectors for the year, the result is called GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
o GDP is the money value of all final goods and services produced within a country in one year.
 It shows us how much our country is producing and how the economy is growing.
 Central government ministry handles the work of GDP.
 Note: India now reports sector-wise GVA (not just GDP) to match global practice.
o Gross value added (GVA) shows how much value each sector actually adds, after adjusting for product taxes and
subsidies.
Final Goods: These are goods we use directly, like a bicycle. Intermediate Goods: These are parts used to make final
goods, like the wheels of a bicycle.
To calculate GDP, we use a formula: GDP = C + I + G + (X – M) (Economic term)

Difference between GDP and GNP:

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross National Product (GNP)

[Link] the goods and services made within a 1. All the goods and services produced by a country’s
country’s borders. citizens, regardless of where they are.

2. If an Indian company manufactures clothing in another

2. If a smartphone is assembled in India,
country, the value of that clothing counts towards India’s
its value counts towards India’s GDP.
GNP.
 Additional information for better understanding

Historical Changes in Sectors:

 The Gradual shift from one sector to another sector can be seen in terms of production and employment.
 In the initial stages of development, the primary sector was the most important sector of economic activities.
 However, with the beginning of industries, another shift took place.
 In modern times, further shift has been seen. Now, the service sector has become the most important sector in
terms of total production.

Production and Employment in three sectors :

Primary, Secondary And Tertiary Sectors In India
After comparing the data of different years, you would have observed that only the tertiary sector is becoming
important in recent years. Why is it so?

Reason for rising importance of the Tertiary Sector in

Production
 The need of basic services: The requirement of several services is obvious in every country. For Example: Hospitals,
educational institutions, post and telegraph services, police services, courts, banks and many more.
 Development of Agriculture and industry: Demand for services like transport, trade, storage has been increased
due to development in primary and secondary sectors.
 Rise in the demand with increasing income level: When income level rises, people try to raise their standard of
living. As a result, Certain sections of people start demanding many more services like eating out, tourism,
shopping, private hospitals etc.
 Increasing importance of I.C.T. : People in the service sector are increasingly using Information and
communication technology. Therefore, it has become the reason for the expansion of the service sector.
Note: First, not all of the service sector is growing equally well. Limited number of people (highly skilled and educated)
have the benefit of being in the service sector. Large number of workers ( in the Service Sector) are not even able to
make their ends meet. Secondly, there is no similar shift in employment and production level of each sector. For
instance, the Primary sector is the largest employer till now whereas tertiary and secondary sectors contribute most in
terms of production.

Where are most of the people employed and why?

As we discussed above, It is the primary sector where most of the people work ( about 48.9%). In contrast, the tertiary
sector employs 32.33% and the Industrial sector employs 26.18% people. It is because other sectors (tertiary and
secondary) have failed to generate enough employment. Mainly, because of the level of skills required for high
productive jobs.
Does the primary sector need this much work force?
Not really, Because most of the people are unnecessarily doing agricultural work. So, Even if we move a few people
(unnecessary people) out, there will be no effect on the production. In fact, many of them are underemployed. Let’s
understand what underemployment is.
 Underemployment: A situation in which a person seems to be working, however, that person has no role as such to
show his/her full potential. We can also name it as disguised or hidden unemployment. For instance, Laxmi’s case.
 Underemployment is a problem everywhere:-
o In urban areas, it is in the form of casual laborers.
 For Example: painters, plumbers, Masons etc.
o In rural areas, it is in the form of agricultural laborers.
 The only solution to it is creation of more employment. So that we can help our economy grow with the potential of
all those who are not able to use it due to some or the other reason.

How to create more employment?

Well, it is obvious that only the government can help to overcome such problems. Since, It is the government who is
responsible for the welfare of its citizens.

Long term goals for employment generation:

1. Provision of irrigation facilities: The government can spend some money or the bank can provide a loan for the
construction of wells or canals. It will create less dependency on natural factors. Thus, more employment will be
generated.
2. Investment on transport and storage: In order to create more employment, the government can construct roads
and invest in transportation (to connect roads). It will pave the way to services like transport or trade.
3. Promotion of Industries and services: Locating industries in rural areas can help farmers in many ways.
o For Example: Cold storage can help to store products like potatoes and onions. So that farmers can sell them
when the price is good.
o Honey collection centers can help sell honey.
o And vegetable processing industries will encourage horticulture.
4. Investment in institutions and health care: To send all children to school and improve health, the government
will require more buildings. It will further create the need of teachers, doctors and other staff. Thus, investment for
such a cause will generate employment opportunities.
5. Proper planning and support : Every state has potential to create employment by setting up new areas of work.
For Example: tourism, regional craft industry, IT etc. What all these regions need is proper planning and support
from the government. (Note: The Planning commission says that we can give additional employment to more than 35
lakh people with the improvement in the tourism sector.)
Important to note: Planning commission is now known as NITI Aayog (National Institution for transforming India).
Short term goals for creating employment:
 Implementation of laws : Government needs some quick measures like legalizing some rights.
o Take for instance, Central Government implemented ‘Right to Work’ Law through MGNREGA in 2005 for rural
areas.
o Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (MGNREGA):
 It Guarantees 100 days employment in a year.
 Those who do not get employment under this Act, get unemployment allowance.
 Work type depends on the expected future production from land.

On the basis of Condition of work

Division Of Sectors as Organized and Unorganized
Activities can also be classified by conditions of work: organised sector and unorganised sector. It
means looking at the way people are employed and their condition of work. Let’s discuss them.

1. Organized Sector

 This sector is registered by the government.

 The terms of employment are regular.
 Follow the rules and regulations of the government.
 It has various laws such as Factories Act, Minimum Wages Act, Payment of Gratuity Act, Shops and establishments
Act etc.
 It has some formal processes and procedures.
  People have security of work, written contracts, fixed hours, paid leave and holidays, provident fund, Employees’
State Insurance (ESI), gratuity, pension and medical benefits too.
 Workers get all the required facilities such as clean drinking water, safe working environment etc.
 For Example: Govt. employees, school, colleges, banks etc.
 Note:- Private companies also offer organised-sector jobs like formal, registered roles with contracts and legal
benefits.

2. Unorganized Sector

 The sector is largely outside the control of the government.

