DETECTOR PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Photodetectors are classified as thermal detectors, which convert absorbed light into heat
and a temperature-dependent electrical change, and photon (quantum) detectors, where
absorption produces discrete carrier events and requires a minimum photon energy, giving a
long-wavelength cut-off E=hc / λ. In the infrared, photon energies approach thermal
energies (∼ kT ), which increases thermally generated noise and often makes cooling
necessary (e.g., ~77 K) to improve sensitivity.

Fig. 7.1 plots specific detectivity D¿versus wavelength, showing which detector types
perform best in different spectral regions and how cooling shifts performance in the infrared.
It illustrates why long-wavelength photon detection often requires cooling.

 NEP: Noise Equivalent Power; the optical power that would produce an output equal to
the detector’s noise level (lower NEP = better sensitivity).
 D*: Specific detectivity; a normalized sensitivity metric used to compare detectors fairly
across area and bandwidth (higher D¿= better).

 Responsivity (R): Output per incident optical power (how strongly light becomes an
electrical signal).

 Cut-off wavelength: The maximum wavelength beyond which a photon detector stops
responding because photon energy is too low.

 Time constant (τ): A measure of how fast the detector follows intensity changes (smaller τ
= faster).

7.2 THERMAL DETECTORS

Thermal detectors absorb incident radiation in a sensing element, causing a small

temperature rise Δ T above a heat-sink temperature T s. The element is thermally connected
to the sink through a link with conductance G , while its thermal inertia is set by the heat
capacity H , so the detector behaves like a low-pass system: slow intensity changes produce a
larger Δ T , but fast modulations are not tracked well. Good sensitivity generally favors small
H (small/low-mass element) and small G (better thermal isolation), but this typically reduces
speed and can increase drift, so practical designs use good absorbers, isolation (e.g.,
vacuum), and sometimes differential arrangements to cancel ambient-temperature effects.

 NEP: The optical power that produces an output equal to the detector noise level
(lower is better).

 Thermal time constant (τ th): The thermal response speed, roughly τ th=H /G (smaller
is faster).

 Heat capacity (H): Thermal inertia of the sensing element.

 Thermal conductance (G): How easily heat flows to the sink.

 Δ T : The light-induced temperature rise that leads to the electrical output.

7.2.2 BOLOMETER

A bolometer is a thermal radiation detector that works by heating a small sensing element (a
thin wire or metallic strip). When incident radiation is absorbed, the element’s temperature
rises slightly and its electrical resistance changes; measuring this resistance change gives the
radiation level.

In the shown circuit, the sensing element is placed in a Wheatstone bridge. When the bridge
is balanced, the output (galvanometer) is near zero. Incoming radiation changes the sensing
element’s resistance, unbalances the bridge, and produces a measurable output signal
proportional to the resistance change.

Bolometers are widely used for infrared (IR) detection and radiometry, including thermal
sensing/thermal imaging and IR astronomy, especially when very small radiation levels must
be detected.

 Bolometer: Radiation → heating → resistance change → electrical readout.

 Wheatstone bridge: Converts a tiny resistance change into a measurable output

signal.

7.2.3 PNEUMATIC DETECTORS

In a pneumatic detector, the sensing element is inside an airtight chamber. Absorbed

radiation warms the gas, causing a pressure increase. In a Golay cell, this pressure change is
read out optically using a flexible mirror that forms part of the chamber wall: pressure
changes slightly alter the mirror curvature.
Şekilde, ışık kaynağından çıkan bir prob ışını ızgaradan (grating) geçer, hazne duvarının
parçası olan esnek aynadan yansır ve tekrar ızgaradan geçerek detektör D’ye yönlendirilir.
Basınç değişince esnek aynanın eğriliği çok az değişir; bu da geri dönen ışının
hizasını/şiddetini değiştirir ve D’nin gördüğü sinyal soğurulan ışınımla orantılı hale gelir.

 Pneumatic detector: Işınım → ısınma → basınç değişimi → ölçüm

 Golay cell okuma mantığı: Basınç → esnek ayna eğriliği → D’de optik sinyal değişimi

7.2.4 Pyroelectric Detectors

Pyroelectric detectors absorb radiation in a ferroelectric material and convert a tiny

temperature change into an electrical signal. The material has permanent dipoles; when
temperature changes, the net polarization changes, which alters the surface charge on the
electrodes and produces a measurable voltage.

