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Advantages of RVDT:
Following are the main advantages of RVDT:
• High Accuracy.
• Compact and strong construction.
• The consistency of RVDT is high.
• Long life span.
• Very high Resolution.
• Low cost.
• High durability
• Linearity is excellent.
• The performance is repeatable.
• Easy to handle
Disadvantages of RVDT
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following.
• Since the output of RVDT is linear (about +40 degrees or -40 degrees), so it restricts its usability.
• The contact among the measuring exteriors as well as the nozzle is not possible for all time.
Applications of RVDT
RVDT is most commonly is used as a sensor nowadays; also it doesn't experience any functional
problem due to its contactless structure. Hence the main applications of RVDT include the
following.
• Actuators for controlling flight as well as engine.
• Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.
• Brake with a cable system.
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• Modern machine tools.
• Nose wheel steering systems.
• Weapon and Torpedo system.
• Engine fuel control system
• Aircraft and avionics.
• Engines bleed air systems.
• Robotics.

LOAD CELL

A load cell is a type of transducer, specifically a force transducer. It converts a force such as
tension, compression, pressure, or torque into an electrical signal that can be measured and
standardized. As the force applied to the load cell increases, the electrical signal changes
proportionally.

Working of load cell:

A load cell works by converting mechanical force into digital values that the user can read and
record. The inner working of a load cell differs based on the load cell that you choose. There are
hydraulic load cells, pneumatic load cells, and strain gauge load cells. Strain gauge load sensors
are the most commonly used among the three. Strain gauge load cells contain strain gauges
within them that send up voltage irregularities when under load. The degree of voltage change is
covered to digital reading as weight.

Application of load cell:

A load cell measures mechanical force, mainly the weight of objects. Today, almost all
electronic weighing scales use load cells for the measurement of weight. They are widely used
because of the accuracy with which they can measure the weight. Load cells find their
application in a variety of fields that demand accuracy and precision. There are different classes
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to load cells, class A, class B, class C & Class D, and with each class, there is a change in both
accuracy and capacity.
Load Cell Types:
Load cell designs can be distinguished according to the type of output signal generated
(pneumatic, hydraulic, electric) or according to the way they detect weight (bending, shear,
compression, tension, etc.)
Hydraulic load cells
Hydraulic cells are force -balance devices, measuring weight as a change in pressure of the
internal filling fluid. In a rolling diaphragm type hydraulic force sensors, a load or force acting
on a loading head is transferred to a piston that in turn compresses a filling fluid confined within
an elastomeric diaphragm chamber. As force increases, the pressure of the hydraulic fluid rises.
This pressure can be locally indicated or transmitted for remote indication or control. Output is
linear and relatively unaffected by the amount of the filling fluid or by its temperature.
If the load cells have been properly installed and calibrated, accuracy can be within 0.25% full
scale or better, acceptable for most process weighing applications. Because this sensor has no
electric components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas. Typical hydraulic load cell
applications include tank, bin, and hopper weighing. For maximum accuracy, the weight of the
tank should be obtained by locating one force sensor at each point of support and summing their
outputs.
Principle of Hydraulic Load cell:
When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the pressure of the
liquid increases. This increase in pressure of the liquid is proportional to the applied force. Hence
a measure of the increase in pressure of the liquid becomes a measure of the applied force when
calibrated.
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The main parts of a hydraulic load cell are as follows
▪ A diaphragm
▪ A piston with a loading platform (as shown in figure) placed on top of the diaphragm.
▪ A liquid medium which is under a pre-loaded pressure is on the other side of the
diaphragm.
▪ A pressure gauge (bourdon tube type) connected to the liquid medium.
Operation of Hydraulic Load Cell
▪ The force to be measured is applied to the piston.
▪ The applied force moves the piston downwards and deflects the diaphragm and this
deflection of the diaphragm increases the pressure in the liquid medium (oil).
▪ This increase in pressure of the liquid medium is proportional to the applied force. The
increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge which is connected to the liquid
medium.
▪ The pressure is calibrated in force units and hence the indication in the pressure gauge
becomes a measure of the force applied on the piston.
Pneumatic load cells: A pneumatic load cell consists of an elastic diaphragm which is
attached to a platform surface where the weight will be measured. There will be an air regulator
that will limit the flow of air pressure to the system and a pressure gauge. The pressure gauge
can convert the air pressure reading into an electrical signal.
Pneumatic load cells also operate on the force-balance principle. These devices use multiple
dampener chambers to provide higher accuracy than can a hydraulic device. In some designs, the
first dampener chamber is used as a tare weight chamber. Pneumatic load cells are often used to
measure relatively small weights in industries where cleanliness and safety are of prime concern.
The advantages of this type of load cell include their being inherently explosion proof and
insensitive to temperature variations. Additionally, they contain no fluids that might contaminate
the process if the diaphragm ruptures. Disadvantages include relatively slow speed of response
and the need for clean, dry, regulated air or nitrogen.
Principle of Pneumatic Load Cell
If a force is applied to one side of a diaphragm and an air pressure is applied to the other side,
some particular value of pressure will be necessary to exactly balance the force. This pressure is
proportional to the applied force.
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Pneumatic Load cell
The main parts of a pneumatic load cell are as follows:
▪ A corrugated diaphragm with its top surface attached with arrangements to apply force.
▪ An air supply regulator, nozzle and a pressure gauge arranged as shown in figure.
▪ A flapper arranged above the nozzle as shown in figure.
Operation of Pneumatic Load cell:
The force to be measured is applied to the top side of the diaphragm. Due to this force, the
diaphragm deflects and causes the flapper to shut-off the nozzle opening. Now an air supply is
provided at the bottom of the diaphragm. As the flapper closes the nozzle open, a back pressure
results underneath the diagram. This back pressure acts on the diaphragm producing an upward
force. Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-loaded position which is
indicated by air which comes out of the nozzle. At this stage, the corresponding pressure
indicated by the pressure gauge becomes a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