 Jobs are low-paid and often not regular.
 There are rules and regulations but people hardly follow them.
 As the name suggests, it has no formal processes and procedures.
 People in this sector can not even enjoy medical benefits.
 People have no job security. They can be asked to leave without any reason. When there is less work.
 There is no provision for overtime, paid leave, holidays etc.
 For Example: Street Seller, repairman, laborers in rural areas, small scale workers, rag pickers, head load workers
etcetera.
 Note: Some enterprises evade taxes and ignore labour laws. This leads to exploitation of unorganised-sector
workers, and since nearly 90% of workers are in this sector, their protection is crucial.

How to protect workers in the unorganized sector?

After reading about both sectors, you would have got clarity that unorganized sector workers become the victim of
exploitation.
Here are the ways to protect them :-
1. Government can open small scale industries and provide some basic facilities at work.
2. Government can fix minimum wages.
3. It can make provision for payment of extra hours.
4. It can provide loans at low interest rates, to help self-employed people.
5. Government can provide basic facilities such as education, medical care and food.
6. Government can prevent workers from exploitation by enacting some effective laws.

On the basis of Ownership: Public And

Private Sectors:
There is another to classify sectors i.e. on the basis of ownership.

Public Sector Private Sector

The government owns most of the assets and provides all the Ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the
services. hands of private individuals or companies.
For Example: Railways or post office, Steel Authority of For Example: Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited
India (SAIL), Bharat Heavy Electricals (BHEL) . (TISCO) or Reliance Industries Limited (RIL).

This sector works for both profit and welfare. For Example:
Fair price for farmers and lower price for consumers Its purpose is to earn profits.
(welfare).
It provides goods and services at a reasonable rate. For
It renders goods and services quite expensive.
Example: Food, Health and educational facilities.

Govt. undertake heavy spending to ensure availability of Private sector has a great role in promoting economic
facilities for all. For Example: construction of roads, bridges, growth. It is known as a key contributor to alleviating
railways, dams etc. poverty.

It gets encouragement from the public sector to work

This sector encourages other sectors to invest in business.
towards innovative goals.

Important to know:

 Infant Mortality Rate: Madhya Pradesh (Highest) and Mizoram (Lowest).

 Literacy Rate: Kerala (Highest) and Bihar (Lowest).
 Therefore, it is the government’s responsibility to take care of ignored regions through increased spending.

Lesson -1 Resources and development

Introduction:
The food living beings consume, water intake, clothes wear and live in, all are the products of nature. And humans
have termed these sources of livelihood as resources. All living beings need these resources but often human beings
become indifferent towards the problems related to resources. Here, in the first chapter we will learn about the types,
uses and conservation measures of resources.

Resources:
Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided, it is technologically
accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable can be termed as ‘Resource’.

Interdependent relationship between nature, technology and institutions:

Human beings obtain natural resources and convert them into a new resource. During this process, interaction takes
place between human beings and nature. Here, technology (a man-made resource) works as a link and institutions
(human-made) help to accelerate economic development. Thus, nature, technology and institutions show an
interdependent relationship.

‘Resources are free gift of nature’. Do you agree?

Resources available in our environment have become useful because of the presence of human resource. Human
being transform materials available in the environment and use them. Therefore, resources are free gift of nature is not
true.
How does technical & economic development increase resource use?
As industries, agriculture, and cities expand, the demand for resources like energy, minerals, and land also rises. With
advanced technology boosting production and transportation growing rapidly, economic progress drives even greater
resource use.
 Classification of Resources:
1. On the basis of Origin:
Biotic Resources: All the living components present on earth are biotic.
 For Example: Flora, Fauna, human beings, fisheries, livestock etc.
Abiotic Resources: All the non-living components on earth are abiotic.
 For Example: Land, water, air, rocks and metals.

2. Exhaustibility:
Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical or mechanical
processes are known as renewable or replenishable resources.
 For Example: Solar and wind energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc.
Non-Renewable Resources: These resources take millions of years in their formation.
 For Example: Minerals and fossil fuels.

3. Ownership:
Individual Resources: Resources owned privately by individuals are individual resources.
 For Example: Plots, houses, fields, pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc.
Community Owned Resources: There are resources which are accessible to all the members of the community.
 For Example: Public parks, village commons (grazing grounds, burial grounds, village ponds, etc.), playgrounds,
picnic spots etc.
National Resources: All the resources which come under the territorial boundary of a country belong to nation.
Therefore, these are national resources.
 For Example: Forests, wildlife, land within political boundaries and oceanic area upto 12 nautical miles (22.2 km)
from the coast.
International Resources: These are resources regulated by international institutions.
 For Example: The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic Zone.
Note:- Territorial water = 12 nautical miles, Exclusive Economic Zone = 12-200 nautical miles, and International waters/
high seas = beyond 200 nautical miles.

4. Status of Development:
Potential Resources: Resources which are found in a region, but have not been utilized.
 For Example: Rajasthan and Gujarat have potential for the development of wind and solar energy.
Developed Resources: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have been determined for
utilization.
Stock: Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but human beings do not have
the appropriate technology to access.
 For Example: We can use Hydrogen as it is rich source of energy but we do not have advanced technical ‘know how’
for that.
Reserves: Resources which are left unused for the requirement of future generation.
 For Example: Use of hydroelectricity.

Development Of Resources:
 The conception that resources are free gift of nature made the people use them indiscriminately. This led to the
following major problems.

1. Depletion of resources.
2. Accumulation of resources in few hands.
3. Global Ecological crises (global warming, ozone layer depletion, pollution, land degradation etc.)
Thus, we need to use resources with care.

Sustainable Development:
Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the environment, and
development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generation.’ (NCERT Definition)

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992:

This summit held in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil. More than 100 heads of states met for addressing urgent problems of
environmental protection and socio-economic development at global level.
 The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity.
 The Rio Convention approved the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21.
o World leader adopted Agenda 21 in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED). The place was same; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
1. It is an agenda to combat environmental damage, poverty, disease through global co-operation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.
2. One major objective of the Agenda 21 is that every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21.

Resource Planning:
Resources are vital for economic development. However, their distribution is uneven.

States Resources (rich in) Resources (lack in)

1. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya mineral and coal Proper Infrastructure & resource management
Pradesh deposits system

2. Arunachal Pradesh. Water infrastructural development

3. Rajasthan. Solar and Wind energy Water

4. Ladakh (U.T) Cultural heritage Water, infrastructure and vital minerals.

For Example:
Therefore, we need balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels.