The device is typically a thin ferroelectric slab with transparent electrodes connected to a
load resistor R L; polarization/charge changes generate a changing voltage across R L. A key
point is that constant (DC) radiation usually does not produce a continuous output, so
pyroelectric detectors work best with modulated or changing radiation (they respond to
changes). They may be less sensitive than a Golay cell, but they can be fast, robust, and low
cost for IR sensing.

Applications: low-cost IR detection, fire detection, and intruder/motion alarms.

7.3 PHOTON DEVICES

7.3.1 PHOTOEMISSIVE DEVICES

In photoemissive devices, an incident photon transfers energy to an electron in a

metal/photocathode. If the electron reaches the surface and has enough energy to
overcome the surface barrier (the work function, eϕ ), it is emitted into vacuum and collected
as an electrical signal. This creates a clear threshold: if the photon energy is too low, no
emission occurs.

The key relation here (Eq. 7.8) gives the maximum kinetic energy of an emitted electron (for
an electron initially at the Fermi level):

E=hν−eϕ

So the photon energy hν must exceed eϕ , and any excess appears as electron kinetic energy.
In practice, not all excited electrons escape due to energy losses (collisions), so performance
is described by the quantum efficiency (quantum yield), i.e., the ratio of emitted electrons
to absorbed photons.

 Work function (eϕ ): Minimum energy needed for an electron to escape the surface.

 Eq. 7.8 (important): E=hν−eϕ⇒ explains the threshold and emitted electron
energy.

 Threshold / cut-off: If hν < eϕ, no photoemission occurs.

 Quantum efficiency (yield): Emitted electrons / absorbed photons (higher = better).

7.3.2 VACCUUM PHOTODIODES

A vacuum photodiode is a vacuum-tube detector with a photocathode and a nearby anode

biased positively. Light incident on the photocathode causes photoemission; the emitted
electrons are collected by the anode, producing a photocurrent in the external circuit, which
creates a measurable voltage across the load resistor R L.

When the bias V b is sufficiently high, nearly all emitted electrons are collected, so the current
becomes largely independent of V b and mainly proportional to the incident light level. The
output currents can be small unless the optical power is large, so external amplification may
be used (photomultipliers use the same principle but provide internal gain).

 Vacuum photodiode: Vacuum tube device that converts photoemitted electrons into
a measurable current.
  V b : Bias field for efficient electron collection.

 R L: Converts photocurrent into an output voltage.

7.3.3 PHOTOMULTIPLIERS

A photomultiplier tube (PMT) starts with photoelectrons emitted from a photocathode. The
electrons are accelerated onto a series of dynodes at increasing potentials; each impact
releases multiple secondary electrons, and the cascade continues stage by stage. This
provides strong internal amplification, so very weak light can produce a measurable anode
signal. The different dynode geometries in the figure mainly show how electrons are guided
and collected.

 Photomultiplier: Vacuum detector with internal amplification using a dynode chain.

 Dynode: Electrode that produces secondary electrons when struck.

 Applications: Very low light detection, fast pulses, photon counting.

7.3.4 IMAGE INTENSIFIERS

An image intensifier is a vacuum-tube device that boosts very low-intensity optical images to
a usable brightness level, and it can also convert near-IR scenes into visible output. The input
image is formed on a photocathode, which converts light into a spatial pattern of
photoelectrons. These electrons are accelerated and focused onto a phosphor screen, which
emits light when struck, producing a brighter output image.

In the first-generation type, electrostatic focusing elements preserve the image mapping
from photocathode to phosphor, and fiber-optic interfaces can help couple and match image
geometry. For higher gain, later generations insert a microchannel plate (MCP) to multiply
electrons before they reach the phosphor screen.

 Image intensifier: Device that amplifies dim images and can down-convert near-IR to
visible.

 Photocathode: Converts the input image into an electron image.

 Phosphor screen: Converts the electron image back into a brighter visible image.

 MCP: Electron multiplier stage for higher gain.

