UMMA UNIVERSITY: SCHOOL

OF EDUCATION AND SOCIAL

SCIENCES, DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION

EDUCATIONAL
ADMINISTRATION
EDAP 201

BEATRICE KEREI
4/10/2020
Lecture 1: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Management: The process of working with and through people to

accomplish organizational goals.

Administration: The process of directing and controlling behavior in a

social organization e.g industry, school, government
department, etc.

Leadership: The ability of force that initiates action to accomplish common

goals.

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Authority: The right or ability conferred to a person in a given position to
make decisions or coordinate activities.

Power: The ability to influence a person to behave in a destined way

It is the force behind authority.

Organization: A consciously coordinated social unit composed of two or

more people working towards common goal.

Theory: A set of interrelated propositions which explain and /predict

given phenomenon.

Educational management: the process of forecasting, planning and

organizing on how the institution will function. That is the
application of management principles to educational
institutions.

Educational Administration: Direct control and coordination of affairs in

educational institutions. That is the process of acquiring and
allocating resources for the achievement of educational goals.

Key Administrative Functions

The processes of administration were mainly generated from the work of Henri
Fayol (1841-1925) and the work of Gullick and Urwick (1937). They both
discussed the work of a manger in terms of functions namely planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting and budgeting. These
processes are usually referred to using the acronym POSDCORB.

Planning

This involves deciding in advance future events that are set to take place. This
involves setting clear goals and objectives of the organization as well as
policies and procedures that will be used to attain –long and short term goals
can be set. (e.g increase student enrolment).

Organizing

This is the method of fitting together people and resources. It involves

establishing formal structures of authority through which work can be divided/
arranged to attain the goals and objectives of the organization .eg. deploy

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qualified teachers to teach their best subject according to a properly worked
out timetable.

Staffing
This involves identifying, employing and training of personnel and maintaining
favorable conditions of work. This may also involve transfers, promotions,
dismissal, and disciplinary procedures etc all aimed at attaining the goals and
objectives of the institution.

Directing

This function is mainly concerned with authority. It involves making decisions

and giving orders so as to attain the goals as efficiently as possible.

Coordinating

This function is mainly the activities of the various components of the

organization in order to attain the desired objectives. This function
presupposes team work and proper supervision (delegation)

Reporting

This is the process of keeping those concerned informed (feedback) of the

progress of the institution for purposes of accountability. This may be realized
through the use of records or the other official forms of communication.

Budgeting

This involves the fiscal planning, accounting and control of the institutional
resources. Both the income and expenditure of the institution must be handled
well so as to attain its goals and objectives.

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Lecture 2: THEORIES OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE
MANAGEMENT

The practice of educational management is as old as the institute of schooling

The activities that the school master was engaged in a part from teaching to
keep the institution running is what are referred to as educational
management. The formal study of educational management did not begin until
the turn of the 20th century and the first institutions to offer courses in
educational management (administration) were the teachers college of
Columbia University followed by Stanford University.
Educational management is based on concepts mainly adopted from
behavioural science. For that matter it is an applied field and not a full
discipline as such. In general, the study of management has evolved over a
long period through the effort of various movement .In essence, it occurred in
three recognizable phases namely:
1. Scientific Management Movement
2. Human Relations Movement
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 3. Behavioural Science Movement

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT MOVEMENT

Under this movement we shall study three great personalities who were its
major proponents. These were:
- Frederick Taylor (1856-1915)
- Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
- Max Weber (1864-1920)
Frederick Taylor
Frederick Taylor is usually referred to as the father (Founder of the scientific
management Movement (Classical Management Theory). He was the first
person to scientifically analyze work. He was an engineer by profession and
worked at Midvale Steel Company where he rose through the ranks from being
a mere labourer to rank of Chief Industrial Engineer.

Taylor was mainly concerned about how to achieve efficiency and attain the
highest possible production at the shop floor. He observed that workers were
planning and doing the performance of the work at the same time. This led to
waste of time. Thus he proposed that for any organization to be effective it
must have efficient administrators and workers must be task oriented.