Resource planning in India:

1. Identification and inventory of resources across the regions of the country.
2. Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set up for
implementing resource development plans.
3. Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
 Conservation of Resources:
 Irrational use of resources have made us face socio-economic and environmental problems.
 The root cause for resource depletion is the greed of individuals. This is why, Gandhiji stated “There is enough for
everybody’s need and not for any body’s greed.”
o Schumacher also presented Gandhian Philosophy in his book ‘Small is Beautiful’.
 The Brundtland Commission Report: It introduced the concept of Sustainable Development.
o Subsequently, it got published in a book ‘ Our Common Future’ as a conservation measure.

Land Resources:
Land is a natural resource which supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport and
communication system. We use land for different purposes. India has variety of relief features, namely; Plains (43%),
mountains (30%), Plateaus (27%) and Islands.

Land Utilization:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land)
4. Fallow lands
5. Net Sown area or gross cropped area.

The Land Use Pattern In India:

 Two factors determine the use of land.
Physical factors: topography, climate, soil type.
o
Human factors: population density, technological capability and culture and tradition etc.
o
 Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq km.
 However, the available data is only 93%.
o Reason:- The land use area for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully.
o Some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not been surveyed.
1. Net Sown Area: It is over 80% of the total area in Punjab and Haryana. And less than 10% in Arunachal Pradesh,
Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
2. Forests: Forest area of India is 24.62%.
o Note: According to National Forest Policy (1952), desired forest cover is 33%.

Land Degradation And Conservation Measures:

In India, different states faced Land degradation due to several reasons. (important for mcqs)

Cause of Degradation States

Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh,
Mining
Madhya Pradesh & Odisha

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya

Overgrazing
Pradesh & Maharashtra
 Punjab, Haryana, Western
Over Irrigation
Uttar Pradesh
Causes for land degradation:
 Deforestation
 Over grazing
 Over Irrigation
 Industrial waste
 Huge amount of dust from cement industries.
Conservation measures:
 Afforestation
 Management of Grazing land
 Proper Irrigation
 Proper treatment for industrial waste.
 Control mining activities.

Soil as a Resource:
 Soil is the most important renewable natural resource.
 It is a medium of plant growth and supports different types of living organisms on the earth.
 The important factors for soil formation are relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of
life and time.
 Moreover, soils can have different color, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties.
 Thus, we classify soils in different types.

Classification of Soils (in India):

Alluvial Soil:
 Area: Entire Northern Plains and eastern coastal plains (particularly in the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Kaveri rivers).
 Nutrients: Potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
 Classification
o Landform / Size:-
 Upper course (Mountains, Piedmont Plains) :- Coarse soil (bigger particles like gravel & sand)
 Middle Course (Floodplains, Meanders) :- Medium-sized particles (like silt)
 Lower Course (near delta areas) :- Fine soil (mainly clay & silt, good for agriculture)
 Note:- Coarse alluvial soil is present in the piedmont plains. For example, Duars (in the foothills of the Eastern
Himalayas, in Assam & West Bengal), Chos (in the foothills of the Shivaliks, in Punjab and Haryana),
and Terai (in the southern foothills of the Himalayas, in Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar)
 Age:- Bangar (old Alluvial) and Khadar (New alluvial)
 Crops: sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
 Features:
o It has high fertility.
o Regions of alluvial soils are intensively cultivated and densely populated.
Black Soil:
 It is also known as regur soil.
 Area: Deccan trap (Basalt) region and plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh.
 Nutrients: calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime.
 Crops: Cotton
 Characteristics:
 o It has capacity to hold moisture.
o It develop deep cracks during hot weather, which help in the proper aeration of the soil.
Red and Yellow Soils:
 Area: Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont zone of Western Ghats.
 Features:
o Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall.
o These soils develop a reddish color due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
o It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
Laterite Soil:
 Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick.
 Area: Southern States, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and North-east
regions.
 Nutrients: Iron and Aluminium
 Crops: Tea, coffee and cashew nut.
 The Laterite soil develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season.
 This soil is the result of intense leaching due to heavy rainfall.
Arid Soil:
 Another name for this soil is desert soil.
 Area: Western Rajasthan, Rann of Kutch, Gujarat.
 Nutrients: Calcium carbonate, gypsum and sodium.
 Crops: Corn, sorghum, pearl millet etc.
 Characteristics:
o Arid soils range from red to brown in color.
o They are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
o Due to dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture.
o The kankar layer formations in the bottom horizons restrict the infiltration of water.
Forest Soil:
 Area: Hilly and mountainous region.
 The soil texture varies according to the mountain environment where they are formed.
 They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
 In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content.
 Forest soils in valleys are very fertile.

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation:

Soil Erosion: It is a process in which natural forces like wind, glacier and water wash away the upper fertile layer of the
soil.
Types of soil Erosion:- Gully erosion, Rill erosion and Sheet erosion
The loss of upper fertile layer causes decrease in the productivity level and reduce the capacity to hold water. Thus,
we need some conservation measures for soil.
1. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines can decelerate the flow of water down the slopes.
2. Terrace Farming or Step Farming: Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces as this type of farming
restricts erosion.
3. Strip Farming: Large fields can be divided into strips (strips of grass) as this breaks up the force of the wind.
4. Shelter belts: Planting lines of trees can help in stabilizing the soil in its place. Thus, we can use these belts to
prevent soil erosion.

Lesson 3 Water resources

Introduction:
Our planet (earth) appears blue as three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water. Yet, we often hear the
news of water scarcity. Well, many of you may know the reason, why? but don’t know the solution, how? So, this
chapter will direct you towards the need and corrective measures for conserving water resources. You will also come
to know about some water management projects of India in this regard.
 Some facts about water

 Oceans have 96.5% water out of total volume.

 Only 2.5% water is fresh.
o Out of total fresh water, 70% water occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and the
mountainous regions.
o Less than 30% water is stored as groundwater.
 India receives nearly 4% of the global precipitation and ranks 133 in the world in terms of water availability per
person per annum.
 The total renewable water resources of India are estimated at 1,897 sq km per annum.
 However, India has a tendency of facing absolute water scarcity in the near future.

