What is OSI Model?

- Layers of OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that

explains how different computer systems communicate over a network.
OSI Model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7 layers and each layer
has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach makes it
easier for different devices and technologies to work together.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits.

 Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from

one node to the next.

 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and
convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer,
which will put the frame back together.

 Common physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem,

and Cables.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,

devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star
topology, or mesh topology.

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  Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission
modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full duplex.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.

 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL

to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.

 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and

Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.

 The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into
frames depending on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface
Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in
the header.

 The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address

Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking, "Who has that IP
address?" and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Sublayers of Data Link Layer

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer

adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or
receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else
the data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the
amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.

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  Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared
by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available.

 The sender and receiver's IP address are placed in the header by the
network layer. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as
Packet.

 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such

as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network

uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred
to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the
complete message.

 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the

successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found.

 Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.

 At the sender's side, the transport layer receives the formatted data
from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements
Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission.

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  It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and
forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by

default or manually.

 Example: when a web application requests a web server, it

typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port
assigned to web applications. Many applications have default ports
assigned.

 At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from
its header and forwards the Data which it has received to the
respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message

from the (session) layer and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct

process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus, by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is
delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service

 Connectionless Service

Layer 5: Session Layer

Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of

connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions
between two devices. It also provides authentication and security.
Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The

layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.

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  Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start

communication with each other in half-duplex or full duplex.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through

some Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger”
here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an
interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted
into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

ThePresentation Layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from
the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network. Protocols used in the
Presentation Layer are TLS/SSL (Transport Layer Security / Secure Sockets
Layer).JPEG, MPEG, GIF, are standards or formats used for encoding data,
which is part of the presentation layer’s role.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into

another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the
ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

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  Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.

Layer 7: Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find
the Application Layer which is implemented by the network applications.
These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.

 This layer also serves as a window for the application services to

access the network and for displaying the received information to
the user.

 Protocols used in the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a

remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application

allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a
remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database

sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.

How Data Flows in the OSI Model?

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels

through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers
from the sender's end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver's end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

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  Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted

physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its
destination correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an
example mentioned below. Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to
his friend Person B.

 Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail,

outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens at Application
Layer).

 Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data

transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.

 Step 3: At Session Layer, there is a connection established

between the sender and receiver on the internet.

 Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller

segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking information
to maintain the reliability of the information.

 Step 5: At Network Layer, addressing of packets is done in order

to find the best route for transfer.

 Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into

frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and then it
checks for error using error detection.

 Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of

electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like
ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse
and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person
B email client.

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OSI Layers

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
Physical USB, SONET/SDH,
Bits
Physical Connections etc.
Layer between Devices.

Node to Node
DataLink Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer Message.

Network Transmission of Packets IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,

Layer data from one host etc.
to another, located
in different

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 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

networks.

Take Service from Segments

Network Layer and (for TCP) or
TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
Transport provide it to the Datagrams
Layer Application Layer. (for UDP)

Establishes
Connection,
Maintenance, NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Data
Ensures etc.
Session Authentication and
Layer Ensures security.

Data from the

application layer is
extracted and
Data TLS/SSL, MIME, etc.
manipulated in the
Presentati required format for
on Layer transmission.

Helps in identifying
the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHC
Data
Applicatio synchronizing P, etc.
n Layer communication.

Why Does the OSI Model Matter

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of
"how the data moves in the network?". As the OSI Model consists of 7
layers, each layer has its specific role, and due to which it helps in
understanding, identifying and solving the complex network problems
easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire network.

Note: As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the
OSI Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people
understanding network concepts very easily.

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