Strain-gauge load cell

Strain gauge load cells are a type of load cell where a strain gauge assembly is positioned inside
the load cell housing to convert the load acting on them into electrical signals. The weight on the
load cell is measured by the voltage fluctuation caused in the strain gauge when it undergoes
deformation.
The gauges themselves are bonded onto a beam or structural member that deforms when weight
is applied. Modern load cells have 4 strain gauges installed within them to increase the
measurement accuracy. Two of the gauges are usually in tension, and two in compression, and
are wired with compensation adjustments. When there is no load on the load cell, the resistances
of each strain gauge will be the same. However, when under load, the resistance of the strain
gauge varies, causing a change in output voltage. The change in output voltage is measured and
converted into readable values using a digital meter.
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Piezoresistive load cell:

Similar in operation to strain gauges, piezo resistive force sensors generate a high level output
signal, making them ideal for simple weighing systems because they can be connected directly to
a readout meter. The availability of low cost linear amplifiers has diminished this advantage,
however. An added drawback of piezoresistive devices is their nonlinear output.
Inductive and reluctance load cells:
Both of these devices respond to the weight-proportional displacement of a ferromagnetic core.
One changes the inductance of a solenoid coil due to the movement of its iron core; the other
changes the reluctance of a very small air gap.
Magnetostrictive load cells:
The operation of this force sensor is based on the change in permeability of ferromagnetic
materials under applied stress. It is built from a stack of laminations forming a load-bearing
column around a set of primary and secondary transformer windings. When a force is applied,
the stresses cause distortions in the flux pattern, generating an output signal proportional to the
applied load. This is a rugged sensor and continues to be used for force and weight measurement
in rolling mills and strip mills.
There are many different kinds of load cells. We offer resistive load cells and capacitive load
cells.
Resistive load cells work on the principle of piezo-resistivity. When a load/force/stress is applied
to the sensor, it changes its resistance. This change in resistance leads to a change in output
voltage when an input voltage is applied. Capacitive load cell works on the principle of change
of capacitance which is the ability of a system to hold a certain amount of charge when a voltage
is applied to it. For common parallel plate capacitors, the capacitance is directly proportional to
the amount of overlap of the plates and the dielectric between the plates and inversely
proportional to the gap between the plates.
Working of resistive load cell:
A load cell is made by using an elastic member (with very highly repeatable deflection pattern)
to which a number of strain gauges are attached.
In this particular load cell shown to the right, there are a total of four strain gauges that are
bonded to the upper and lower surfaces of the load cell.
When the load is applied to the body of a resistive load cell as shown above, the elastic member,
deflects as shown and creates a strain at those locations due to the stress applied. As a result, two
of the strain gauges are in compression, whereas the other two are in tension.
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Wheatstone bridge Circuit:

The four strain gauges are configured in a Wheatstone bridge configuration with four separate
resistors connected as shown in what is called a Wheatstone Bridge Network. An excitation
voltage - usually 10V is applied to one set of corners and the voltage difference is measured
between the other two corners.
At equilibrium with no applied load, the voltage output is zero or very close to zero when the
four resistors are closely matched in value. That is why it is referred to as a balanced bridge
circuit. When the metallic member to which the strain gauges are attached, is stressed by the
application of a force, the resulting strain - leads to a change in resistance in one (or more) of the
resistors.
This change in resistance results in a change in output voltage. This small change in output
voltage (usually about 20 mVolt of total change in response to full load) can be measured and
digitized after careful amplification of the small milli-volt level signals to a higher amplitude 0-
5V or 0-10V signal. These load cells have been in use for many decades now, and can provide
very accurate readings but require many tedious steps during the manufacturing process

Types of Resistive Load Cells

Resistive Load cells come in various shapes and sizes to meet diverse application needs. Here we
show you a few common types:

1. Single Point Load Cells: - Generally used to build scales and in applications where
space is not limited. They offer excellent off-center loading compensation. Range -100 g,
300 g, 500g, 1 kg, 2 kg, 3 kg
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2. Button Load Cells:- Ideal for measuring compression forces that are applied axially.
They are compact and easy to use.

3. S-Beam Load Cells Ideal for tension (pull) or Universal (push and pull) force
measurement applications

4. Miniature Load Cells Smallest miniature load cells we offer for compression force
measurements only. Ideal for cramped locations.

5. Through Hole Load Cells Rugged, industrial load cells for compression and/or tension
force measurements. Has a through hole with threads to attach accessories
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6. Pancake Load Cells High Capacity load cells with capacities up to 100K lbs for
compression and/or tension load cell measurements.

Capacitive load cells are built on the principal of a change in capacitance when a force is applied
on the load cell. Capacitance is the ability of a system to store a charge. If a capacitor is built
using the classic parallel plate approach then its ability to store a charge is directly proportional
to the area between the two plates and inversely proportional to the gap between the plates.

When a force or load or pressure is applied this gap between the plates changes due to the
deflection of the housing and results in a disproportionate change in capacitance making
capacitive sensors extremely sensitive.

Types of Capacitive Load Sensors:

Ideal for controlled room temperature applications ~25C for short durations
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1) iLoad Mini with Threaded Stud Compression and/or Tension Available

2) iLoad Mini with Dome Compression Only

3) iLoad Mini Pro with Threaded Stud Compression and/or Tension Available

4) iLoad Mini Pro Compression Only

5) iLoad Pro Compression and/or Tension Available

6) iLoad TR Compression and/or Tension Available

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7) iLoad Low Profile Compression Only

STROBOSCOPE

Stroboscope Definition – A stroboscope is an instrument that emits a series of brief, intense

flashing lights at specific intervals

The stroboscopic principle uses a high intensity light which flashes at precise intervals. This light
may be directed upon a rotating or vibrating object. The stroboscopic effect is apparent when the
rotational or vibratory speed is in a proper ratio with the frequency of the light flashes

A stroboscope has various uses, such as:

➢ It is used to measure the oscillation frequencies of mechanical and electronic systems
➢ It is used to measure resonance frequencies
➢ It is used to study the vibrations of various bodies
➢ It is used to visually monitor rapidly moving parts of machines.
Principle of Operation:
A stroboscope uses a flash lamp which is driven by an electronic oscillator. The flash lamp used
is usually a xenon bulb, although LEDs are also used sometimes. The oscillator triggers the lamp
at a steady rate of flash. The rate of flash can be varied and has a variable range from a few times
per second to thousands of times per second. The flash lamp also consists a reflector to increase
its brightness and to make the flash more directional.
There are two basic types of stroboscope available:
➢ General purpose Stroboscope– used for entertainment
➢ Scientific Stroboscope – used for scientific or experimental purpose.
The entertainment / party models are speed-limited and have low cost. The rate of flash for
entertainment purpose stroboscope is generally limited as it has been found that flashes at certain
rates can induce epileptic seizures in some people. They may have some additional features like
multiple colored lights (that flash in a sequence). The scientific models don’t have any such
speed limits. They must be able to capture high-speed periodic motions.
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Scientific or professional strobes may also have some external trigger inputs. The external trigger
overrides the internal oscillator. With the help of these external trigger inputs, one can easily
sync the stroboscope to moving machinery and slow down its motion for experiment/study.