Water Scarcity And The Need For Water

Conservation And Management:
Water Scarcity :- It means a shortage of clean and usable water in a region compared to its needs.
Why do people face water scarcity?
1. Usable freshwater is limited → Most water is salty or frozen; only a small part is usable.
2. Rainfall is uneven → Some areas get heavy rain, others get very little.
3. Water is wasted and polluted → People waste water and pollute rivers and lakes.
4. Access is unequal → Cities and rich areas get more water, while many rural or poor areas get less.
Or

Reasons for water Scarcity:

 Natural factor: The availability of water resources varies over space and time, mainly due to the variations in
seasonal and precipitation.
 Human factor: Natural factors alone do not cause water scarcity, but human beings have also contributed to the
problem. Let’s read about two aspects of water scarcity:-
1. Quantitative Aspects: Over exploitation, large and growing population, unequal access to water among different
social groups and excessive use of water resources, mismanagement of water resources, Industrialization
(increasing number of industries) and Urbanization (increase in urban population).
2. Qualitative Aspects: Domestic and industrial wastes, chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers used in agriculture .
 For Example:- from small streams to big rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna have become polluted.
Challenges:- Ecological crisis, impoverishment of water resources and health hazards.
Why conservation and water management is
important?
 Conservation is important to safeguard ourselves from health hazards.
 To ensure food security, continuation of our livelihoods and productive activities.
 Also, to prevent degradation of our natural ecosystems.

Multi-Purpose River Projects And Integrated

Water Resources Management:
 In Ancient times, people constructed lakes, embankments, canals and hydraulic structures like dams to conserve
water for irrigation purpose.
 However, in modern times, dams are being used for multiple purposes such as; irrigation, electricity generation,
water supply for domestic and industrial uses, flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
 o For Example: The Bhakra-Nangal (Satluj-Beas river) project water is being used for hydel power production and
irrigation.
o Similarly, Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin integrates conservation of water with flood control.
 After independence, India followed the integrated water resource management approach for progress and
development of the nation. Thus, launched multipurpose projects.
 Jawaharlal Nehru also encouraged the construction of multipurpose dams because he was of the view that it
would integrate development of agriculture and the village economy with rapid industrialization and growth of the
urban economy.
o This is why he proudly proclaimed the dams as the ‘temple of modern India’.

Dams in India :
Dams States/ U.T. River Purpose

Salal J & K (U.T.) Chenab To generate electricity

Bhakra- Nangal Himachal Pradesh Satlej for hydel power production and irrigation

electricity generation, irrigation, and providing

Tehri Uttarakhand Bhagirathi
drinking water

Rana Pratap Irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, and

Rajasthan Chambal
Sagar flood control

Sardar Sarovar Gujarat Narmada To provide water and electricity

Hirakud Odisha Mahanadi Conservation of water and flood control

Border of Telangana and

Nagarjuna Sagar Krishna Irrigation and electricity generation
Andhra Pradesh

Tungabhadr Irrigation, electricity generation and flood

Tungabhadra Karnataka
a control

Note:- Damodar river is known as ‘the river of sorrow’ in West Bengal. It is because it caused frequent floods and trouble
for the people around that area.
 Advantages of Multipurpose Projects and large dams:
1. It helps in providing irrigation facilities.
2. Electricity can be generated through dams.
3. Flood control is another advantage.
4. They help in fish breeding.
5. Also, they send water to the water scarce areas.

Disadvantages of Multipurpose Projects and large

dams:
1. Dams construction can lead to Loss of life and property.
2. They affect the natural flow of river causing poor sediment flow and excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the
reservoir. Thus, lead to soil erosion and flood.
o For example :- Maharashtra and Gujarat condition in 2006 flood.
3. Dams also fragment rivers making it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate, especially for spawing.
4. The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge (completely cover) the existing vegetation and soil
leading to its decomposition over a period of time.
5. Lastly, multipurpose projects can cause pollution and health problems like malaria.
Note: Many local communities and environmentalists criticized the idea of Multi-purpose projects and large dams due
to :- displacement issues, and ecological imbalance .
 For Example: The Narmada Bachao Andolan and the Tehri Dam Andolan.

Effects of Multi purpose projects in India:-

Positive Effects Negative Effects

Dam projects displaced thousands of local people, es

Dams provide irrigation water for agriculture
tribals and small farmers.

They caused large-scale deforestation and destructio

They generate hydroelectric power
habitats.

They sometimes worsened floods instead of controll

They help in controlling floods
(e.g., Damodar, Hirakud).

Water collected through dams help in Supplying drinking water to Also, dam building had also caused water disputes b
cities and villages states, such as the Cauvery and Krishna river conflict

Construction and maintenance have proven to be hig

Also, they improve inland navigation and transport
expensive.
 In addition, dams have widened the social gap – the
Moreover, they support fishing and promotes tourism
more benefits, while the poor and displaced suffered

For Example: Indira Gandhi Canal brings water from Punjab to the For Example: The farmers of Gujarat’s Sabarmati bas
deserts of western Rajasthan (like Jaisalmer and Bikaner) concerns about the unfair water supply favouring ur

Sardar Sarovar Dam:-

 Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat which has been built over the Narmada River covers four states- Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
 Interestingly, it is one of the largest water resource projects of India.
 Moreover, this project helped in meeting the requirement of water in drought-prone and desert areas of Gujarat and
Rajasthan.

Inter-State Water Disputes:

 Water, vital for life, can also be a source of conflict among states, as seen in the Cauvery river
dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Both states required water from the Cauvery for agricultural purposes, leading to disputes over its sharing.
o To address this, the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal was established in 2007.
o Finally, in 2018, the Supreme Court of India intervened, issuing a verdict aimed at fairly allocating water to both
states in an effort to resolve the issue.
 Another example is Krishna-Godavari Dispute between Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh

Rainwater Harvesting:
Due to the above given disadvantages, people felt the need to find better ways for conserving water resources.
Consequently, rainwater harvesting became an alternative to Multi-purpose projects.
 Rain water harvesting system is both socio-economically and environmentally viable.
 This system has been practiced in India since ancient times.
Places or States Water harvesting system

1. In hills and mountainous

People built diversion channels like the ‘Guls’ and ‘Kuls’ for agriculture.
regions

2. Rajasthan ‘Rooftop rainwater harvesting’ to store drinking water.

3. In flood plains of Bengal People developed inundation (huge) channels to irrigate their fields from the floodwaters o

4. Arid and Semi-arid Rain fed storage structures: ‘Khadins’ (Jaisalmer, Western Rajasthan) and ‘Johads’ (Rajastha
regions irrigation and groundwater recharge]
 5. Meghalaya Bamboo drip irrigation system