7.3.5 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE DETECTORS

A photoconductive detector operates by increasing the conductivity of a semiconductor

when absorbed photons generate electron–hole pairs. Practically, it is a biased
semiconductor slab between two electrodes; illumination increases carrier density, reduces
resistance (increases conductivity), and the resulting change in circuit current/voltage is
measured.

The key condition is set by the bandgap: carriers are generated only if the photon energy
exceeds E g, which creates a long-wavelength cut-off.

Eq. 7.15 (condition): hν ≥ E g ⇔ λ ≤

hc

Eg

hc
 Eq. 7.16 (bandgap wavelength): λ g=
Eg

In the slab model, radiation enters from the top surface and is absorbed through the
thickness depending on the absorption coefficient α , which varies strongly with wavelength
—so different materials have different usable wavelength ranges.
 Photoconductivity: Light → more carriers → higher conductivity.

 λ g: Long-wavelength cut-off set by the bandgap.

 Absorption coefficient (α): Controls how quickly light is absorbed inside the material
(larger α → more surface absorption).

7.3.6 JUNCTION DETECTORS

[Link] PN JUNCTION DETECTOR

What is a p–n junction detector?

It is a photodetector formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors. At the junction, a
depletion region forms—a zone depleted of mobile carriers and containing a strong internal
electric field.
How does it work?
When light strikes the depletion region, photons are absorbed and electron–hole pairs are
generated. The strong internal electric field in the depletion region immediately separates
these carriers: electrons drift toward the n-side, holes toward the p-side. This separation
creates a measurable current/voltage change in the external circuit, providing the "light
detected" signal.

Three operating modes:

1. Photovoltaic (open circuit): External resistance is very high; a measurable voltage

appears across the p–n terminals. Output voltage varies with the logarithm of light
intensity; slow response but wide dynamic range.

2. Photoconductive (reverse bias): Reverse bias is applied and a small external load
resistor is connected. Generated carriers flow through the external circuit when
illuminated; output voltage/current is directly proportional to light intensity. Fast
response but dark current increases noise.

3. Photoamperic: External resistance is very small (nearly short circuit); current is

measured directly. Wide dynamic range but dark current remains an issue.
 Key points:

 The depletion region is the critical zone where carriers are separated; light absorption
here is most efficient.

 Photovoltaic mode: logarithmic response (wide dynamic range); photoconductive

mode: linear response (fast).

 Design: p⁺ kept thin (light penetration), n kept thick (absorption).

 High reverse bias → wider depletion region → more efficient carrier collection.

[Link] PIN PHOTODIODE

What is p–i–n photodiode and why use it?

It's an improved version of the standard p–n structure. An intrinsic (i) region is inserted
between p and n layers. Since the i-region has high resistivity, even at low bias voltages the
entire i-region acts like a depletion region filled with electric field. This creates a much larger
sensitive volume and improves performance especially at long wavelengths..
How does it work?
Ideally, incoming light should be absorbed in the i-region since it's the widest depletion zone.
The i-region is kept thick (especially important for long wavelengths where light penetrates
deeper), and electron–hole pairs generated here are separated by the electric field to create
a signal. Thicknesses of p⁺ and i are optimized so most incident light is absorbed in the i-layer.
Surface reflections can be reduced with antireflection coating. Silicon p–i–n photodiodes can
reach 80% quantum efficiency at 0.8–0.9 µm.

[Link] Response Time of Photodiodes

What limits photodiode response speed?

Two main factors: (1) carrier transit time across the depletion region (drift time), (2) RC time
constant of the diode and external circuit.

Drift time:
At high electric fields carriers move at saturation velocity (~10⁷ m/s). If depletion region
width is w, transit time is τ drift ≈ w/ v sat . During this time current flows in the external circuit,
so even a very short light pulse extends to duration τ drift.

Junction capacitance:
Diode capacitance C jdepends on depletion region width. At high frequencies this
capacitance acts as a shunt across the output resistance and attenuates the signal.

Electrical bandwidth (Eq. 7.35):

1
Δ f el =
2 π RL C j

where R Lis external load resistance, C jis junction capacitance. To increase bandwidth,
reduce C j(by reducing diode area or increasing depletion thickness). But smaller area
reduces photon collection, thicker depletion increases drift time. So there's an optimal
thickness: for maximum bandwidth (or minimum total response time), τ drift=τ RC .