Working of Stroboscopes:
Stroboscopes, commonly referred to as strobes, use a flash lamp generally xenon or LED driven
by an oscillator to inspect or measure the rotational speed of spinning objects. The oscillator
activates the lamp at a steady state which can be set at rates from a flash every few seconds to
hundreds of flashes per second. The flashing light creates the perception of stop-motion which is
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ideal for diagnostic inspections of moving machinery and can also be used as a measuring
instrument for determining cyclic speed as measured in rotations per minute (RPM).
The flashing light of the strobe creates an optical illusion known as aliasing. As the strobe
flashes it provides intermittent glimpses of the moving target. When the flash rate of the
stroboscope matches the rotational rate of the target, each flash illuminates the target at the same
position in its rotational cycle creating the perception that the object is stationary. Once this point
is reached the flash rate can increased or decreased to make it appear as if the object is rotating
forward or backwards—the speed of which is dependent upon how much the flash rate of the
stroboscope varies from the rotational rate of the target.
The ability to visually “stop and start” a spinning piece of machinery or adjust its rotational
speed and direction is an important inspection and troubleshooting tool. Technicians can identify
damage to gears, shafts, pulleys, and belts without having to stop the machinery. Additionally,
any wobbles or alignment problems can be quickly noticed before the problem becomes severe.
Though the ability of a stroboscope to visually stop the motion of a piece of machinery for
inspection is the primary use of the instrument, it is also quite useful as a tool capable of
measuring rotational speed. Measuring rotational speed involves matching the flash rate of the
strobe to the rotational rate of the equipment being tested. Some sort of reference mark, such as
reflective tape, makes this easier. Once the rates match, the stroboscope can convert the number
of flashes per second to RPM.

TORQUE
Torque is a twisting or turning force about an axis that can be applied in a clockwise or counter-
clockwise direction. A good example of this is a vehicle steering mechanism; to turn a corner
the driver applies a force to the steering wheel which applies torque directly to the steering
column. This torque is generated by a combination of the force from the driver’s hands and
distance the hands are from the center of the wheel.

Torque Sensor Measurement Principle

The most common torque sensor measurement principle uses bonded strain gauge technology,
where the strain gauges are bonded to a suitably designed shaft. Torque transducers with a
circular shaft and with strain gauges applied at 45deg is a design that has been around for many
years. However, the design and configuration of the device will be dictated by the application
and the shaft may well be solid or hollow and the cross-section might differ with either a
cruciform, square or the other custom design, in order to gain the maximum signal output
available from the measurement.
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When torsion is applied to the shaft causing it to twist, shear stresses are induced. These are
measured by bonding the strain gauges at 45° to the horizontal torque axis. As the shear stress
induced in the shaft is the same throughout its length, the strain gauges can be bonded at any
point along its length. However, it is normal practice to place them in the center, as far as
possible from spurious stress that can be induced at the mechanical interfaces.

Getting an Electrical Signal from the Torque Transducer

Typically four strain gauges are bonded and connected into a Wheatstone bridge configuration
with temperature compensation components included within the bridge circuitry. With an
excitation voltage applied to the bridge and torque induced into the shaft, an electrical output
linearly proportionate to that torque will result.
For the strain gauged shaft to become a useful measuring instrument (torque sensor) it is
necessary to calibrate it with a known reference standard. This can be either weight applied to
the end of a cantilever arm of known length, or in line with a reference standard torque
transducer.
The completed Wheatstone bridge requires a stable DC supply to excite the circuit. This is
usually 5Vdc or 10Vdc but can be any value from 1Vdc up to 18Vdc

Torque Sensors and Torque Sensor Instrumentation

These low-level millivolt signals are compatible with a vast range of bespoke strain gauge
sensors such as load cells and pressure transducers and their associated instrumentation. These
instruments include digital displays, analogue and digital amplifiers. Typical analogue
amplifiers will generate a higher level voltage (0-5Vdc, 0-10Vdc) or current (0-20mA, 4-20mA)
for additional processing.
Typically digital amplifiers also provide RS232 or RS485 output using either industry standard
or protocols specific to an industry such as MODbus. In many cases the signal conditioning is
built in to the device, giving a direct analogue or digital output for further processing. One of the
latest developments is incorporated into torque sensors in radio telemetry operating in the
2.4GHz frequency band. Operating with very low current consumption enables the use of small
batteries on a power source. This latest technology has led to the design of contact-less rotary
torque transducers.
A further benefit of radio telemetry torque sensors is their low cost (up to 50%) compared with
equivalent slip ring or brushless types.
Selection of an appropriate device will be based on the following amongst other factors, all of
which will impact on the accuracy and cost of the measurement, these include:
➢ Speed of rotation
➢ The environment in which the measurement is taking place
➢ The mechanical connection
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➢ Test duration
➢ Information required of the measurement being taken