He published several credible papers on management but he is most

remembered for his book entitled Principles of Scientific Management
published in 1911. He advocated for the man-machine policy – that is workers
were to be made to work as efficiently as machines. He outlined the following
management principles:

a) Time Study: A common feature of Taylor’s work was stopwatch timing as a

basis of his observations. He developed this principle to management where
all productive work was measured by standard time. Thus specific tasks are

to be done within specific time. Workers in an organization should have

clearly defined daily tasks requiring a full day’s effort to complete.

b) Piece –Rate Principle: In his 1895 paper on incentive schemes, Taylor stated
that wages should be proportional to the output of each worker .That is a fair
pay for a fair day’s work. Good pay should be given for successful completion

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 of the job/task. Any losses should be personally costly to the individual
worker.

c) Separation of Planning from Performance : For any organization to function

efficiently, a small team (management) should handle the responsibility of
planning and the majority (employees) are left physically free to
concentrate on working only .[Link] (makes syllabus) , teachers implement ,
national budget , etc. Where necessary, complex tasks should be given to
specialized workers.

d) Scientific Methods of Work: Taylor insisted that workers need to be trained

on how to handle their tasks efficiently. They should use methods that are
scientifically proven so as to attain the highest productivity.

e) Managerial Control Principle: He emphasized that for maximum productivity

workers should be closely supervised. The management should ensure that
there is division of labour .However, the workers should ensure that there is
division of labour .However, the workers should have no choice as to which
job to perform .Their needs do not count; their jobs come first.

Taylor’s Principles and School Administration

- Establishment of school time-table, schemes of work etc for effective
utilization of time.
- Division of labour among the staff in the entire education system
- Training and special selection of education personnel so that they can
handle their tasks effectively e.g training of teachers.
- Supervision and evaluation of education personnel (School inspectors,
tutors, subject inspectors, etc).
- Separation of planning from performance role.

Criticism of Taylor
- Workers were reduced to irrational machines .Lack of participation in
decision making made them lose creativity or any form of innovation to
improve their work.
- He overemphasized production and disregarded social and
physiological needs of workers.
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 - Not all work can be quantified (measured). Thus his methods were not
comprehensive.(Note –even in school teachers work is not only in the
classroom).
- Remuneration (pay) as per productivity is not the only way to motivate
workers. Other non monetary action can act as motivator’s [Link]
at work, good condition of work, etc. Also this principle disregards
individual differences among the workers.
- Close supervision pf works often lead to frequent conflicts hence low
productivity.

Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

He was a very industrious French mining engineer who rose to become a
director of his own company. He wrote a book entitled: “Administration
Industriale et Generale” which was translated later as General and Industrial
Management .He had a deep concern for management of institution and as
far as he was concerned management must perform the following roles:

1. Forecast and Plan : Study the future and arrange for operations
2. Organize: Build up material and human resources for performance of
activities.
3. Commanding: To make the staff to do their work (or maintain activity
among the workers)
4. Coordinate: Unite, harmonize and correlate all activities in the institution.
5. Control: Ensure that everything is done according to the policy and
rules (practice) of the institution.

Fayol went further to develop what has been referred to as Fayol’s

principles of management. They are fourteen (14) in number namely:

1. Specialization of labour –Need for continuous improvement of skills.

2. Authority –Right to give orders
3. Discipline –No slacking or bending rules
4. Unity of Command-Each employee has one employee has one boss
5. Subordination of Individual Interests –Concentrate on work
6. Remuneration –Fair payment of services rendered
7. Centralization –Decisions are made from the top
8. Scalar chain (Line of Authority)-Formal chain of command from top to0k
bottom.
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 9. Order- All material and personnel have their prescribed place.
10. Equity –Equality of treatment (not necessarily identical)
11. Stability of Tenure –Limit workers turnover
12. Unity of direction –Follow laid down procedure
13. Initiative –Being creative
14. Espirit de Corps- Unity of strength i.e harmony among personnel

Luther Gullick and Lyndall Urwich were strongly influenced by Fayol and they
advocated for only seven management principles namely; planning, organizing,
staffing , directing , coordinating , reporting and budgeting.(POSDCORB)

Max Weber (1864-1920)

