Module 8: Introduction to Alternating Current: The

Sinusoidal Waveform, Voltage and Current Values of Sine • Frequency (f): is the number of cycles that a sine 2.1.1 AC Generator (Alternator)
Waves and Angular Measurement of a Sine Wave wave completes in one second. Generators convert rotational energy to electrical energy. A
stationary field alternator with a rotating armature is shown. The
1. Introduction to Alternating Current (AC) armature has an induced voltage, which is connected through
Alternating Current (AC) refers to the type of electrical current Sample Problem: If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one slip rings and brushes to a load. The armature loops are wound
that periodically reverses direction. In contrast to Direct Current second, the frequency is ______ on a magnetic core
(DC), where the flow of electrons is constant in one direction, AC
switches back and forth at regular intervals. • Phase (φ): The displacement of the wave in time
relative to a reference point. It’s measured in
Why AC? degrees or radians.
• Efficiency in Transmission: AC is easier and more
efficient to transmit over long distances because it • Cycle: One complete wave of AC from its start at
can easily be transformed to higher or lower voltages zero, to the peak, back to zero, to the negative peak,
using transformers. and then back to zero again.
• Applications: AC powers most homes, offices, and
industrial equipment. • Mathematical Expression:

2. The Sinusoidal Waveform v(t)=Vmsin(ωt+φ)

The sinusoidal waveform (or sine wave) is the most common
representation of AC. It describes how the voltage and current By increasing the number of poles, the number of cycles per
vary over time in a smooth, periodic manner. Where: revolution is increased. A four-pole generator will produce two
o v(t)= instantaneous voltage complete cycles in each revolution.
Key Features of a Sinusoidal Wave: o Vm = peak voltage
• Amplitude (A): The peak value of the waveform, o ω=2πf, angular frequency
either positive or negative. o t= time
o φ= phase angle
• Period (T): The time it takes to complete one cycle
of the waveform. It is the inverse of frequency.
2.1. Generation of a Sine Wave
Sinusoidal voltages are produced by ac generators and
1
T= electronic oscillators. When a conductor rotates in a constant
𝑓 magnetic field, a sinusoidal wave is generated.

where f= frequency in Hz.

The period of a sine wave can be measured between 2.1.2 Function Generators
any two corresponding points on the waveform. A Function Generator is an electronic device that produces
different types of waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. It
Sample Problem: If the period is 50 ms, the is commonly used in laboratories, electronic testing, and
frequency is ______ When the loop is moving development environments to test, troubleshoot, and
When the conductor is moving parallel with perpendicular to the lines of flux,
the lines of flux, no voltage is induced. the maximum voltage is induced. characterize circuits and systems.
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 8: Introduction to Alternating Current | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
 Non-Ideal Pulse 3. Amplitude Control: Users can adjust the amplitude
Key Features of a Function Generator: of the output signal to the desired level, which is
1. Waveform Types: A A crucial when testing circuits under various operating
0.9 A
o Sine Wave: A smooth, periodic wave used in conditions.
many AC applications and fundamental 0.5 A
4. Duty Cycle: For square waves, the duty cycle (the
0.1A
circuit analysis. t t ratio of time the signal is "high" to the total period)
tW
tr tf can be adjusted, which is important for pulse-width
(a) Rise and fall tim es (b) Pulse width modulation (PWM) and timing applications.
5. Frequency Sweep: Some function generators can
Notice that rise and fall times are measured gradually change the frequency over time
between the 10% and 90% levels whereas (frequency sweep), which is helpful for analyzing
pulse width is measured at the 50% level. circuit responses at different frequencies.

o Triangle Wave: A linear waveform with a Applications of a Function Generator:

constant slope, often used in modulation or • Circuit Testing and Prototyping: Function generators
for testing linear circuits. help simulate signals that a circuit will encounter in
o Square Wave: A wave with instantaneous real-world applications, enabling engineers to test
transitions between high and low levels, the circuit’s performance.
useful in digital circuits and clock signals. • Filter Testing: Engineers can use various waveform
outputs to examine the frequency response of filters
Triangular waveforms have positive-going and other signal processing systems.
and negative-going ramps of equal duration. • Clock and Trigger Signals: Square waves from a
function generator can serve as clock or timing
signals for digital circuits.
o Sawtooth Wave: A waveform that ramps • Modulation: Function generators can be used to
linearly and then sharply drops, commonly provide the input signal for modulation schemes
used in analog synthesizers and time-based (AM, FM, etc.), enabling the testing of
circuits. communication systems.