Static / Reaction Torque (less than 1 revolution) vs. Rotary Torque (greater than 1 revolution)
Torque measurements can be either Static (also known as Reaction) or Rotary.
A static or reaction torque measurement involves little or no rotation of the item being measured,
such as during torque spanner testing. A rotary torque measurement would, as the name
suggests, be subject to continuous rotation. This rotation could be constant, as you find in a
system measuring the torque on a stirrer in a mixing vessel or periodical as you would find when
measuring the torque produced by an electric screwdriver.
Dynamic Torque
A dynamic torque meanwhile is one that is subject to variation or change, for instance the torque
on the motor drive shaft of an electric hover mower would be subject to dynamic torque, firstly
as you turn on the power to make the blade spin up, and thereafter as you move the mower
around your lawn between areas of varying grass density, or from cut to uncut grass.
When selecting a transducer to measure dynamic torque, it is important to ensure that Is has a
sufficiently wide frequency response bandwidth so that the electrical output will react fast
enough to capture the changes (peaks or troughs) as they occur, rather than smoothing or filtering
them out.

Power & Signal Transmission In Rotary Torque Sensors

Slip Ring
The first rotating strain gauge torque transducer employed slip rings to make the electrical
connections from the casing to the rotating shaft. Because the slip rings are carrying only
millivolt signals from the strain gauges, the materials for both the slip rings and the brushes must
be very carefully selected. The normal procedure is to use coin silver for the slip rings and silver
graphite for the brush gear.

The conductive rings rotate with the sensor and use a series of sprung brushes to contact the
rings and transmit the electrical signal. Slip rings are relatively straight forward with only minor
drawbacks in that the brushes and to a lesser extent, the rings, do wear and as such have a finite
life. Because of this, they don’t lend themselves to long-term tests, very high speed or to
applications where access to the sensor for servicing is limited.

At low speed the electrical connection between the rings and brushes are relatively noise-free,
however, at higher speeds electrical noise will eventually degrade their performance. The
maximum speed (rpm) for a slip ring is determined by the surface speed at the interface between
the brush and ring. As a result, the maximum operating speed will be lower for larger, or higher
torque capacity sensors because the larger slip rings will, therefore, have a higher surface speed
at a given rpm. Typical maximum rpm will be in the range of 5,000rpm for a medium capacity
torque sensor. For very low capacity measurements, the brush ring interface can be a source of
‘drag torque’ that can be a problem for the driving torque to overcome.

Rotary Transformer (Inductive Loop)

For higher speed (rpm) torque measurement applications the rotary transformer system might be
used. The rotary transformer system consists of two coils, one static coil that is attached to the
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transducer’s housing and one rotating coil that is attached to the transducer shaft. This offers the
distinct advantage of there being no contact between rotor and stator and incorporates both
transmission of power to and signal back from the rotating strain gauge bridge circuit. Rotary
transformer type torque sensors offer typical inaccuracies of ±0.2% and are capable of speeds up
to 50,000rpm.

The rotary transformer system is versatile enough for use in special torque transducers and those
where space is limited. However as this design incorporates bearings, the maximum rpm is more
than the slip-ring design but limited by the maximum specified performance of the bearing. The
system can also be susceptible to noise and errors, which are induced by the alignment of the
transformer primary-to-secondary coils. Because of the special requirements imposed by the
rotary transformers, specialized signal conditioning is also required in order to produce a signal
acceptable for most data acquisition systems.

Wireless Radio Telemetry (Battery Powered, 2.4GHz)

Following the advent of modern low-power wireless telemetry acquisition and transmission
electronics, it has become possible to manufacture battery-powered torque sensors that offer a
sufficiently long period of operation between charges to make them viable in a wide range of
industrial and research applications.
The avoidance of rotor and stator coils means that installing wireless torque sensors is a
simplified process over other types as there is no cabling provision or coil alignment to consider,
it also means that the measurement signal can be transferred over considerable distances (up to
120m) easily.
The data stream provided by the wireless telemetry system is broadcast and so can be read by
multiple receiver units with different functions such as digital displays, analogue outputs and PC-
based USB acquisition making multi-featured systems quick and easy to set up.
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ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

An electrical circuit is a path in which electrons from a voltage or current source flow. The
point where those electrons enter an electrical circuit is called the "source" of electrons.

Types of Electric Circuit

There are following 5 main types of electric circuit:

Close Circuit- When load works on its own in a circuit then it is called Close Circuit or Closed
Circuit. Under this situation, the value of current flow depends on load.

Open Circuit- When there is a faulty electrical wire or electronic component in a circuit or the
switch is OFF, then it is called Open Circuit. In the below diagram you can see that the Bulb is
Not glowing because either the switch is OFF or there is fault is the electrical wire.

Short Circuit- When both points (+ & –) of voltage source in a circuit gets joint with each other
for some reason then it is called Short Circuit. Maximum current starts to flow under this
situation. Short circuit generally happens when the conducting electrical wires get joint of even
because of shorting in the load.

Series Circuit- When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc) are connected to each other in a
series, then it is called a Series Circuit. In a series circuit, if one load or bulb gets fuse, then rest
of the bulbs will not get power supply and will not glow.

Parallel Circuit- When 2 or more loads (Bulb, CFL, LED, Fan etc) are connected to each other in
parallel, then it is called Parallel Circuit. In this type of circuit, the voltage capacity of all loads
must be equal to input supply. Power of “load” can be different. In a parallel circuit, if one load
or bulb gets fuse, then rest of the bulbs will still get power supply and will glow.

A bridge circuit is one kind of electrical circuit wherein the two branches of the circuit are
linked to a third branch –which is connected in between the first two branches at some middle
point along them. These circuits are used in linear, nonlinear, power conversion, instrumentation,
filtering, etc

One of the significant differences between the AC and DC bridge is that the AC bridge is used
for measuring the unknown impedance of the circuit whereas the DC bridge is used for
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measuring the unknown resistance of the circuit. The other differences between the AC and DC
bridge are shown below in the comparison chart.

Definition of AC Bridge
The Ac Bridge consists of source, balanced detector, and the four arms. The arms of the bridge
consists the impedance. The AC bridge is constructed by replacing the battery with the ac source.
The bridges are formed by replacing the DC battery with the AC source and galvanometer with
the Wheatstone bridge. The bridge is used for detecting the inductance, capacitance, storage
factor, dissipation factor etc.

Definition of DC Bridge
The DC Bridge is used for measuring the unknown electrical resistance. This can be done by
balancing the two legs of the bridge circuit. The value of one of the arm is known while the other
of them is unknown.

Key Differences Between AC and DC Bridge

1. The bridge which is used for measuring the unknown impedance of the circuit is known
as the Wheatstone bridge. The DC bridge is used for measuring the unknown resistance
of the circuit.
2. The AC bridge uses the AC supply. The DC bridge uses the DC supply for measuring the
resistance.
3. In AC bridge the current is detected by using the AC detector. While in DC bridge the
current is detected by using the DC detector.
4. The resistive and reactive components are used in the AC bridge circuit while in the DC
circuit only resistive components are used.
5. The AC bridge circuit uses the Wagner earth device for removing the earth capacitance
from the circuit. It also reduces the harmonics and the error which occurs because of the
stray magnetic field. The Wagner earthling device is not used in the DC bridge circuit.
6. The AC bridges take less time to come in balance condition while the DC bridge uses
comparatively more time to comes in the balanced condition.
7. Wheatstone Bridge and the Kelvin bridge are the types of the DC bridge. The AC bridges
are classified into seven types. These are capacitance comparison bridge, inductance
Comparison Bridge, Maxwell’s bridge, Hay’s bridge, Anderson Bridge, Schering
bridge, Wein bridge.

The best known bridge circuit is the Wheatstone bridge; the term was invented by “Samuel
Hunter Christie” and popularized by “Charles Wheatstone”. A bridge circuit is mainly used to
measure resistance. This circuit is built with four resistors: R1, R2, R3 and RX; wherein the two
resistors are with known values R1 & R3, one resistor’s resistance is to be concluded Rx, and
one which is changeable and adjusted R2. Two opposite vertices are associated with a supply of
electric current like a battery, and a galvanometer is connected across the additional two
vertices. The variable resistor is familiarized until the galvanometer reads zero.
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Definition: The device uses for the measurement of minimum resistance with the help of
comparison method is known as the Wheatstone bridge. The value of unknown resistance is
determined by comparing it with the known resistance. The Wheatstone bridge works on
the principle of null deflection, i.e. the ratio of their resistance are equal, and no current flows
through the galvanometer. The bridge is very reliable and gives an accurate result.