He was a German sociologist and he was interested in organizations from the

point of view of man’s authority structure .He wanted to find out why people in
organizations obeyed those in authority over them. He published a text entitled
“the theory of social and economic organizations” in which he discussed
bureaucracy as a form of organization. This model is characterized by rigid
application of policies and categorizing personnel in different ranks. This model
is often referred to as the red tape. The main characteristics of a bureaucratic
organization are:

a) There is a hierarchical arrangement of offices where one level of jobs is

controlled by the next higher level
b) Tasks are assigned to employees according to their skills to enhance
production.
c) Appointment is purely based on merit i.e. technical competence for
efficiency.
d) Personal needs of workers are not considered .Organizational needs come
first.
e) Strict obedience to the rules and regulations of the institutions.
f) There is a fixed area of jurisdiction and the authority to give commands
arises from one’s official position.

Lecture 3: HUMAN RELATIONS

The Human Relations Movement came about as a reaction to the scientific
movement which was considered to be mechanical and impersonal. The
major proponents of this movement Mary Parker Follet and Elton Mayo.
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They were against the emphasis on production and the use of physical
factors as well as wages as the only means of motivation. They advocated
for humanistic structures of operation e.g personal recognition and
appreciation of informal groups at the work place. The management needed
to be sensitive to the needs of the workers and recognition and appreciation
of informal groups at the work place. The management needed to be
sensitive to the needs of the workers and recognize them as pillars of
production.

These questions enabled him to discover some of psychological factors that

influence production at the work place. For instance, they discovered that
incentives or change of working conditions were not the only factors
influencing productivity. Interaction between workers, informal social groups
e.g. those based on hobbies, gender, religion, etc played a big role in an
organization. This implied that these must be incorporated between workers
and the administrators. Furthermore, the management should identify what
keeps the workers motivated as well as their personal needs and strive to
satisfy them. This will make the workers committed, increase productivity
and efficiency. In human relations movement, the following are considered:
a) Administrators work with and through workers and are sensitive to their
needs.
b) Formal and informal organizations within the institution are important
and should be exploited so as to increase productivity.
c) Administrative structures should allow the workers to participate in
decision making e.g. use of staff meetings instead of issuing directives.
d) Economic incentives are not the only motivators. Other non-economic
factors such as appreciation, promotion, etc have an effect on
productivity.
e) Workers use informal organizations as protection against arbitrary
decisions.
f) Informal leaders should be used as supervisors since workers take
instruction from them easily.
g) Close supervision may not lead to high production (systematic soldering).

Contribution of Human Relations Movement to Management

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 1. Decentralization of responsibilities which gave workers some degree of
autonomy and participation in decision making.
2. Managers make it easy for workers to interact among themselves and
this led to efficient attainment of institutional goals.
3. Workers were provided with opportunities to enhance their personal
growth.
4. Workers were recognized as human beings and their needs were catered
for.
5. Positive attitude of the workers about their work or institution leads to
high productivity
(Notice attitude can be created by factors in or out of the work place)

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE MOVEMENT (BSM)

Behavioural Science Movement was an attempt to integrate the ideas of
Scientific Management Movement and Human Relations Movement. As earlier
noted SMM focused on the “Economic man” with emphasis on efficiency,
productivity and ignored social relations. HRM on the other hand focused on the
work environment and tended to ignore formal structures. Behavioural Science
Movement came up with a theory of motivation and job satisfaction. Motivation
is realized through interpersonal relations, management style, meeting workers
needs, e.t.c. Behavioural Science Movement is an interdisciplinary approach to
administration. It has heavily borrowed from other discipline such as sociology,
psychology, anthropology, political science and economics. Behavioural Science
Movement revealed that factors such as organizational structure, job design,
and technology and management style have an effect on productivity thus
Behavioural Science Movement suggests that:
a) Administrators are needed in every discipline and those who train them
need to have knowledge of social sciences, economics and government.
b) Every organization must have an innovative climate where decisions are
made quickly.
c) Both the administrators and workers must have common vision and share
same values.

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For instance, for a school situation, the number of students admitted depends
on the availability of teachers, learning materials, physical facilities, parents
and the country where the school is located.