Diffusion effect:
Carriers generated outside the high-field region must diffuse to the depletion region; this is
slow and can cause a "slow tail" in the response. In normal p–i–n structures this problem is
minor.

[Link] PHOTOTRANSISTORS

A phototransistor is a device where the current from a p–n junction detector is internally
amplified. It's structurally like a normal transistor, but the base region is exposed to incident
light and typically no external base connection is made. When light is absorbed in the base
region, it generates photocurrent i bat the base. This acts like the normal base current of a
transistor and triggers collector current i c. The collector current consists of two parts: normal
diode leakage current (i co) and the portion of emitter current (α i e ) that reaches the collector.
Ultimately, the collector current is the base current amplified by a much larger factor ( h fe,
typically ~100). So the phototransistor provides internal gain; its responsivity lies between a
p–i–n photodiode and an avalanche photodiode.
Even without light (i b=0 ), current flows and this dark current is much larger than a normal
p–n diode because of internal gain. Frequency bandwidth is typically low (few hundred
kilohertz) due to high base–collector junction capacitance and long carrier transit time across
the base. However, internal gain greatly simplifies detection circuits (remote control, TV)
because no external amplifier is needed. High-speed variants can be made with InGaAs/InP
heterojunction; InP layer passes wavelengths >0.92 µm, absorbed in InGaAs base.
7.3.7 DETECTOR ARRAYS

To convert optical images into electrical signals, detector arrays can be used instead of
vidicon devices. The image is focused onto a two-dimensional array or scanned across a one-
dimensional array. The challenge is reading out many detectors sequentially. In the 1970s
Bell Laboratories developed the charge-coupled device (CCD) as a solution. CCD is based on
MOS capacitor series: SiO₂ oxide on p-type silicon with metal gate on top. When gate is
positively biased, electrons collect under the gate; trapped charge is proportional to incident
light. Charge is transferred detector-to-detector by sequentially varying gate potentials and
finally read out. The most common method is three-phase scheme: using three voltage lines,
charge is shifted step-by-step to the right.

For faster readout, a transport register is used: a second CCD array is placed alongside the
sensing array (shielded from radiation). Once charge image is built in sensing array, it's
transferred sideways to transport register and read out; meanwhile new image begins
forming. In two-dimensional arrays, frame transfer or interline transfer methods are used.
Each transfer causes some charge loss; charge transfer efficiency (η ct) must be very high
(~0.999999). Modern CCDs use polysilicon gates (quantum efficiency ~0.35), thinned
substrates can reach ~0.9. Typical arrays are 1024×1024 pixels, 7–50 µm pixel size. Besides
CCD, silicon photodiode, IR arrays (GaAs/InSb/HgCdTe), and microbolometers (for thermal
cameras) are also used.

7.3.10 SOLAR CELLS

Radiation from the sun is a renewable energy source. Outside earth's atmosphere irradiance
is ~1400 W/m², falling to 500–1000 W/m² on surface. Solar spectrum peak is at ~0.6 µm,
useful range 0.3–2 µm. A solar cell is essentially a p–n junction detector operated to deliver
power to an external load. It operates in the quadrant where i is negative and V is positive;
maximum power occurs where i×V product is maximum. Both open circuit voltage (V_oc)
and short circuit current (i_sc) should be large. Open circuit voltage is increased by reducing
reverse bias leakage current (i_0) through large doping on both sides of junction. Diffusion
length should be large but minority carrier lifetime is low for low impurity doping; thus a
compromise on doping concentrations is needed. Most common structure is n⁺–p–p⁺.

When maximum power is obtained at current I_m and voltage V_m, the fill factor is defined:
V m× I m
F=
V oc × I sc

In good cell design, fill factor can reach ~0.8. Solar cell material must have bandgap allowing
absorption of substantial part of solar spectrum and exhibit long carrier diffusion lengths.
Besides silicon, candidates include GaAs, CdTe, CuInSe; these can form more efficient cascade
structures but are economical only in space applications or concentrated light. Commercial
cells are mostly silicon: single crystal most efficient (10–12%), amorphous lower (~6%) and
degrades to ~80% over time.