In normal condition, the bridge remains in the unbalanced condition, i.e. the current flow through
the galvanometer. When zero current passes through the galvanometer, then the bridge is said to
be in balanced condition. This can be done by adjusting the known resistance P, Q and the
variable resistance S.
The working of the bridge is similar to the potentiometer. The Wheatstone bridge is only used
for determining the medium resistance. For measuring the high resistance, the sensitive ammeter
is used in the circuit.

Construction of Wheatstone Bridge:

The basic circuit of the Wheatstone bridge is shown in the figure below. The bridge has four
arms which consists two unknown resistance, one variable resistance and the one unknown
resistance along with the emf source and galvanometer.

The emf supply is attached between point a and b, and the galvanometer is connected between
point c and d. The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference across it.

Working of Galvanometer:
The bridge is in balance condition when no current flows through the coil or the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. This condition occurs when the potential difference
across the a to b and a to d are equal, and the potential differences across the b to c and c to d
remain same.
The current enters into the galvanometer divides into I1 and I2, and their magnitude remains
same. The following condition exists when the current through the galvanometer is zero.

I1P = I2R…………………1

The bridge in a balanced condition is expressed as

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Where E = emf of the battery.

By substituting the value of I1 and 12 in equation (1) we get.

The equation (2) shows the balance condition of the Wheatstone bridge.

The value of unknown resistance is determined by the help of the equation (3). The R is the
unknown resistance, and the S is the standard arm of the bridge and the P and Q are the ratio arm
of the bridge.

Errors in Wheatstone Bridge

The following are the errors in the Wheatstone bridge.

➢ The difference between the true and the mark value of the three resistances can cause the
error in measurement.
➢ The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in the balance point.
➢ The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating which generates an error.
➢ The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-value resistance.
➢ The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading or by finding the null
point.
The above mention error can be reduced by using the best qualities resistor and galvanometer.
The error because of self-heating of resistance can minimize by measuring the resistance within
the short time. The thermal effect can also be reduced by connecting the reversing switch
between the battery and the bridge.
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Limitation of Wheat Stone Bridge

The Wheatstone bridge gives inaccurate readings if it is unbalanced. The Wheatstone bridge
measures resistance from few ohms to megaohms. The upper range of the bridge can be
increased with the help of the applied emf, and the lower range is limited by connecting the lead
at the binding post.

POTENTIOMETERS

Potentiometer :- an instrument for measuring an electromotive force by balancing it against the

potential difference produced by passing a known current through a known variable resistance.

Potentiometer Types
There are two main types of potentiometers:
➢ Rotary potentiometer
➢ Linear potentiometer

Even though the basic construction and working principle of potentiometers are the same, they
differ in one aspect that is the geometry of the moving terminal. Mostly the potentiometers what
we find has a wiper that rotates over an arc shaped resistive material, there is another type of pot
where the wiper slides linearly over a straight resistive strip. Based on the geometry of the
resistive strip, the potentiometer can be broadly classified into two types, discussed below.

1. Rotary type potentiometers: As the name suggests, this type of potentiometer has a wiper
which can be rotated across the two terminals, to vary the resistance of the potentiomer.
They are one of the common types of Pots. Depending upon how many times, one can turn
the wiper, they are further classified into the following categories:
2. Single turn : These pots are one of the commonly used type of pots. The wiper can take
only a single turn. It usually rotates a 3/4th of the full turn.
3. Multi turn: These pots can make multiple rotations like 5, 10 or 20. They have a wiper in
the form of a spiral or helix, or a worm-gear, to make the turns. Known for their high
precision, these type of Pots are used where high precision and resolution are required.
4. Dual gang: From the name of this pot it can be assumed what it is. It is nothing but two
pots with equal resistance and taper are combined on the same shaft. The two channels are
set in parallel.
5. Concentric pot: Here two pots are combined together on shafts placed ina concentric
manner. The advantage of using this type of pot is that two controls can be used in one unit.
6. Servo pot: “Servo” meaning motor pot is a motorized pot. This means its resistance can be
adjusted or controlled automatically by a motor.
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How Does a Potentiometer Work?

A potentiometer is a passive electronic component. Potentiometers work by varying the position
of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance. In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is
applied across the whole length of the resistor, and the output voltage is the voltage drop
between the fixed and sliding contact as shown below.

A potentiometer has the two terminals of the input source fixed to the end of the resistor. To
adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets moved along the resistor on the output side.

This is different to a rheostat, where here one end is fixed and the sliding terminal is connected
to the circuit, as shown below
This is a very basic instrument used for comparing the emf of two cells and for calibrating
ammeter, voltmeter, and watt-meter. The basic working principle of a potentiometer is quite
simple. Suppose we have connected two batteries in parallel through a galvanometer. The
negative battery terminals are connected together and positive battery terminals are also
connected together through a galvanometer as shown in the figure below.
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Here, if the electric potential of both battery cells is exactly the same, there is no circulating
current in the circuit and hence the galvanometer shows null deflection. The working principle of
potentiometer depends upon this phenomenon.

Now let’s think about another circuit, where a battery is connected across a resistor via a switch
and a rheostat as shown in the figure below.

The resistor has the uniform electrical resistance per unit length throughout its length.
Hence, the voltage drop per unit length of the resistor is equal throughout its length. Suppose, by
adjusting the rheostat we get v volt voltage drop appearing per unit length of the resistor. Now,
the positive terminal of a standard cell is connected to point A on the resistor and the negative
terminal of the same is connected with a galvanometer. The other end of the galvanometer is in
contact with the resistor via a sliding contact as shown in the figure above.
By adjusting this sliding end, a point like B is found where there is no current through the
galvanometer,
Hence there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
That means, emf of the standard cell is just balanced by the voltage appearing in the resistor
across points A and B. Now if the distance between points A and B is L, then we can write emf
of standard cell E = Lv volt.
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This is how a potentiometer measures the voltage between two points (here between A and B)
without taking any current component from the circuit. This is the specialty of a potentiometer; it
can measure voltage most accurately.

Applications of Potentiometer:
There are many different uses of a potentiometer. The three main applications of a potentiometer
are:
1. Comparing the emf of a battery cell with a standard cell
2. Measuring the internal resistance of a battery cell
3. Measuring the voltage across a branch of a circuit

FORCE MEASUREMENT

In science, force is the push or pull on an object with mass that causes it to change velocity (to
accelerate). Force represents as a vector, which means it has both magnitude and direction.
Forces can be measured using a device called force meter. The unit of force is called the
Newton. It is represented by the symbol N.

Force measurement methods may be divided into two categories:

➢ Direct comparison
➢ Indirect comparison.

In a direct comparison method, an unknown force is directly compared with gravitational

force acting on a known mass. A simple analytical balance is an example of this method.
An indirect comparison method involves the use of calibrated masses or transducers.
A summary of indirect comparison methods is given below:
1. Lever-balance methods
2. Force-balance method.
3. Hydraulic pressure measurement.
4. Acceleration measurement.
5. Elastic elements.

The PROVING RING is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring of known
diameter with a measuring device located in the center of the ring. Proving rings come in a
variety of sizes. They are made of a steel alloy. Manufacturing consists of rough machining from
annealed forgings, heat treatment, and precision grinding to final size and finish.
Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension forces. Some are
designed to measure both. The basic operation of the proving ring in tension is the same as in
compression. However, tension rings are provided with threaded bosses and supplied with
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pulling rods which are screwed onto the bosses. The proving ring consists of two main elements,
the ring itself and the diameter-measuring system, shown on the right in the exploded view of a
proving ring. Forces are applied to the ring through the external bosses. The resulting change in
diameter, referred to as the deflection of the ring, is measured with a micrometer screw and the
vibrating reed mounted diametrically within the ring.
The micrometer screw and the vibrating reed are attached to the internal bosses of the ring. In
modern rings, the upper and lower internal and external bosses are machined as an integral part
of the ring to avoid mechanical interferences during the application of the force.
To read the diameter of the ring, the vibrating reed is set in motion by gently tapping it with a
pencil. As the reed is vibrating, the micrometer screw on the spindle is adjusted until the usa
button on the spindle just contacts the vibrating reed, dampening out its vibrations. When this
occurs a characteristic buzzing sound is produced.
At this point a reading of the micrometer dial indicates the diameter of the [Link] number of
divisions on the micrometer dial and the graduations of the vernier index vary by type of proving
ring. Typically, proving rings are designed to have a deflection of about 0.84 mm (0.033 in) to
4.24 mm (0.167 in). The relative measurement uncertainty can vary from 0.075 % to about
0.0125 %.