Lecture 4: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN EDUCATIONAL

ADMINISTRATION

Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological /psychological need that

then activates a certain behavior or drive at satisfying the need.

Job satisfaction is that pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from

the appraisal of one’s job (Locke 1979). It is as a result of employee’s
perception that the job they do meets their needs as well as those of the
institution.

Needs Hierarchy Theory (Abraham Maslow)

Needs hierarchy theory was developed by A. Maslow and was first published in
the text called “Theory of Human Motivation” which appears in the
psychological review of July [Link] proposed that people were wanting
beings. They always wanted more and what they wanted depended on what
they already had. He thus suggested that human needs were arranged in a
series of levels according to importance. He came up with five (5) levels of
human needs namely: physiological needs, safety needs, affiliation/love, self
esteem and self actualization.

According to him once a lower need has been satisfied, it no longer acted as a
motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy demand
satisfaction and acquire a motivating influence. But if a lower need is not
satisfied or is threatened, it will become pre-potent and the higher order needs
gives the impulse to behave in a desired way.

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4 Self Actualization
Self Esteem

3
Affiliation/Love Needs
2
Affilia
Safety Needs
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 1
Physiological Needs

Physiological Needs
These include food, shelter, clothing, sleep, education. These help to retain the
normal functions of the body.

Safety Needs

These include emotional and physical needs as well as freedom from pain,
danger or deprivation e.g security, stable environment, status quo.

Affiliation /Love Needs

The need for affection, sense of belonging, friendship and other social
needs .One needs to feel accepted and appreciated as a person and the role
she/he performs in the society.

Self Esteem

The need for respect, self worth, status, independence, power, achievement
and competence.

Self Actualization

This is the development and realization of one’s full potential. It implies

becoming everyone is capable of becoming.

In a school setting, the management should create a working environment that

enables the teachers to satisfy their needs. If they are not provided with
enabling conditions of work they will be frustrated, have poor results and create
high staff turnover.

THE TWO –FACTOR THEORY (MOTIVATION –HYGIENE)

Fredrick Herzberg

This theory is also referred to as motivation –hygiene theory or the dual factor
theory. Herzberg extended Maslow’s theory based on the assumption that job

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dissatisfaction leads to avoidance of work while satisfaction leads to attraction
to work. He conducted motivational experiments on 200 accountants and
engineers in Pennsylvania using the critical method of obtaining
information .He asked to state a time they felt exceptionally bad about their job.
They gave reasons, their relationships and what happened during these
occasions. He analyzed the collected data established that there were two
factors at play namely hygiene and motivation factors.

Hygiene Factors (Extrinsic) are those associated with the environment

surrounding the job i.e. the work environment .These include company policy
and administration , supervision , working conditions , salary , job security ,
interpersonal relationships etc. When people get dissatisfied with their jobs they
end to get concerned about their work environment.

Motivational Factors (Intrinsic) are those associated with the job itself. They
are the ones that spur workers to achievement. These include achievement,
recognition, and advancement, challenging work, increased responsibility. That
is when people feel good about their jobs, it is felt in the performance of the job
itself.

Hygiene factors are associated with Maslow lower order needs where as
motivation factors correspond with Maslow higher order needs.

Application in Educational Management

- Teachers should be given opportunity to have maximum control of the

tasks they are performing.
- Teachers (even students) need regular feedback on their performance.
- Teachers should be provided with enabling environment to motivate
them.
- There should be delegation of responsibilities at the work place.

X AND Y THEORY (HUMAN THEORY) –Douglas McGregor

This theory was advanced by Douglas McGregor. He concentrated on the
attitudes (assumptions) that the management held about workers behavoiur.
McGregor categorized these assumptions into two groups which he called X
and Y.

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 Theory X assumes that employees have a natural dislike towards work and
will function in highly controlled environments. They assume that:
a) Workers are lazy
b) They will always avoid work
c) They need to be coerced or threatened to work
d) Avoid responsibilities and seek to be led whenever possible.
e) Lack creativity and problem solving skills
f) Their motivation occurs only at basic and safety needs level.