Water harvesting in traditional houses of Rajasthan:

 People living in the semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan used to build underground tanks or tankas for storing
drinking water.
 Many houses constructed underground rooms adjoining the ‘tanka’ to meet two needs together.
o The tank filled with water helped them survive hot and dry summers.
o Also, it kept the room cool.
 Particularly, people of Bikaner, Phalodi and Barmar regions practiced this method of rainwater harvesting.
 The tanks were usually large.
o For example: one household in Phalodi had a tank that was 6.1 metres deep, 4.27 metres long and 2.44 metres
wide.
 These tanks were built inside the main house or the courtyard.
 They were connected to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe.
 Rainwater or palar pani in dry parts of Rajasthan is considered the purest form of natural water.
Unfortunately, this practice has been on decline in Rajasthan. The reason is availability of plenty of water. It is due to
the perennial Indira Gandhi Canal, many people in western Rajasthan don’t feel the need of maintaining tankas.
Note:- Gendathur, Mysuru, Karnataka became known for successful rooftop rainwater harvesting.

Water shortage in Mawsynram, Meghalaya:

 Despite being a heavy rainfall area, the North East region especially Shillong faces water shortages. You know why?
o It due to topography, inadequate infrastructure for conserving water, seasonal variations, population
growth, and climate change.
– Do you know which state of India receives the highest rainfall?
Mawsynram, Meghalaya
– Which state made Bamboo Drip Irrigation System in India?
Meghalaya
– Which state is the first state in India which has made rooftop rainwater
harvesting compulsory to all the houses across the state?
Tamil Nadu
– In which region is rooftop rainwater harvesting the most common practice?
Shillong, Meghalaya
– Which village became known for successful rooftop rainwater harvesting?
Gendathur village, Mysuru, Karnataka

Meaning of Terms used :

Drip Irrigation System:- It is a system that sends water straight to plant roots using tubes and emitters. Its main goal
is to save water by cutting down on evaporation and runoff. This makes it a really efficient way to water crops.
Roof top rain water harvesting: It is for collecting rainwater from rooftops using gutters and pipes. This harvested
rainwater can be stored for various purposes such as watering plants, flushing toilets, cleaning, or other non-
potable uses.
Guls, Kals, Khadins and Johads: There are traditional water harvesting structures used in different regions, in India,
to capture and store rainwater.
 Guls: These are deep pits dug into the ground to collect rainwater, allowing it to seep into the soil and recharge
groundwater.
 Kuls: Kuls are embankments built across streams to slow down water flow, enabling it to spread and recharge
groundwater.
 Khadins: Traditional dams constructed across seasonal streams divert water into fields for irrigation and
groundwater recharge.
 Johads: These are small ponds built in dry regions to capture rainwater during the monsoon, supporting
groundwater recharge, irrigation, and local biodiversity.

Lesson -1-Rise of the Nationalisam in Europe

Major changes in France :

 In 1789, the people of France began protesting against the autocratic rule of the Monarch.
 They demanded for the transfer of power from the king to the common people.
 The members of the third Estate wanted parliamentary democracy.
 French Revolutionaries attempted to create a sense of collective identity among the French people.
o Steps Taken by Revolutionaries:
 The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a united
community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
 A new French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the former royal standard.
 The Estates General was renamed as ‘The National Assembly’ and elected by the body of active citizens.
 New hymns (national songs) were composed.
 They took oaths and recalled martyrs. They did all these things in the name of the nation
 Revolutionaries formulated uniform laws for all citizens under a centralized administrative system.
 Internal customs duties and dues were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures was
adopted.
 French became the common (national) language of the nation.
 French armies took the idea of Nationalism abroad.

Napoleonic Era: (1799-1815)

 Re-establishment of Monarchy by Napoleon Bonaparte destroyed democracy in France.
 However, He incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make the whole system more rational and efficient.
First, he brought changes in France and then regions under French control.
o Napoleon introduced the civil code of 1804 also known as Napoleonic Code.
 He put an end to all the privileges based on birth.
 Established equality before the law.
 Secured the right to property.
 Abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues.
 He also removed Guild restrictions from towns.
 and also improved the transportation and communication systems.
 He brought out uniform laws, introduced standardized weights and measures, and a common national
currency.
o Drawbacks of Napoleon Rule:
 Increased taxation.
 Censorship (suppression of ideas, speech, images that are offensive).
 and also forced conscription into the French Armies.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe:

In the mid of eighteenth-century (1750-1815)
 There were no ‘nation states‘.
 The rulers of Germany, Italy and Switzerland had autonomous territories. And they were divided into kingdoms,
duchies and cantons.
 People had diversity in language, tradition, history.
o For example: Habsburg Empire.
 Only common thing in these diverse groups was loyalty to the emperor.
They had nothing to share with each other in common except the allegiance to the King. So How did nationalism and
the idea of the nation state emerge.

The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class:

We will discuss about Social, Political and economic life of three groups in Europe. These are Aristocracy, Peasantry
and Middle Class.

Aristocracy:
 Aristocracy was powerful, the dominant and the land owing class.
 It spoke in French for the purposes of diplomacy and in high society.
 Their families were often connected by the ties of marriage.
 United by the common ways of life.
 However, the group of Aristocrats was very small.

Peasantry:
 Peasants’ population was in majority.
 They used to look after the land of aristocrats.

Middle Class:
 With the growth of industrial production and trade, new towns and commercial classes emerged.
 The middle class comprised of Industrialists, businessmen, professionals (teacher, doctor).
 Two Ideas of Educated Middle Class:-
o The Idea of National unity.
o And Idea of Liberal Nationalism evolved in the minds of middle class.

Liberal Nationalism:
The term Liberalism derives from the Latin root liber, meaning free.
The Idea of liberal nationalism for new middle class was:-
 In Political sphere:
o Freedom of Individual.
o Equality before law.
o Government with people’s consent.
o End of Autocracy and clerical privileges.
o Constitution and representative government through Parliament.
 In Economic sphere:
o Freedom of markets.
o Abolition of state-imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.
Since they wanted to get solution for these two problems:-
1. Firstly, Only propertied men were allowed to vote and women had no such right.
2. Secondly, State to state trade restrictions. (For example:- currency, weights and measures, custom barriers)

Zollverein:
 In 1834, a custom union formed.
 Prussia took the initiative.
 Later, Most of the German States joined it.
It gave positive outcome:-
 The union abolished tariff barriers.
 Also removed number of currencies from over thirty to two.
 Improved or promote Railway networks that stimulated mobility.

