Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism mapping magnetic fields, and quality control by manufacturers of

motors, relays, solenoids, and other magnetic devices. where:

1. Introduction  Magnetic Poles: Every magnet has two poles: North B = Magnetic flux density (in Tesla, T)
Magnetism and electromagnetism are fundamental principles and South. Like poles repel, while unlike poles attract. Φ = Magnetic flux (in Webers, Wb)
that govern how forces interact with electrical currents and A = Area (in square meters, m2)
magnetic fields. These concepts are not only central to
understanding natural phenomena but also to many modern
o Magnetic Flux (Φ): The total magnetic field
technologies, from electric motors to transformers. This handout
passing through a given surface.
will explore the basics of magnetism and electromagnetism, their
applications, and how they interact with each other.
Example:
2. About Magnetism
A magnetic field is a region around a magnetic material or a 1. What is the flux density in a rectangular core that is
moving electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.  Magnetic Field Lines: These lines represent the 8.0 mm by 5.0 mm if the flux is 20 µ Wb?
Magnetic fields are invisible but can be visualized through direction of the magnetic force, going from the North to
magnetic field lines, which show the direction and strength of the the South pole. Given: 𝛷= 20µ Wb, A= 8.0 mm by 5.0 mm
field. Required: flux density (B)
The magnetic field lines surrounding a magnet actually
radiate in three dimensions. These magnetic field lines
are always associated with moving charge. Solution: B=
In permanent magnets, the moving charge is due to the
=
( . )( . )
orbital motion of electrons. Ferromagnetic materials
have minute magnetic domains in their structure.
=
Magnetic fields are described by drawing flux lines that ( ∗ )
3. Magnetic Quantities
represent the magnetic field. Where
lines are close together, the flux density = 0.50 wB/m2
 Flux Density- also known as field strength or magnetic
is higher, Where lines are further apart,
the flux density is lower. flux density, is a measure of the strength of a magnetic
= 0.50 T
field over a given area. It represents how much magnetic
To measure magnetic fields, an flux is concentrated in a specific area. Flux density is a
= 5000 G
instrument called a gaussmeter is used. crucial concept in electromagnetism, as it helps quantify
A typical gaussmeter is shown. The the intensity of a magnetic field at a certain point.
• Permeability (µ) defines the ease with which a magnetic
gauss, (G) is a unit of flux density and is field can be established in a given material. It is
a much smaller unit than the tesla (104 G  Formula: measured in units of the weber per ampere-turn meter.
= 1 T).

Gaussmeters are commonly used for

testing motors, classifying magnets, B=
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
 This relation between B and H is valid up to saturation,
when further increase in H has no affect on B. Where:
l= length of the magnetic path (in meters),
Magnetic material μ= permeability of the material
Saturation begins A= cross-sectional area of the magnetic path (in square
meters).

Flux density, B, (Wb//m2)

Recall that magnetic flux lines surround a current-
carrying wire. A coil reinforces and intensifies these flux
lines.

The cause of magnetic flux is called magnetomotive

force (mmf), which is related to the current and number
Non-magnetic material of turns of the coil.
Magnetic Field Intensity, H, (At/m)

As the graph shows, the flux density depends on both

the material and the magnetic field intensity.
Fm = NI
Where:
Note: The permeability of a vacuum (µ0) is 4p x 10-7  Reluctance (R) is a property in a magnetic circuit that
weber per ampere-turn meter, is the fundamental opposes the creation of a magnetic flux, similar to how Fm = magnetomotive force (A-t)
constant used in many electromagnetic calculations. electrical resistance opposes current flow in an electrical N = number of turns of wire in a coil
circuit. It measures how much a material or magnetic I = current (A)
 Relative permeability (μr) is the ratio of a material's circuit resists the establishment of magnetic flux when
permeability to the permeability of free space (μ0), exposed to a magnetic force (magnetomotive force, or Problem: What is the MMF if a
indicating how much more or less permeable the MMF). 250 turn coil has 3 A of current?
material is compared to a vacuum. (Ans: 750 A-t)
𝚽
If a material is permeable, then a greater flux density will
R=
occur for a given magnetic field intensity. The relation
𝐅 • Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits is
between B (flux density) and H (the effort to establish the Where: Fm
field) is R= reluctance (in ampere-turns per weber or AT/Wb)

