BASIC ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (R23)

UNIT-I
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
INTRODUCTION:

Atomic Structure

According to the modern theory, All the materials are composed of very small particles
called atoms. The atoms are the building bricks of all matter.

Various scientists have given different theories regarding the structure of atom. However, for the
purpose of understanding electronics, the study ofBohr‟s atomic model is adequate.
Bohr’s Atomic Model

In 1913, Neils Bohr, Danish Physicist gave clear explanation of atomic structure. According
to Bohr:

(i) An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus around which negatively

charged electrons revolve in different circular orbits.
(ii) The electrons can revolve around the nucleus only in certain permitted
orbits i.e. orbits of certain radii are allowed.
The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 2n2 where n is the number of the orbit. For
example, First orbit contains 2 X 12 = 2 electrons

Second orbit contains 2 X 22 = 8 electrons

Third orbit contains 2 X 32 = 18 electrons

(iii) The electrons in each permitted orbit have a certain fixed amount of energy.

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The larger the orbit (i.e. larger radius), the greater is the en- ergy of electrons.
(iv) If an electron is given additional energy (e.g. heat, light etc.), it is lifted to the
higher orbit. The atom is said to be in a state of excitation. This state does not last long,
because the electron soon falls back to the original lower orbit. As it falls, it gives back the
acquired energy in the form of heat, light or other radiations.
Fig. shows the structure of silicon atom. It has 14 electrons.

Two electrons revolve in the first orbit, 8 in the second orbit and 4 in the

third orbit. The first, second, third orbits etc. are also known as K, L, M orbits respectively.

These electrons can revolve only in permitted orbits (i.e. orbits of *radii r1, r2 and r3) and
not in any arbitrary orbit. Thus, all radii between r1 and r2 or between r2 and r3 are
forbidden. Each orbit has fixed amount of energy associated with it.

Fig. 4.1

Energy Levels

It has already been discussed that each orbit has fixed amount of energy associated with it.
The electrons moving in a particular orbit possess the energy of that orbit. The larger the orbit,
the greater is its energy. It becomes clear that outer orbit electrons possess more energy than
the inner orbit electrons.

A convenient way of representing the energy of different orbits is shown in Fig. 4.2 (ii).
This is known as energy level diagram. The first orbit represents the first energy level, the
second orbit

indicates the second energy level and so on. The larger the orbit of an electron, the greater is
its energy and higher is the energy level.

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Fig. 4.2

Energy Bands
In case of a single isolated atom, the electrons in any orbit possess definite energy. However, an
atom in a solid is greatly influenced by the closely-packed neighbouring atoms. The result is that
the electron in any orbit of such an atom can have a range of energies rather than a single energy.
This is known as energy band.

The range of energies possessed by an electron in a solid is known as energy band.

Important Energy Bands in Solids

As discussed before,
individual K, L, M etc. energy
levels of an isolated atom are
converted intocorresponding
bands when the atom is in a
solid. Though there are a
number of energy bands in
solids, the following are of
particular im- portance [See
Fig. 4.4] :
Fig. 4.4
(i) Valence band. The range of
energies (i.e. band) possessed
by valence electrons is
known as valence band.

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The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons. In a normal
atom, valence band has the electrons of highest energy. This band may be completely or
partially filled. For instance, in case of

inert gases, the valence band is full whereas for other materials, it is only partially filled. The
partially filled band can accommodate more electrons.

(ii) Conduction band. In certain materials (e.g. metals), the valence electrons are loosely
attached to the nucleus. Even at ordinary temperature, some of the valence electrons may get
detached to become free electrons. In fact, it is these free electrons which are responsible for the
conduction of current in a conductor. For this reason, they are called conduction electrons.

The range of energies (i.e. band) possessed by conduction band electrons is known as
conduc- tion band.

All electrons in the conduction band are free electrons. If a substance has empty conduction
band, it means current conduction is not possible in that substance. Generally, insulators have
empty conduction band. On the other hand, it is partially filled for conductors.

(v) Forbidden energy gap. The separation between conduction band and valence
band on the energy level diagram is known as forbidden energy gap.

Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators,
semiconductors, and conductors.

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SEMICONDUCTORS:

(i) Germanium. Germanium has become the model substance among the
semiconductors; the main reason being that it can be purified relatively well and crystallised
easily. Germanium is an earth element and was discovered in 1886. It is recovered from the
ash of certain coals or from the flue dust of zinc smelters. Generally, recovered germanium is
in the form of germanium dioxide powder which is then reduced to pure germanium.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 5.2

The atomic number of germanium is 32. Therefore, it has 32 protons and 32 electrons. Two
electrons are in the first orbit, eight electrons in the second, eighteen electrons in the third and
four electrons in the outer or valence orbit [See Fig. 5.2 (i)]. It is clear that germanium atom has
four valence electrons i.e., it is a tetravalent element. Fig. 5.2 (ii) shows how the various
germanium atoms are held through co-valent bonds. As the atoms are arranged in an orderly
pattern, therefore, germanium has crystalline structure.

ii) Silicon. Silicon is an element in most of the common rocks. Actually, sand is silicon diox-
ide. The silicon compounds are chemically reduced to silicon which is 100% pure for use as a
semiconductor.

Fig. 5.3
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The atomic number of silicon is 14. Therefore, it has 14 protons and 14 electrons. Two electrons
are in the first orbit, eight electrons in the second orbit and four electrons in the third orbit [See
Fig.

5.3 (i)]. It is clear that silicon atom has four valence electrons i.e. it is a tetravalent element. Fig.
5.3

(ii) shows how various silicon atoms are held through co-valent bonds. Like
germanium, silicon atoms are also arranged in an orderly manner. Therefore, silicon has
crystalline structure.
Energy Band Description of Semiconductors
It has already been discussed that a semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies
between conductors and insulators. The resistivity is of the order of 104 to 0.5 ohm metre.
However, a semi- conductor can be defined much more comprehensively on the basis of energy
bands as under :

Fig. 5.4 Fig. 5.5

A semiconductor is a substance which has almost filled valence band and nearly empty conduc-
tion band with a very small energy gap (j 1 eV) separating the two.

Figs. 5.4 and 5.5 show the energy band diagrams of germanium and silicon respectively. It may
be seen that forbidden energy gap is very small; being 1.1 eV for silicon and 0.7 eV for
germanium. Therefore, relatively small energy is needed by their valence electrons to cross over to
the conduction band. Even at room temperature, some of the valence electrons may acquire
sufficient energy to enter into the conduction band and thus become free electrons. However, at
this temperature, the number of free electrons available is very small. Therefore, at room
temperature, a piece of germanium or silicon is neither a good conductor nor an insulator. For
this reason, such substances are called semi- conductors.

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Intrinsic Semiconductor
 An extremely pure semiconductor is called as Intrinsic Semiconductor . An intrinsic
semiconductor also called an undoped semiconductor or i- type semiconductor.
 It is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species present.
 The number of charge carriers determined by the properties of the material itself instead
of the amount of impurities.
 In intrinsic semiconductors the number of excited electrons and the number of holes are
equal: n = p.
 On the basis of the energy band phenomenon, an intrinsic semiconductor at absolute zero
temperature and temperature greater than absolute zero temperature is shown below in fig
(a) and (b).

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Fig: Charge Carriers

 When an impurity, from V group elements like arsenic (As), antimony having 5
valence electrons is added to Ge (or Si), the impurity atom donates one electron to
Ge (or Si).

 The 4 electrons of the impurity atom is engaged in covalent bonding with Si atom.
 The fifth electron is free. This increases the conductivity.
 The impurities are called donors.
 The impurity added semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor, because their increased
conductivity is due to the presence of the negatively charged electrons, which are called the
majority carriers.
 The energy band of the electrons donated by the impurity atoms is just below the
conduction band.
 The electrons absorb thermal energy and occupy the conduction band.
 Due to the breaking of covalent bond, there will be a few holes in the valence band at this
temperature.
 These holes in n-type are called minority carriers.
(ii) p-type semiconductor:

Fig: Crystal Lattice Structure of Extrinsic P-type Semiconductor

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Basic Definitions

Valence electrons The electrons present in the outer most orbit that are loosely bound to the
nucleus are called valence electrons.

Conduction electrons

When an electric field is applied, the valence electrons get detached themselves from the
nucleus, constituting the flow of current. These electrons are called conduction electrons.

Energy band

The (range of) energy possessed by the electrons in an atom is called energy band.

Conduction band

The (range of) energy possessed by the conduction electrons is called conduction band.

Valence electrons

The (range of) energy possessed by the valence electrons is called valence band.

Forbidden energy gap

The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called forbidden energy gap

Comparison of Conductors,Semiconductors and Insulators

[Link] Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
1 Easily conducts the electrical Conducts the electric Does not conduct any
current. current less than conductor current.
and greater than insulator.
2 Has only one valence electron Has four valence electron Has eight valence
in its outermost orbit. in its outermost orbit. electron in its outermost
orbit.
3 Conductor formed using Semiconductors are formed Insulators are formed due
metallic bonding. due to covalent bonding. to ionic bonding.
4 Valence and conduction bands Valence and conduction Valence and conduction
are overlapped. bands are separated by bands are separated by
forbidden energy gap of forbidden energy gap of
1.1eV. 6 to 10eV.
5 Resistance is very small Resistance is high Resistance is very high
6 It has positive temperature It has negative temperature It has negative
coefficient coefficient temperature coefficient

7 Ex: copper, aluminum, etc. Ex: silicon, germanium, Ex: Mica, Paper, etc.
etc.

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UNIT-II
BASIC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTATION
1. Block diagram description of dc power supply:

Power Supply block Diagram

Many electronic circuits need a direct current (DC) voltage source, but what we commonly find
are voltage sources of alternating current (AC). In order to achieve a direct current voltage
source, the alternating current input must follow a conversion process like the one shown in
the power supply block diagram below.

Fig: DC supply block diagram.

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A regulated power supply can convert unregulated an AC (alternating current or voltage) to a

constant DC (direct current or voltage). A regulated power supply is used to ensure that the
output remains constant even if the input changes. A regulated DC power supply is also called as
a linear power supply, it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks.
The regulated power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC output. Figure
below shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply
he basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows:
1. A step down transformer
2. A rectifier
3. A DC filter
4. A regulator
Step Down Transformer
A step down transformer will step down the voltage from the ac mains to the required voltage
level. The turn‟s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage
value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.
Rectification
Rectifier is an electronic circuit consisting of diodes which carries out the rectification process.
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding
direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating
DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the
ac supply (full wave rectification). Figure below shows a full wave bridge rectifier.'
DC Filtration'
The rectified voltage from the rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple content.
But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC
Regulation
This is the last block in a regulated DC power supply. The output voltage or current will change
or fluctuate when there is change in the input from ac mains or due to change in load current at
the output of the regulated power supply or due to other factors like temperature changes. This
problem can be eliminated by using a regulator. A regulator will maintain the output constant
even when changes at the input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and
variable IC regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region can be used depending on
their applications. IC‟s like 78XX and 79XX are used to obtained fixed values of voltages at the
output. waveform. Hence a filter is used. Different types of filters are used such as capacitor
filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.

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RECTIFIER:
The “rectifier” is a circuit that converts AC voltages and currents into pulsating DC voltages and
currents. It consists of DC components and the unwanted ac ripple or harmonic components
which can be removed by using filter circuit. Thus the output obtained will be steady DC voltage
and magnitude of DC voltage can be varied by varying the magnitude of AC voltage. Filters: A
circuit that removes ripples (unwanted ac components) present in the pulsating dc voltage.
Regulator: A circuit that maintains the terminal voltage as constant even if the input voltage or
load current varying.

Types of rectifiers:
Rectifiers are grouped into two categories depending on the period of conduction.
(a)Half wave rectifier (b) Full wave rectifier

input cycle hence it is named as “half wave rectifier”.

Construction
 It consists of step-down transformer, semiconductor diode and the load resistance.
 The step-down transformer – reduce the available ac voltage into required level of
smaller ac voltage.
 The diode can be used to convert the ac into pulsating dc.
Operation
 During the positive half cycle of input, the diode D is forward biased, it offers very small
resistance and it acts as closed switch and hence conducts the current through the load
resistor.
 During the negative half cycle of the input diode D is heavily reverse biased, it offers
very high resistance and it acts as open switch hence it does not conduct any current. The
rectified output voltage will be in phase with AC input voltage for completely resistive
load.
A) Half wave Rectifier without filter:

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Fig: Half wave rectifier without filters

B) Half wave Rectifier with C- filter:

The output of half wave rectifier without filter is pulsating DC. In order to obtain pure DC,
the output is further passed to a capacitor to reduce AC ripples. The output of halfwave
rectifier with filter is shown in figure below.

Fig: Half wave rectifier with filters

Input and output wave forms:

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The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%

The ripple factor of Half wave Rectifier is 1.21.

Advantages:

1. No center tapping.

2. Simple Circuit

Disadvantages:

1. Ripple factor

2. Transformer utilisation factor is less

Important Definitions associated with Half Wave rectifier:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This is the maximum voltage which should be withstood by
the diode under reverse biased condition and is equal to the peak of the input voltage, Vm.

2. Average Voltage: This is the DC content of the voltage across the load and is given by
Vm/π. Similarly DC current is given as Im/π, where Im is the maximum value of the
current.

3. Ripple Factor (r): It is the ratio of root mean square (rms) value of AC component to the
DC component in the output and is given by Further, for half-wave rectifier, rms voltage is
given as Vm/2 which results in the ripple factor of 1.21.

4. Efficiency: It is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power and is equal to 40.6
%.
5. Transformer Utilization Factor: It is the ratio of DC power delivered to the load to the
AC rating of the transformer secondary and is equal to 0.287. 94

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6. Form Factor: This is the ratio of rms value to the average value and is thus equal to 1.57
for halfwave rectifier.
7. Peak Factor: It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value and is equal to 2.
Full wave rectifier:

The circuits which convert the input alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC) are
referred to as rectifiers. If such rectifiers rectify both the positive as well as negative pulses
of the input waveform, then they are called Full-Wave Rectifiers. Figure 1 shows such a
rectifier designed using a multiple winding transformer whose secondary winding is equally
divided into two parts with a provision for the connection at its central point (and thus
referred to as the centre-tapped transformer), two diodes (D1 and D2) and a load resistor
(RL). Here the AC input is fed to the primary winding of the transformer while an
arrangement of diodes and the load resistor which yields the DC output, is made across its
secondary terminals.

The circuit can be analyzed by considering its working during the positive and the
negative input pulses separately. Figure 2a shows the case where the AC pulse is positive in
nature i.e. the polarity at the top of the primary winding is positive while its bottom will be
negative in polarity. This causes the top part of the secondary winding to acquire a positive
charge while the common centre-tap terminal of the transformer will become negative.

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This causes the diode D1 to be forward biased which inturn causes the flow of current
through RL along the direction shown in Figure 2a. However at the same time, diode D2 will
be reverse biased and hence acts like an open circuit. This causes the appearance of positive
pulse across the RL, which will be the DC output. Next, if the input pulse becomes negative in
nature, then the top and the bottom of the primary winding will acquire the negative and the
positive polarities respectively. This causes the bottom of the secondary winding to become
positive while its centre-tapped terminal will become negative. Thus the diode D2 gets forward
biased while the D1 will get reverse biased which allows the flow of current as shown in the
Figure 2b. Here the most important thing to note is the fact that the direction in which the
current flows via RL will be identical in either case (both for positive as well as for negative
input pulses). Thus we get the positive output pulse even for the case of negative input pulse
(Figure 3), which indicates that both the half cycles of the input AC are rectified.

Such circuits are referred to as (i) Centre-Tapped Full Wave Rectifiers as they use a
centre-tapped transformer, (ii) Two-Diode Full-Wave Rectifiers because of the use of two
diodes and/or (iii) BiPhase Circuits due to the fact that in these circuits, the output voltage will
be the phasor addition of the voltages developed across the load resistor due to two individual
diodes, where each of them conducts only for a particular half-cycle. However as evident from
Figure 3, the output of the rectifier is not pure DC but pulsating in nature, where the frequency
of the output waveform is seen to be double of that at the input. In order to smoothen this, one
can connect a capacitor across the load resistor as shown by the Figure 4. This causes the
capacitor to charge via the diode D1 as long as the input positive pulse increases in its
magnitude. By the time the input pulse reaches the positive maxima, the capacitor would have

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charged to the same magnitude. Next, as long as the input positive pulse keeps decreasing, the
capacitor tries to hold the charge acquired (being an energy-storage element).

However there will be voltage-loss as some amount of charge gets lost through the path
provided by the load resistor (nothing but discharging phenomenon). Further, as the input pulse
starts to go low to reach the negative maxima, the capacitor again starts to charge via the path
provided by the diode D2 and acquires an almost equal voltage but with opposite polarity.
Next, as the input voltage starts to move towards 0V, the capacitor slightly discharges via RL.
This charge-discharge cycle of the capacitor causes the ripples to appear in the output
waveform of the full-wave rectifier with RC filter as shown in Figure 4.

Advantages:
1. High Efficiency
2. Lower ripple factor
Disadvantages:
1. PIV is higher
2. uses the complex centre-tapped transformer in its design
Different parameters and their values for the centre-tapped full-wave rectifiers are
1. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): This is the maximum voltage which occurs across the diodes
when they are reverse biased. Here it will be equal to twice the peak of the input voltage, 2Vm.
2. Average Voltage: It is the DC voltage available across the load and is equal to 2Vm/π. The
corresponding DC current will be 2Im/π, where Im is the maximum value of the current.

3. Ripple Factor (r): This is the ratio of the root mean square (rms) value of AC component to the
dc component at the output. It is given by and will be equal to 0.482

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as the rms voltage for a full-wave rectifier is given as

4. Efficiency: This is the ratio of DC output power to the AC input power and is equal to 81.2 %.

5. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): This factor is expressed as the ratio of DC power
delivered to the load to the AC rating of the transformer secondary. For the full-wave rectifier
this will be 0.574.

6. Form Factor: This is the ratio of rms value to the average value and is equal to 1.11.

7. Peak Factor: It is the ratio of peak value to the rms value and is equal to √2 for the full-wave
rectifiers.

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2. WORKING OF A BRIDGE RECTIFIER WITH CAPACITIVE FILTER:

Bridge Rectifiers are the circuits which convert alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC) using the diodes arranged in the bridge circuit configuration. They usually
comprise of four or more number of diodes which cause the output generated to be of the same
polarity irrespective of the polarity at the input. Figure 1 shows such a bridge rectifier
composed of four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 in which the input is supplied across two
terminals A and B in the figure while the output is collected across the load resistor RL
connected between the terminals C and D.

Now consider the case wherein the positive pulse appears at the AC input i.e. the terminal
A is positive while the terminal B is negative. This causes the diodes D1 and D3 to get forward
biased and at the same time, the diodes D2 and D4 will be reverse biased.

As a result, the current flows along the short-circuited path created by the diodes D1 and
D3 (considering the diodes to be ideal), as shown by Figure 2a. Thus the voltage developed
across the load resistor RL will be positive towards the end connected to terminal D and
negative at the end connected to the terminal C.

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Next if the negative pulse appears at the AC input, then the terminals A and B are
negative and positive respectively. This forward biases the diodes D2 and D4, while reverse
biasing D1 and D3 which causes the current to flow in the direction shown by Figure 2b. At this
instant, one has to note that the polarity of the voltage developed across RL is identical to that
produced when the incoming AC pulse was positive in nature. This means that for both positive
and negative pulse, the output of the bridge rectifier will be identical in polarity as shown by the
wave forms in Figure 3.

However it is to be noted that the bridge rectifier's DC will be pulsating in nature. In

order to obtain pure form of DC, one has to use capacitor in conjunction with the bridge circuit
(Figure 4).

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In this design, the positive pulse at the input causes the capacitor to charge through the
diodes D1 and D3. However as the negative pulse arrives at the input, the charging action of the
capacitor ceases and it starts to discharge via RL. This results in the generation of DC output
which will have ripples in it as shown in the figure. This ripple factor is defined as the ratio of
AC component to the DC component in the output voltage.

Advantages:

1. No centre tapping is required

2. Ripple factor is 0.48
Disadvantages:

Four diodes are required.

[Link] VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

Zener diode is operated in reverse bias in zener break down region. The circuit diagram of Zener
diode as Voltage regulator is shown in the above figure. When un regulated input voltage is
applied, and if it is increased further, the zener diode is break downs at zener break down region
and if the input voltage is increased there will be a constant output voltage in the circuit.

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The capacity of a Zener diode to keep a constant voltage regardless of changes in source or load
current is critical in this application. A voltage regulation device‟s general role is to give a
constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel to it, regardless of variations in the load‟s
energy drawn (Load current) or fluctuations and instability in the supply voltage. If the current
remains within the limit of the min and max reverse currents, the Zener diode will produce a
constant voltage.

To restrict the current that flows through the Zener diode, a resistor Rs is connected in series
with the diode, and also the input voltage Vinis connected across as shown in the image, and the
output voltage Vout is chosen to take across the Zener diode with Vout=Vz. Because the reverse
bias features of the Zener diode are required to control the voltage, it is wired in reverse bias
mode, and with a cathode linked to the circuit‟s positive rail.

Whenever the load is connected, a small valued resistor would result in a big diode current and
electricity, which would raise the power dissipation need of the diode, which could exceed the
Zener‟s maximum power rating and harm it.

The value of the resistor can be determined by the formula

RS=(Vin−VZ)Iz

Where, RS is the value of series resistance and Vin is the input voltage and Vz is Zener voltage.

Using this method, it is simple to assure that the resistor value chosen does not result in a current
flow greater than the Zener can tolerate.

One minor issue with Zener diode-based regulatory circuits is that although attempting to
moderate the input voltage, the Zener might generate electrical noise just on the supply rail.
Although it may not be a problem in most cases, a big value decoupling capacitor placed across
the diode may address the problem. This helps to keep the Zener‟s output stable.

[Link]: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM:

A public Address System or PA system is an electronic system that includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. A PA system has microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the sound
decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by the other
sound if the level or volume of the sounds is the same. So, if we want to deliver the sound energy
for a long-distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd or gathering then we
need a PA system. Because the PA systems provide the amplification of the sound for
comfortable listening.

The range of amplification is required for the sound is to be delivered to the distance, size of the
gathering or gathering, etc. Sound quality is also a very important factor with amplification
because it improves the listening experience. The PA system helps to amplify as well as record
the voice of any human being or the sound of any musical instrument. Also, it helps to
communicate between a group.

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Components of a PA System
There are so many devices or components are used in PA system that depends upon their
applications and other factors. But the main three components of any public address system are
explained below.

1. Microphone
The microphone is a very important part or component of a PA system. The microphone
basically is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy. It
continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the sound
energy applied to it. There various types of microphones are used in the PA system. The main
basic two types of microphones are,

1. Handheld Microphone
2. Lapel Microphone
Other different types of microphones are,
 Wired Microphone
 Wireless Microphone
A wired microphone can be connected by a wire to the mixer or amplifier. It is very simple. But
the wireless microphone needs a battery and the frequency of its signal is also a very important
factor. The wireless microphone cannot be connected directly to the mixer or amplifier. A
receiver is required that can receive the signals sent by the microphone. This receiver is to be
connected to the amplifier.
2. Amplifier
The amplifier is the second part of a PA system. The main function of the amplifier is to amplify
or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The requirement or
size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker. If the size of the

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loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected then a very powerful
amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or kilo-watt.

3. LoudSpeaker
Loudspeaker provides a very important role in the PA system. It converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the amplifier and
it generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier. There are different
types of loudspeakers are available according to their operating frequency.

1. Woofer - it operates at the lowest frequency audio signal such as Bass

2. Subwoofer - it also operates with low frequency but more than the woofer such as
bass and deep vocals
3. Squawker - it operates with medium-frequency audio signals such as vocals
4. Tweeter - it operates with high-frequency audio signals such as tone
4. Mixer
A mixer is not a necessary part of a PA system. But if there are multiple audio sources or
multiple microphones used in the PA system then a mixer is must required. The mixer is an
electronic device that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the sound
sources together and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So the mixer is
generally connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many amplifiers are available
in the market that already has an inbuilt mixer. So there is no need for an external additional
mixer. All the microphones or sound sources can be connected directly to the amplifier.

5. Circuit diagram and working of common emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with its
frequency response:
The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the mostly used
coupling technique in amplifiers.

Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as follows.
The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration and a common
power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2and the resistor Re form the
biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor Ce offers a low reactance path
to the signal.

The resistor RL is used as a load impedance. The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage
of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. The capacitor CC is the coupling
capacitor that connects two stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls
the shift of operating point. The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

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FIG: RC Coupled Amplifier Circuit Diagram

Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and appears at
the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage.
This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again appears across its
collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action. The important point that has
to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product of the gains of individual stages.
This is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage, the effective load
resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the
second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the last stage remains unchanged.

As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the phase
reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain and
function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in the
following graph.

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From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the
range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

We know that,

XC=1/2πfc It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC are
so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter by pass
capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter
resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz):Again considering the same point, we know that the
capacitive reactance is low at high frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high
frequencies. As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the
voltage gain. Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base
current of the transistor due to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls
off at high frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as shown
in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC decreases which tends to
increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading effect of the next
stage by which there is a reduction in gain.

Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

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Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide frequency
range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors
which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.

Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.

 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.
[Link] Instrumentation: Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation
system.
Electronic Instrumentation System

 Fig shows block diagram of generalized electronics instrumentation system, in which number of
element worked together to perform a desired function accurately i.e. to measure the measurand
quantity and display it or record it.
 We will discuss the different element separately so it is easy for us to understand the system in
detail.
Measurand (physical quantity or electrical quantity) :
 The physical or electrical quantity which is to be measurand is called as measurand. If the input
to the instrumentation is parameter like pressure, force, level, strain, displacement, temperature,
flow, velocity etc. then these parameters are physical measurand. These measurand are applied to
the transducer element.
 If the input is current, voltage and frequency then these parameter are called electrical
measurand. These measurand are applied to the electrical conversion element.

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Transducer and electrical conversion elements:

 If the measurand is physical quantity then it is converted into equivalent electrical signal with
help of element which is called transducer. Transducer is a device which convert one form of
energy into another. (phiysical to electrical).
 Most of the transducer are primary sensors which sense the measurand then convert it into
electrical signal with the help of conversion element.
 If the measurand is already electrical signal like voltage, current or frequency then it is give to
the electrical conversion element which convert the signal into more suitable form of signals
such as 4-20mA, 1-5VDC, 1-10VDC etc.
Click for – Books, Laptop , Mobile,
Signal processing or signal conditioning:
 The output from the transducer elements is given to the signal processing or signal conditioning
elements. Sigmal conditioning is a process to modify the output of transducer so that it can be
mesurand, controlled and acceptable by next stages.
 In electronic instrumentation system, filter, modulator, A/D converters, D/A converter,
amplifiers, integrators, differentiators are the important signal conditioning circuits.
 This stage is required to convert the transducer output into an electrical quantity suitable for
proper operation of the last stage or indicaror.
Data transmission element:
 If the sensing element and data presentation element of the instrumentation system are away
from each other (physically separated) in that case data transmission element is very important .
 This element provides a transmission path for the modified signals to travel from transducer
element to the rest of instrumentation elements like recorders, controllers, displays etc.
 In electronic instrumentation system, typically the transmission path is a conducting lines (i.e.
electrical cables). In electronic instrumentation system some time radio link is used as a
transmission path them the system is called telemetry system.
 This element transmits the data to the remote located control room.
Data presentation element:

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 The signal from the data lines are provided to the data presentation element. This element
converts the signal into such from that it can be presented by some visual or audible means.
 Function performed by this stage may be demodulation, amplification, filtering, A/D conversion
etc.
 This element modifies the signals in such a way that the signals are accepted by recorders,
displays, indicators, printers, announcing systems etc. The out put of the data presentation
element is provided to the recorders, controllers, and indicators as per the requirement of the user
or operator or observer.
Output devices:
 The last stage of instrumentation system is required to provide the information about the
measurand for immediate reorganization by the operator whatever output is presented on
indicator.
 For example, if the system is simple instrumentation with display then measured parameter is
displayed directly on the display. If it is required to produce alarm for the over range then
indicator or buzzer is used. If the recorder like strip-chart or X-Y recorder etc. To record the
data.
 If the system is control system in that case the measured data not only displayed or recorded but
also compared with some reference value and control action is generated which is used to
remove the error.
Power supply:
 This is a common unit for all instrumentation system. This provides power to all elements
working in the instrumentation setup.
 If the transducer is active transducer (self generating), in that case power supply is not required.
For example if that transducer is thermocouple or piezoelectric crystal.
 For passive transducer power suppy is required, for examplr if the transducer is thermistor or
RTD, in that case power suppy is important to the transducer block.

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