A New Conservatism after 1815:

 Napoleonic Era ended when Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria collectively fought war against Napoleon and
defeat him in the Battle of Waterloo (Battle in Belgium).
 Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism.
 Conservatives believed that established, traditional institutions of state and society should be preserved.
o For example: The monarchy
o The Church
o Social hierarchies
o Property and the family.
 However, one thing they (conservatives) realized that Napoleon’s measures were somehow better and need to
make some changes in old system in order to strengthen traditional institutions.
 After a great victory in the battle of Waterloo, Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria signed the treaty of Vienna (Capital of
Austria) in 1815.

Treaty of Vienna:
An Austrian Chancellor, Duke Metternich hosted the congress which was held at Vienna. He was the architect of The
Treaty Of Vienna.
 Conservatives restored Bourbon dynasty in France.
 States were set up on the Boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future.
 Prussia got some important territories on its western frontiers.
 Austria got control over North Italy.
 Russia got Poland.
 Confederation of 39 states which had been set up by Napoleon, was left untouched.

Problem in conservative regimes:-

 These conservative regimes were autocratic.
 They did not tolerate criticism and dissent.
 They sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments.
 Most of them imposed censorship laws.
Freedom of Press became one of the main reasons for liberal-nationalists to criticize the new conservative
order. As a result, Revolutionaries came forward.

The Revolutionaries:
 The fear of repression drove many liberal-nationalists underground.
 They began to form secret societies, train revolutionaries and spread their ideas.
 They would become revolutionaries with the Aim
o to spread the idea of Nationalism and oppose Monarchy.
o They wanted freedom and end of Autocratic rule.
o Most of these revolutionaries also saw the creation of nation-states as a necessary part of this struggle for
freedom.

One of the most important Revolutionaries:-

 Giuseppe Mazzini:
o He was an Italian Revolutionary.
o Born in Genoa in 1805.
o Since he attempted a revolution in Liguria, he was sent into exile in 1831.
o Also, he was a member of secret society Carbonari
 He formed two secret societies.
 Young Italy in Marseilles.
 Young Europe in Berne.
o Mazzini believed that the God intended nations to be a natural units of mankind. In simple words, he believed in
the unification of Italy.
o Influenced by his model, Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland also formed secret societies.
o He made conservatives feel fear by his vision of democratic republics.
o Metternich describes him as ‘ The most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

 The ideas (Liberalism and Nationalism) got spread among different parts of Europe.
 Educated middle class (Liberal-Nationalist) led these two ideas.
 Regions were Italian, German States, Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland.

27 July 1830 : French Revolution

 The First upheaval took place in France.
 Liberal Revolutionaries overthrew Conservatives (Bourbon kings) from the position.
 And appointed Louis Philippe as the head under constitutional monarchy.
 The revolution in France led to other revolutions such as Belgium and Greek Revolution.

25 August 1830 : Belgian Revolution

 Belgian Revolution began on 25th August 1830.
 The difference in religion led to separation of Belgium (Catholics) from United Kingdom of Netherlands
(Protestants).
 Finally, Belgium got Independence on 4 October 1830.

1821-1832; Greek War Of Independence : Greek Revolution

 There was Ottoman Empire in Greece.
 However, Greeks wanted the revival of the Byzantine Empire
 Also, Constantinople as its capital.
 At last, Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as a sovereign nation in 1832.
 They got help from western countries (the British Empire, Kingdom of France, and Russia).
 Poets and Artists referred Greece as ‘The Cradle of European Civilization‘.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

Nationalism developed through Culture also. Since, It created the idea of the nation. But the question is, how? Here,
you need to know the term Romanticism to understand this better.

Romanticism: It is a cultural Movement to develop a particular form of Nationalist sentiment.

 The Romantic Artists and poets criticized the glorification of reason and science.
 Instead, They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings.
 They intended to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common past as the basis of a nation.

Romanticists :

Germany: Culture became the reason for promoting nationalism.

 Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803): He was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic.
o He was also known as the father of ‘Cultural Nationalism‘.
o He suggested two ideas; Das Volk and Volkgeist.
 Das Volk: It is a German word that means common people of the country.
 Volkgeist: It is also a German word that mean spirit of Nationalism.
o By these phrases, he meant that the common people are the real source of true German Culture and true spirit of
the nation was popularized through folk songs, folk poetries and folk dances respectively.
Poland: Language became weapon of National Resistance.
 At the end of 18th century, Great powers- Russia, Prussia, Austria separated Poland.
o Russia got the power to rule the territory of Poland.
o Consequently, it brought some changes in Poland.
 Polish language was removed.
 Moreover, they implemented Russian language in schools, offices etc.
 Such changes resulted in Russian dominance over Poland.
 Karol Kurpinski: He was a leading Polish musician and composer during the nineteenth century.
o He celebrated the national struggle through the operas and music, turning folk dances like polonaise and
mazurka into nationalist symbols.
 To end the Russian dominance, many attempts were made by polish people.
o First, An Armed Rebellion took place (against Russian Rule) which did not get success.
o However, they did not give up. Many members of clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon.
 Polish was used for Church gatherings and all religious instructions.
 As a result, Russian authorities responded in a cruel manner. Priest and bishops were put in jail or Siberia for their
refusal to preach in Russian.
 Thereby, Polish became the symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt:

 The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe.
 There were several reasons or causes for economic crisis in Europe:-
o An enormous increase in population all over Europe in the first half of 19th century.
o In most countries there were more seekers of job than employment.
o Migration of large number of people from village to cities led to the spread of urban slums.
o Moreover, Stiff competition from imports of machine made goods made small produces (in towns) suffer great
losses. [Especially in textile production.]
 Furthermore, the burden of feudal dues and obligations faced by peasants in the areas of aristocratic
o
dominance.
o Besides, widespread pauperism in town and country due to rise of food prices or year of bad
harvest aggravated the situation.
 Meanwhile, there were riots going on in some places. These were:-
1. Uprising of Silesian weavers in 1845: In Silesia, weavers revolted against contractors since they drastically
reduced their (weavers) payments.
 4th June 1845:– Weavers demanded higher wages and began attacking contractor’s house.
 The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village however, did not get shelter.
 After 24 hours, he returned back with army and eleven weavers were shot dead.
2. Uprising of peasants (Paris) in 1848: In Paris, food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the
people out on the roads.
 As a consequence, Louis Phillippe had to flee.
 In his absence, a National Assembly proclaimed a republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and
guaranteed the right to work.
 It also set up National workshops for providing employment.