3. Voltage and Current Values of Sine Waves

Ideal Pulse The instantaneous values of AC voltage and current change over
Leading (rising) edge Leading (falling) edge
The sawtooth waveform consists of two time, and they are described using the sine function. However,
Trailing (falling) edge Trailing (rising) edge
ramps, one of much longer duration than the we often use different measures to express AC voltages and
Baseline
other. currents:
Am plitude Am plitude

Baseline Key Voltage and Current Values:

Pulse Pulse
width width 2. Frequency Range: Function generators can • Instantaneous Value: The voltage or current at a
(a) Positive-going pulse (b) Negative-going pulse generate signals ranging from a few microhertz particular moment in time.
(µHz) to several megahertz (MHz), depending on the v(t)=Vmsin(ωt)
model.
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 8: Introduction to Alternating Current | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE
• Peak Value (Vp): The maximum positive or negative Vavg = average voltage
value of the voltage or current. T= period of the waveform
v(t)= instantaneous voltage as a function of
• Peak-to-Peak Value (Vpp): The total voltage from time.
the maximum positive peak to the maximum
negative peak. For a half-wave rectified sinusoidal waveform,
Vpp=2Vp which is the positive half of the sine wave, the average
voltage is given by:
𝑉𝑝
• RMS (Root Mean Square) Value: The effective Vavg=
𝜋
value of AC, which represents the DC e
quivalent of AC for doing the same amount of Where:
work. For a sine wave, the RMS value is related to Vm = peak voltage.
the peak value by:
For a full-wave rectified sinusoidal waveform,
𝑉𝑝
Vrms= ≈ 0.707Vm where the negative half is flipped to the positive side, the
√2
average voltage is:
2𝑉𝑝
The same relationship holds for current. Vavg=
𝜋 Amplitude: 20V
Period: 50µs
• Average Voltage (Vavg): refers to the average
value of the voltage over a full cycle of a waveform,
such as an AC waveform. It is particularly useful for Practical Use of Vavg
non-sinusoidal waveforms like square, triangle, or • In rectified circuits, where AC is converted to DC, the
sawtooth waves. average voltage is an important measure because it
represents the usable DC output.
For a sinusoidal AC waveform, the average voltage • In signal processing, average voltage can help
over a complete cycle is zero because the positive determine the overall effectiveness or efficiency of a
and negative halves of the cycle cancel each other waveform in delivering power.
out. However, when referring to half-cycles or non-
sinusoidal waveforms, the average voltage can have 20 V
a non-zero value. 15 V
R

Formula for Average Voltage:

For any periodic waveform, the average voltage can
10 V VP
be calculated as: R
0V t (s)
0 25 37.5
Vrms
50.0

-10 V
Where: -15 V
Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
-20 VECE
Module 8: Introduction to Alternating Current | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg,
 5. For the waveform shown, the same power would be
• Angular Frequency (ω): The rate at which the wave delivered to a load with a dc voltage of
progresses through its cycle, measured in radians per 60 V
second. Angular frequency is related to the frequency
by: 45 V
ω=2πf 30 V
Vp: 20V
Vpp: 40V Where:
Vrms: 14.1V o Ω= angular frequency (in radians per second) t (s)
0V
Vavg: 12.7V o f= frequency (in Hertz) 0 25 37.5 50.0

• Phase Shift (φ): Describes how much the wave is

shifted horizontally. A positive phase shift indicates the -30 V
4. Angular Measurement of a Sine Wave wave starts earlier, while a negative phase shift means -45 V
The angular measurement of a sine wave is used to describe it starts later. It is measured in degrees or radians.
how far along the wave is in its cycle. Angles can be measured -60 V
in degrees or radians, and this measurement is crucial in Time vs. Angular Representation:
a. 21.2 V
understanding the phase and frequency of AC signals. • Time Domain: The sine wave is represented as a
b. 37.8 V
1.0 function of time, showing how voltage or current changes
c. 42.4 V
0.8 over time. d. 60.0 V
0.6
• Angular Domain: The sine wave is represented as a
0.4
0.2 function of angle, showing how voltage or current 5. A square wave consists of
0
0   
3  
5 
3 
7 
2
changes over one cycle (360 degrees or 2π radians). a. the fundamental and odd harmonics
-0.2 4 2 4 4 2 4
b. the fundamental and even harmonics
- .4
0
-0.6 c. the fundamental and all harmonics
-0.8 Practice Problems d. only the fundamental
-1.0 1. In North America, the frequency of ac utility voltage is 60
Hz. The period is ______
2. The amplitude of a sine wave is measured at _____
3. A sawtooth waveform has
a. equal positive and negative going ramps
b. two ramps - one much longer than the other
Angular Quantities: c. two equal pulses
• Radians and Degrees: A complete cycle of a sine wave d. two unequal pulses
4. The number of radians in 90o are
corresponds to 360∘ or 2π radians.
a. π /2
o Degrees: One full cycle = 360∘ b. π
o Radians: One full cycle = 2π radians. c. 2 π /3
d. 2 π
Sample Problem: How many radians are in 45o?

Central Philippine University | College of Computer Studies | Computer Science Department Lecture Notes in CCS 2200
Module 8: Introduction to Alternating Current | Compiled by: Giovanni Gerard A. Araque, D.I.T., MEngg, ECE