R
F= magnetomotive force (in ampere-turns or AT),
B = µH Where:
Φ= magnetic flux (measured in webers, Wb).
φ= Flux is analogous to current
Alternatively, reluctance can be calculated using the
Where: Fm= magnetomotive force is analogous to voltage
following formula:
µ = permeability (Wb/A-t m). R= Reluctance is analogous to resistance.
H= Magnetic field intensity (Wb/A-t m)
𝐥
R=
µ𝐀
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
 Sample Problem: What flux is in a core that is wrapped Hall element Current A relay is an electrically controlled switch; a small control
with a 300 turn coil with a current of 100 mA if the (semiconductor) voltage on the coil can control a large current through the
reluctance of the core is 1.5 x 107 A-t/Wb ? (Ans:2.0µWb) contacts.
Fixed contact
 Magnetic field intensity is the magnetomotive force per
unit length of a magnetic path.
N NC
CR1 -1
contacts
CR1 Movable contact
F +
H = NI
Hall voltage _ Magnetic field
H= m NO
CR1 -2
l l contacts
Where:
Fixed contact
6. Magnetic Hysteresis
H= Magnetic field intensity (Wb/A-t m) Magnetic hysteresis refers to the phenomenon where
Fm = magnetomotive force (A-t) 5. Magnetic Materials the magnetic properties of a material lag behind the
l = average length of the path (m) changes in the magnetizing force applied to it. When a
N = number of turns In ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and ferromagnetic material, such as iron, is subjected to a
I = current (A) cobalt, the magnetic domains are randomly oriented changing magnetic field, the magnetization of the
when unmagnetized. When placed in a magnetic field, material does not follow the applied magnetic field
the domains become aligned, thus they effectively exactly. Instead, the material exhibits a delayed
Magnetic field intensity represents the effort that a given become magnets. response, which creates a hysteresis loop when the
current must put into establishing a certain flux density magnetic field is cycled.
in a material.  Lagging Magnetization: When an external magnetizing
force (magnetomotive force) is applied, the material
becomes magnetized. However, when the force is
4. Other Important Information
removed or reduced, the material retains some
A solenoid is a magnetic device that produces magnetization, and this retention leads to hysteresis.
 Hall effect is occurrence of a very small voltage that is
mechanical motion from an electrical signal.  Hysteresis Loop: A plot of magnetic flux density (B)
generated on opposite sides of a thin current-carrying
One application is valves that can remotely control a fluid versus magnetizing force (H) creates a characteristic
conductor or semiconductor (the Hall element) that is in
in a pipe, such as in sprinkler systems. loop when the material is cycled through magnetization
a magnetic field.
and demagnetization.
The Hall effect is widely employed by various sensors for
directly measuring position or motion and can be used Sta onary core
indirectly for other measurements. Sliding core Components of a Hysteresis Loop:
1. Remanence (Residual Magnetism): This is the
(plunger) magnetic flux density (Br) that remains in the
material after the external magnetizing force is
removed.
2. Coercivity: The coercive force (Hc) is the amount of
reverse magnetizing force required to reduce the

Spring
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
 residual magnetization to zero. This measures the undergoes a cycle of magnetization. This curve provides insights 4. Reversing Magnetizing Force – The Fourth Quadrant
material's resistance to becoming demagnetized. into the material's magnetic properties and energy losses during  As the reverse magnetizing force H is increased further,
3. Saturation: When a material reaches saturation, it magnetization. the material becomes magnetized in the opposite
means that further increases in the external direction, and the curve proceeds into the negative half
magnetic field no longer result in increased How to interpret a B-H curve: of the B-H graph.
magnetization. At this point, nearly all magnetic 1. Starting at the Origin (Unmagnetized Material)  Similar to the positive side, the curve will reach a
domains are aligned with the field.  When the material is unmagnetized, both B and H are negative saturation point where increasing H further
4. Energy Loss: The area inside the hysteresis loop zero, and the starting point of the curve is at the origin has little effect on B.
represents the energy loss per cycle of (0,0).
magnetization, which appears as heat in the 5. Returning to Zero and Repeating the Cycle
material. This energy loss is called hysteresis loss. 2. Increasing Magnetizing Force (H) – The First Quadrant  When H is brought back to zero again, the material will
 As the magnetizing force H is applied (increasing), the retain a negative remanence Br, and another coercive
magnetic flux density B increases, and the material force Hc in the opposite direction will be required to bring
Hysteresis in Magnetic Materials: starts to become magnetized. the flux density to zero.
 Soft Magnetic Materials: These materials, like  The curve rises steeply initially, indicating that the  Continuing to apply H in the original direction completes
silicon steel, have narrow hysteresis loops, meaning material is being easily magnetized. the loop, forming a closed hysteresis curve.
they magnetize and demagnetize easily, with low  Saturation: At a certain point, the curve levels off,
energy losses. They are used in applications like meaning further increases in H result in only small
transformers and inductors where frequent increases in B. This is called saturation. Almost all
magnetization is required. magnetic domains are aligned, and the material is fully
 Hard Magnetic Materials: These materials, such as magnetized.
permanent magnets, have wide hysteresis loops,
meaning they retain a high degree of magnetization 3. Decreasing Magnetizing Force – The Second and
and are difficult to demagnetize. They are used Third Quadrants
where permanent magnetism is required.  When the magnetizing force H is decreased back to
zero, the material retains some magnetic flux density (B)
Practical Applications: even though HHH is zero. This residual magnetic flux is
 Transformers: In AC transformers, magnetic called remanence or residual magnetism (Br).
hysteresis contributes to energy loss, as the core  As H is reversed (applied in the opposite direction), the
material goes through cycles of magnetization and flux density B decreases but does not immediately go to
demagnetization with the alternating current. zero. The reverse magnetic force is needed to reduce B
 Magnetic Storage Devices: Hard drives and to zero.
magnetic tapes rely on hysteresis to store data in the  The point where the flux density B becomes zero
form of remanent magnetization. corresponds to the coercive force (Hc), indicating the
amount of reverse magnetizing force required to
The Magnetic Hysteresis Loop or Magnetization Curve completely demagnetize the material.
The B-H curve (also called a hysteresis loop) is a graph that
illustrates the relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and
magnetizing force (H) for a ferromagnetic material as it

Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
 B B B
Saturation

Bsat
BR

Hsat
H H H
0 0 Hsat H= 0 H 0

Bsat
Saturation B
(a) (b) (c) (d)

B B

Bsat HC

H = 0
H H
H 0 0 Hsat H
BR
HC HC

B B
(e) (f ) (g)

Narrower loops represent soft magnetic materials (low Wider loops represent hard magnetic materials (high
coercivity and remanence), which magnetize and demagnetize coercivity and remanence), which retain magnetization well and
easily with minimal energy loss (used in transformers and are used in permanent magnets.
motors).
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 6: Magnetism and Electromagnetism | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE