1.
CONCEPTS
Research methods: Is a protocol that defines the tools and techniques used to conduct research.
it's the foundation for any kind of investigation, providing a systematic approach to collecting
reliable data and reaching valid conclusions.
Epistemology : is a branch of philosophy that delves into the nature of knowledge itself, asking
whatqualifies as true knowledge and how we can be certain of what we believe (how was the
reality built).
Ontology: is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of existence, being, and reality. It
asks fundamental questions like "what is real?" and "what types of things exist?".
Axiology: is the branch of philosophy concerned with understanding the nature of value. In
other words, it's all about what we find valuable and why. Axiology is closely linked to ethics,
which dealsspecifically with moral values.
Paradigm : is a set of beliefs, assumptions, or understandings that justify the way we see the
truth, and within which theories can function. It is a pattern for conducting a research.
Theory: is a well-established explanation of a phenomenon. It acts as a foundation for a
research by providing a framework to understand and investigate a topic. It's built on a set of
concepts and relationships between them.
Research: is a systematic gathering of data and information and its analysis for
advancement of knowledge in a certain subject.
Research problem : is a brief statement that indicates a specific issue that we aim to address
in a research. The research problem should specify the issue we will discuss, how are we going
to investigate it, and the variables related .
2. WHAT IS A RESEARCH QUESTION
A research question is the question around which we center our research. It's a specific, focused
inquiry that focuses on the problem we want to discuss and understand in a research , as it helps
us collect accurate data about the specific issue we aim on. A research question should be:
Clear: it provides enough specifics that the audience can easily understand it .
Focused: it shouldn't be too general, but rather targeting a specific aspect.
Concise: it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
Complex: it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis
and analysis of ideas and sources to composition of an answer.
Arguable: its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts.
3. THREE TYPES OF A RESEARCH
Descriptive Research Exploratory Research Explanatory Research
This type of research is used to Is used to explore new ideas This type of research is
describe the characteristics of a and to better understand a quantitative. It is used to
population in research or subject not sufficiently explain why or how something
phenomenon without seeking researched yet. It helps occurs. It seeks to test
to establish a causal establishing a framework of hypothesis and identify the
relationship. It provides a references and hypothesis by cause-and-effect relationships
comprehensive picture of a identifying key concepts and between variables (studying if
situation at a particular time. potential explanations. the impact of a variable on
another is significant or not).
population in research : participants or subjects targeted in a research
4. METHODS OF A RESEARCH
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Mixed Methods Research
it involves collecting non- It helps measuring a phenomena This approach can provide a
numerical data and helps to or a relationship between more comprehensive
understand and explore variables, as it helps testing a understanding of a research
intangible evidences and theory, variable, or a hypothesis question by allowing
reasons behind phenomenon or in order to prove if it's true or researchers to explore the
experiences of individuals . In not, using numerical data "why" and "how" of a
this type of research we work collected from methods such as phenomenon. It focuses on
on a short sample using surveys, experiments, and collecting, analyzing, and
methods like interviews, focus statistical analysis and according mixing both quantitative
groups, observations.... to to a theoretical framework. It and qualitative data in a
collect data. Then the analysis proceeds by analyzing numeric single study .
proceeds by interpreting and data previously collected using Its central premise is that
extracting the meaning from statistics, tables, charts, and the use of quantitative and
the collected data to get a discussing how results are related qualitative approaches in
coherent picture. Then, after to the hypotheses we did combination provides a
analyzing it, the results can be previously assume about a certain better understanding of
used to generate possible phenomenon. research thaneither
hypotheses that can justify Then, these obtained results approach alone.
them. can be generalized to larger
populations.
Note1:
- Qualitative method does not help us measuring the relationship between variables, instead,
we need to use quantitative method (to be able to calculate and measure).
- We can't specify whether a research question is qualitative or quantitative, it depends on
the method we are going to use.
Note2:
In quantitative research, we measure phenomena based on scientific theories and hypotheses
( the hypothesis that we assume about a topic should be general ). So, to accurately explain a
phenomenon, we need to:
-Build a strong conceptual framework: This involves looking in previous reviews of literature in
order to select relevant theories, define key concepts and research question, and explain how
they relate to each other. So to explain a phenomena accurately, we need to choose reliable
theories, to justify the reason why we are convinced to use them, and also be aware of their
limits. This would help us to generate good questions and accurate hypothesis about the
phenomena.
-Operationalize variables: Translate abstract concepts (variables) into measurable indicators,
and explain how we will quantify these variables (surveys, scales, etc.).
Once we chose the variables we will study, we should define them clearly. Then formulate
hypotheses to test the relationship between them. There are the 2 types of hypotheses:
Research hypothesis (H₁): it predicts a specific relationship between variables (ex:
variable A has a significant impact on variable B).
Null hypothesis (H₀): is the opposite of the research hypothesis and states that no
significant relationship exists. (ex: variable A and variable B are independent).
THE MAIN DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ARE :
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Exploring a phenomena through Testing hypotheses or theories and
Focus observations and then then generalizing results
formulating possible hypotheses
- Observing, interpreting - Analyzing using statistics
- Describing variation - Quantifying variations
Framework - Describe and explain relationships - Predict causal relationships
- describe individual experiences - describe characteristics of a population
- participant observation, focus - Questionnaires, surveys, experiments...
Methods used
groups, Interviews...
Used data Words and texts Numbers, graphs, tables, statistics
Sample Few respondents Many respondents
Questions Open-ended Close-ended or multiple choice
Characterized by Understanding, complexity, Testing, measuring, objectivity,
subjectivity replicability
( Replicability is the ability to get similar results from a study when it's repeated, it is important because if other researchers can't repeat the findings of a
study, it casts doubt on the validity of those findings.)
5. INDUCTIVE / DEDUCTIVE / ABDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive Deductive Abductive
The inductive approach begins It focuses on basing on general It involves considering a set of
with a set of observations about a laws and theories that we would observations and then
specific phenomenon in order to use to develop hypotheses, that proposing the most likely
extract deep meaning and we try to test them in order to explanation for them, even if
explanations from those understand a certain it's not the only possibility.
observations themselves. phenomenon.
it looks similar to the qualitative method it looks similar to the quantitative method
that's why we can say that qualitative method that's why we can say that quantitative
is inductive because the data is analyzed method is deductive because we are starting
inductively, by trying to make meaning to the the process by using general laws to formulate
collected data about a phenomenon itself, and test hypothesis to understand the topic
then from it we can give possible hypothesis not like the inductive approach that bases on
about it rather than looking for extra laws and getting specific observations about the topic
theories to prove the hypothesis and and extract meaning from them themselves.
understand the topic (in quantitative method)
6. QUESTIONS TO ASK BEFORE STARTING A RESEARCH PROJECT
- What is the research problem?
This is the core issue or gap in knowledge that your research aims to address.
- Why are we doing this research?
This clarifies the purpose and significance of our investigation. What new knowledge will it
contribute? How will it benefit a particular field or solve a real-world problem?
- Was it researched before?
A good literature review is crucial to understand what's already known about the topic to identify
existing researches, find knowledge gaps, and avoid repeating past work.
-How was it framed?
Look at how previous researchers has approached the topic. See what methodologies, concepts,
paradigms, variables and constructs they used, what limitations they encountered....
-What do I exactly want to investigate?
Based on the research problem and literature review, what specific aspects do we want to explore?
this will help us refine our research question and specify our research objectives
7. DEPENDENT / INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
A variable: is any characteristic that can take on different values. It is an element that can
change orvary throughout a study. There are two major types of variables:
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Is the variable we manipulate in an experiment Is the variable we measure to observe the
to see its effect on another variable. We can outcome of the independent variable's
consider it the cause. influence. It's the effect we're looking at.
8. MEDIATING / MODERATING VARIABLE
Mediating Variable Moderating Variable
It helps to clarify the relationship between It affects the strength or direction of the
thetwo main variables. It explains how an relationship between an independent variable
independent variable (cause) influences a and a dependent variable. It doesn't explain the
dependent variable (effect). process, but rather the conditions under which
the effect occurs.
Note:
Correlation and causal relation are two distinct concepts that are often confused ;
Correlation Causal relation
- It describes the strength and direction - It refers to a situation where one variable
of a relationship between two variables, impacts the other variable.
but it doesn't explain the how or why.
Why correlation doesn't equal causation?
Imagine you notice that people who drink more coffee tend to score higher on exams. There
could be a correlation, but it doesn't necessarily mean coffee causes better scores. Other factors,
like students who study more also tend to drink more coffee, could be the real reason for the
higher scores.
9. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Experimental research is a quantitative study conducted with a scientific approach and used to test
cause-and-effect relationships between 2 variables. The first set acts as a constant, which we use to
measure the differences of the second set . We have 2 types :
Experimental group Control group
This is the group directly affected by the Does not receive any test variable. It remains
manipulation of the variable. constant.
We use this research to compare the results for each group and conclude to what extent is the
impact of the intervention.
10. TYPES OF PARADIGMS
Positivism: This philosophy emphasizes the Interpretivism: emphasizes the subjective
objective nature of reality and the possibility of nature of reality and the importance of
acquiring knowledge through scientific methods. understanding the meanings that people attach
It believes that only one single truth that can be to their experiences (reality exists in our minds).
discovered through observation and It believes that knowledge is constructed
experimentation. through social experiences and interactions.
here, qualitative method is commonly used due to
its ability to understand subjective experiences and
here quantitative method is often used due to their
meanings.
emphasis on objectivity and generalizability.
Pragmatism: This philosophy is focused on the Realism: believes in an objective reality that
practical application of knowledge. Pragmatists exists independently of our perceptions of it.
believe that the value of an idea lies in its However, they acknowledge that our access to
usefulness for solving problems. this reality is always mediated by our senses,
language, and social experiences.
here we can use any method (quantitative, here Both quantitative and qualitative methods can
qualitative, or mix methods) that best helps to solve be used, depending on the research question.
the research problem.
Postpositivism : is a philosophy that
acknowledges that researchers' backgrounds
can influence their observations, but still
believes in the possibility of finding objective
truths through careful scientific methods.
here we use mixed method, quantitative methods
for their rigor, and qualitative to understand the
meaning behind the numbers and account for the
researcher's position.
11. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method is a systematic approach used to establish scientific knowledge or modify
existing knowledge about a topic. Sir Francis Bacon is considered the father of the modern scientific
method who emphasized the importance of experimentation and observation . It generally
contains the following steps:
1. Identify the problem or question: a problem is a question based upon observations that can be
tested through experimentation.
2. Observation or research: Observe the problem or phenomena using senses and search on the
problem using reviews of literatures.
3. Hypotheses and prediction: give potential explanations to the problem based on the previous
researches.
4. Experiment: test the hypothesis with a step by step procedure.
5. Collect Data : we collect information and observations during the experiment
6. Analyze results : Display the collected data using a graph, statistic, and numbers to show patterns.
7. Conclusion: it should be the solution to the problem and states whether the hypotheses are
accepted or rejected.
12. PLAN OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is a document that outlines the research plan, the research questions, and the
methods to be used in the study.
Step 1: Research Question
The research question should be clear, concise, and focused on a specific problem that we want to
discuss during the research. It should also be grounded in the current literature and emphasize why
this research is needed.
Step 2: Review the Literature
This involves reading and analyzing already existing researches on the topic, to understand what has
been done before and determine how this research can add to the existing knowledge. This review of
literature review will help us to refine the research question, identify appropriate research methods,
paradigms, and develop hypotheses.
Step 3: Develop the Methodology
Now we need to develop our research methodology. This involves deciding on the appropriate
research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques....
Step 4: Data collection and analysis
This section details how we will gather and interpret the information needed to answer the research
question. Data Collection Methods: Surveys, Interviews, Experiments, Observations...
Data Analysis Techniques: Quantitative Analysis, Qualitative Analysis, Mixed Methods...
Step 5: Expected Outcomes
Outline the anticipated results of your research. What kind of findings do we expect, and how will
they answer the research question?
Step 6: Research Timeline
Develop a timeline that outlines the timeframe for each step of the research project.
Step 7: Conclusion
Summarize the key points of the research proposal.
13. THE ONION RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY
The Research Onion represents the layers of decisions we encounter while crafting our research
methodology. The different layers are:
1. Research Philosophy
Is the set of beliefs that the research is based on like positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism...
2. Research Approach
This layer addresses how we collect and analyze data. Will we use quantitative methods,
emphasizing numbers and statistical analysis? Or qualitative methods, diving into rich narratives and
meanings? or a mixed-methods approach ?, inductive or deductive reasoning?....
3. Research Strategy
Here, we decide how we will conduct the research. Will we conduct surveys, experiments, case
studies ?...
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Within this layer, we make specific decisions about data collection techniques, sampling methods,
and measurement tools. Will we use interviews, questionnaires, or observations? How will we select
our participants?
5. Time Horizon
Are we conducting cross-sectional studies, or longitudinal studies, tracking changes over an
extended period? ....
6. Techniques & Procedures
What steps will we take to collect and analyze data? How will we ensure rigor? What are the
sampling strategies ?....
14. CONTINGENCY THEORY
The Contingency Theory, developed by Donaldson, focuses on the relationship between
an organization's management and its environment to achieve optimal performance.
Donaldson emphasizes the importance of this fit for performance. Here's how these
components are connected:
The environment sets the context for the organization. Factors like technology,
competition,and regulations influence the challenges and opportunities it faces.
Management needs to design an organizational structure that can handle these
environmental demands effectively. This involves aspects like decision-making
processes,formalization (rules and procedures), and centralization (where decisions
are made).
Performance is ultimately impacted by the fit between structure and environment. A
well- aligned structure allows for efficient decision-making, resource allocation, and
adaptation tochanging conditions, leading to better performance.
15. AGENCY THEORY
Agency theory is a concept used to understand the relationships between agents and principals.
The agent represents the principal in a particular business transaction and is expected to
represent the best interests of the principal without regard for self-interest. The different
interests of principals and agents may become a source of conflict, as some agents may not
perfectly act in the principal's best interests. The resulting miscommunication and disagreement
may result in various problems and discord within companies.
16. CAREER CHOICES THEORIES
- Trait and Factor Theory (Person-Environment Fit Theory): This theory, developed by Frank
Parsons,emphasizes the match between an individual's traits (such as abilities, interests, values)
and the characteristics of the work environment. Parsons believed we should choose a career
based on a social learning perspective and environmental fit.
- Social Learning Theory: Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory posits that career
developmentis influenced by observational learning, modeling, and reinforcement.
- Gottfredson's Circumscription and Compromise Theory: Linda Gottfredson's theory focuses
on how individuals narrow down their career choices based on gender roles, social class, and
perceivedabilities.
-Holland's Career Choice Theory : is a prominent theory in career counseling. It posits that
peopleare drawn to careers that align with their interests, skills and capacities, environment,
and personality types.