1848: The Revolutions of the Liberals

 Apart from the poor, unemployed & starving peasants and workers, revolution also led by the educated middle
class.
o In France, February revolution ended monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic.
 After the event of February 1848 in France, Liberals in other parts of Europe (Germany, Italy, Poland, Austro
Hungarian Empire) revolted for the same reason.
o Revolution was led by educated Middle class.
o They wanted to establish nation state.
o Moreover, they demanded for Parliamentary Principles –
 a constitution
 Freedom of Press
 Freedom of Association (no restrictions to form parties)
 In German regions, political associations were largely formed by middle class professionals, businessmen and
prosperous artisans.
o They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly.
o On 18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives revolted in the Frankfurt parliament (Convened in Church of St
Paul).
 They drafted a constitution for a German nation to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
 So, they offered the crown on these terms to Friedrich Wilhelm IV, king of Prussia.
 However, king rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly.
o Reasons for the failure of Frankfurt Parliament:-
 The opposition of the aristocracy and military became stronger.
 The parliament which was dominated by the middle classes, resisted the demands of workers and artisans.
Consequently, lost their support.

Women’s Position:

 Women participated actively over the years.

 They formed their own political associations, founded newspapers.
 Furthermore, they took part in political meetings and demonstrations.
Note: Despite this, they did not get voting rights in the election of the Assembly. They could only stand in the
visitors’ gallery as observers.

Did the Conservatives re-establish their power?

 Monarchs realized the need of granting concessions in order to end the cycle of revolutions.
 Hence, after the years of 1848, The autocratic monarchies of Central and Eastern Europe began to introduce the
changes.
o They abolished serfdom and bonded Labour (in Habsburg dominions and in Russia).
o Habsburg rulers granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867. Now they were able to make their self
governed country.
Note: In Western Europe, the above mentioned changes took place before 1815.

The Making of Germany & Italy and The

Strange case of Britain:
 After 1848, Conservatives themselves began mobilizing nationalist sentiments for promoting state power and
achieving political domination over Europe.

Germany:
 There was no homogenous German identity until the 19th century.
 The German states were bound together in a loose political entity known as the Holy Roman Empire.
 There were Austrian rulers (dominant one) and Prussian rulers.
The Process of Unification:
 Prussia became the leader of the German Unification Movement.
 King William I appointed Otto von Bismarck as the new Chief Minister of Prussia in 1862.
o Otto Von Bismarck was the architect of the unification process.
o He carried out the unification with the help of the Prussian Army and bureaucracy.
o He followed the policy of Blood and Iron. Thus, fought three wars for seven years against Austria,
Denmark and France.
o This resulted in Prussian victory. Hence, it unified Germany.
 On 18th January 1871, Kaiser William I (Prussian King) was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at
Versailles.
o Finally, Germany emerged as an independent nation state.
o A new nation state placed a strong emphasis on modernizing the currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in
Germany.
o Prussian measures and practices often became a model for the rest of Germany.

Italy:
 Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.
 During mid 19th Century, Italy was divided in Seven States.
 The only state ruled by Italian king was Sardinia-Piedmont.
 Austrian Habsburg had control over north, Pope ruled centre (Papal State) and Bourbon Kings of Spain controlled
the south part of Italy.
 Besides Italian language, there were many different regional languages as well.
Unification of Italy:
 In 1830, Giuseppe Mazzini who formed secret society with the aim of making Italy a nation state, did not get much
success in doing so.
 Now, Victor Emmanuel II (Italian ruler of Sardinia Piedmont) became a central figure of the movement for Italian
unification.
o He (King) appointed Count Camillo de Cavour for leading movement further.
o Count Camillo de Cavour was Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont state. He led the movement to unify the regions
of Italy.
 o Chief Minister Cavour accomplished the goal by being adaptable and embracing diplomatic tactics.
o Cavour was proficient in French. This helped him form a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III of France.
Together, they fought against Austria. His clever tactics helped defeat the Austrian forces in 1859.
o Therefore, Cavour succeeded in freeing northern Italy, especially Lombardy, from Austrian control.
However, Venetia remained under Austria until 1866.
o In addition, Cavour took the help of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
 In 1860, a large number of armed volunteers (popularly known as Red Shirts) under the leadership of Giuseppe
Garibaldi marched into south Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.
 They attained success in winning the support of peasants. Thus, Spanish rulers were overthrown.
o Moreover, the Pope lost control over central Italy as people in these regions joined Piedmont during unification.
o Finally, On 17th March 1861, Victor Emmanuel II became first king of unified Italy.
 Note: The Pope’s rule finally ended with the capture of Rome in 1870.

The Strange Case Of Britain:

 Unlike Germany and Italy, the formation of the nation state in Britain was the result of a long drawn-out process.
 There was no British nation prior to 18th century.
 People who inhabited British Isles belonged to different ethnic groups- such as English, Welsh, Scot or Irish.
 They had their own cultural and political traditions.
 However, as the English nation steadily grew in wealth, importance and power, it was able to extend its influence
over other nations of Islands.
 Some reasons for the formation of Britain as a nation state were:-
o First, the parliament through a bloodless revolution seized power from the monarchy in 1688.
o The Act of Union.
o Conflicts between two different religions; Catholics and Protestants.

The Act Of Union (1707):

 The Act of Union between England and Scotland held in 1707, Also known as Treaty Of Union. It was the Agreement
between English and Scottish Parliament for the creation of ‘ The Kingdom Of Great Britain’.
 Gradually, this act resulted in domination of England over Scotland.

Forced incorporation of Ireland:

 In Ireland, there were conflicts between Catholics and Protestants.

 England took advantage by assuring help to Protestants of Ireland against Catholics. Later on, it got control over
Ireland too.
 In 1801, Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom.
 Therefore, Britain actively promoted British Flag (Union Jack), National Anthem (God Save Our Noble King) and the
English language.

Visualizing the Nation:

 In 18th and 19th Centuries, Artist began to personify a nation in an allegory.
 Female figure was symbolized to represent a nation state. It was mainly done to give an abstract idea of nation a
concrete form.
o For Example: The French Artists (during French Revolution) used the female allegory to portray ideas such as
Liberty, Justice, and the Republic.
o They represented these ideas through specific objects or symbols. These were:-
 Attributes of Liberty: Red Cap, or the broken chain.
 Justice: Blindfolded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales.

oSimilarly, other artists also invented such allegories.
 Allegory of France: Marianne.
o Characteristics/Attributes : The Red Cap, The Tricolor, The Cockade.
 Allegory of Germany: Germania.
o Attributes: A crown of oak leaves (Symbol of heroism), Sword, Olive branch around the sword and Tricolor Flag
(Black, Red and Gold), rays of rising sun, broken Chains and Breastplate with Eagle.

Nationalism and Imperialism: (1871-1900)

 After 1871, there was a significant change in the concept of nationalism in Europe.
o The excessive nature of Nationalism in Europe turned into imperialism.
o Subsequently, Competition among nations began to take place.
 Nationalism: It is an ideology that emphasizes loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation.
 Imperialism: The practice of extending power over foreign countries with the use of military forces or other
means.
o Nationalist groups became intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war.
 The major European powers began taking advantage of nationalism in Europe, to further their own imperialistic
aims.
o These major powers were:- Russia, Germany, England and Austro-Hungary.
 Consequently, Balkans became the center of tension. There were mainly two reasons:-
1. Internal Conflicts.
2. External Conflicts.
 Before we read these two reasons in elaboration, let’s take a look over basic information about Balkans.

Balkans:
 Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations.
 A large part was under the control of Ottoman Empire.
 This region was comprised of modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.
 The inhabitants of this region were known as the Slavs.

Internal reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:

 The spread of ideas of romantic nationalism and the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire contributed to the
feelings of resistance.
 One by one the European subjects broke apart and declared independence, Since the Empire had failed to
modernize and implement the internal reforms.
 Moreover, they emphasized their nationality and looked back to history to claim their long-lost independence.
o Consequently, these causes made Balkan an area of intense conflict.
 The Balkan states became jealous of each other.
 Each hoped to gain more territory at the expense of the others.
o Hence, it led to external conflicts.

External reasons for conflicts or tensions in Balkans:

 The major cause was internal conflict itself that made European powers take advantage of the situation.
o For Example: Russia, Germany, England, Austro-Hungary got attracted towards Balkans.
 These powers colonized many countries.
  Also, fought against each other in order to get control over Balkan regions.
 Furthermore, this led to the beginning of First World War.

Development of Anti-Imperialist Movements:

 Anti-imperialist movements that developed in colonies were nationalist.

 Sense of collective national unity inspired these movements.
 People began opposing imperialism and developed their own specific variety of nationalism.
 The idea of ‘nation state’ came to be accepted as natural and universal.

Lesson – 2 Forest and wild life resources

Introduction:
Our Planet Earth consists of several resources. There are huge forests which have different species of flora and a
variety of animals (fauna) on Earth. In simple words, there is immense biodiversity. All the living creatures depend on
each other; mainly human beings. Therefore, it is necessary to maintain ecological balance. However, we humans
have become the main cause for disturbance in nature.

Flora and Fauna in India

As you know, Flora is a plant species whereas the term fauna is used for animals. In India, there is extremely large
biodiversity due to different geographical locations.

Why do we need to conserve our forests and wildlife?

 Conservation preserves ecological diversity and our life support systems- water, air and soil.
 It also preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding. For Example:
Agriculture and Fisheries.

Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

In the 1960’s and 1970’s, conservationists demanded a national wildlife protection program. Finally in 1972, Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act was implemented with various provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India list of
protected species was also published.
 The main focus was on protecting the remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting,
giving legal protection to their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
 Central and many state governments established national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
 Central Government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which are gravely threatened,
including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag, three types of crocodiles- freshwater crocodile,
saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, the Asiatic lion, and others.
 Most recently, some animals have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout
India.
o For Example: the Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow
leopard, etc.
 Addition of Insects: In the notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and 1986, added several hundred butterflies, moths,
beetles and one dragonfly to the list of protected species.
 Addition of Plants: Government also added Six species of plants in the list.
Project Tiger
 Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife
Resources
Do you know that the Government manages Forest and Wildlife Resources but how?
To conserve our vast forest and wildlife resources, the Forest Department and other government departments are
there.

Division of Forest into three types: Reserved Forests, Protected Forests and Unclassed Forests.

(i) Reserved Forests:

 These forests constitute more than half of the total forest land.
 These are most valuable for the conservation of forest and Wildlife.
 These are open to the public however enjoy judicial protection based on the legal system.
o For Example: Hunting is not allowed unless specific orders are issued.
 Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Maharashtra have the
largest percentage of reserved forests.

(ii) Protected Forests:

 Almost one-third of the total forest area comes under protected forests.
 Government has full property rights on these forests.
o For Example: Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks.
 Protected forests are forests with some amount of legal and constitutional protection in certain countries
 Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under protected forests.

(iii) Unclassed Forests:

 These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities.
 All North-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests. (Local
communities manage it)
Note: Reserved and protected forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the purpose of
producing timber and other forest produce and for protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under
permanent forests, constituting 75 percent of its total forest area.

Community and Conservation

Since forests are the home to some of the traditional communities, They have also played a role in conservation.
 In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along with Government officials.
o For Example: In Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, Villagers have fought against mining by citing the Wildlife
Protection Act.
 In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement.
 In some villages, there are some sets of rules and regulations regarding protection of wildlife.
 Local community involvement through the programme of Joint forest management (JFM): Partnership of state
forest department and local communities for management and restoration of degraded forest.
Sacred groves – a wealth of diverse and rare species
Chipko Movement
1. Chipko Movement was a nonviolent social and ecological movement by rural villagers in order to prevent forests
from rampant cutting of trees.
2. It resisted deforestation. And encouraged people for community afforestation by planting indigenous species.
3. They tried to revive traditional conservation methods or develop new methods of ecological farming.
4. Beej Bachao Andolan and Navdanya proved that adequate levels of diversified crop production is possible without
the use of synthetic chemicals. And it is economically viable also.