This theory leads to;

a) Close supervision, detailed directions and demanding complete

compliance from the workers.
b) Workers are considered unreliable, irresponsible and immature. Thus
they are coerced to work and constantly threatened, sacked or have
privileges withdrawn.
c) Centralized power. All decisions are made and channeled from the top
d) Management concerns itself exclusively with high productivity at the
expense of workers needs (workers are exploited and these leads to low
morale)

Theory Y assumes that employees will accept responsibility and work to

attain the desired goals. It assumes that:
a) Workers view work as being as natural as play.
b) Workers are self-directed and exercise self control at the work place.
c) Workers are creative and have problem solving skills
d) Motivation occurs at all levels of the hierarchy and ability to make good
decisions is dispersed throughout the population.

This theory leads to :

1. Decentralization of power(delegation)
2. Collaboration between workers and management
3. Workers needs are considered

Lecture 5: Organizational theory

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 Getzels calls organizational theory a role model theory .This theory is used in
analyzing the social human behavior of an individual in a social system. In
this regard a social system can be a school, a church or family. He confirmed
that a social system has two dimensions namely institutional and personal
dimensions.

Institutional dimension is made up of the role and expectations .Role here

implies the position, identity or what one is perfuming while expectation
deals with what one’s responsibilities imply.

Every institution has roles which it assigns to its members to perform .Along
with these roles, it has expectations which it wants those members to fulfill.

For example, when the teacher does the role of teaching effectively, the
school is satisfied. But he is also expected to be a model, have good results,
etc. Likewise, the teacher expects the school to fulfill the teacher’s needs.
Thus, both the role expectations of a given institution and the aspirations of
its staff members must be congruent.

The theory presupposes that the administrator should integrate the needs of
the institution and those of the workers in a such a way that institutional
productivity and workers fulfillments are attained.

THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is working with and through people to accomplish desired goals.

Leadership is essential as it creates order, discipline, direction, unity, control
and guidance .Mbiti (1997) defines leadership as a status of dominance and
prestige acquired by ability to control and set the pattern of behavior for
others. It is a process of encouraging and helping others to work towards the
desired objectives. Studies at Ohio and Michigan Universities in 1945
revealed theoretical basis for leaderships. These include the trait theory,
contingency, path-goal, group dynamics.

Trait Theory

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 Traits refer to the physical and mental characteristics of leadership. The
theory suggests that leaders are bon and not made. They are distinguished
by their appearance and personality impact.

Stodgill discovered that leaders have the following qualities

- Capacity,i.e. intelligent, verbal facility, originality , alertness , judgment
, etc
- Achievement –Scholarship, accomplishment , knowledge
- Status –Socio-economic ,popularity
- Imposing personality and commanding voice.

All these abilities are inborn .People who possess them are easily accepted
as leaders.

Charismatic Theory

This theory is also known as transformational theory. It states that people

make attributions of heroic or extraordinary abilities when they observe
certain behaviors .Mbiti (1997) states that this theory is based on people’s
faith and devotion to a certain person who demonstrates unusual ability to
lead.

Charismatic leaders have traits that inspire their followers beyond self
interest. They have an extraordinary effect as magnetic pull on their
followers. Most of them surface in politics, religion or in times of difficulty
such as war. The leader has unchallengeable influence on the followers
and his/her ideas are easily accepted.

The main disadvantage to management is that people tend to be devoted

to the person and not the institution .Hence, it may generate difficult when
replacing such leaders.

Group Dynamics theory (Exchange Theory)

This theory proposes that a good leader as the one who manages to create a
positive exchange between the management (leaders) and the workers
(followers). It suggests that work is to be assigned according to one’s
abilities, experience and interest. The management should have varying
relationships with the workers and strive to curb negative consequences that

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may interfere with the workers motivation and performance. The workers
reciprocate by being committed and attaining the objectives of the
institution.

Situational theory (Hersey-Blanchard)

The theory states that a particular situation or environment will dictate the
kind, of leader suited to it. In this case a leader is determined based on
his/her psychological and job maturity. Thus it is more of relation –motivated
than task-motivated. A person may be an effective leader in one situation
but ineffective in another.

Contingency Theory
This theory was advanced by Fred Fieldler. He stated that traits, the situation
and the task to be performed combine to determine leadership. He argued
that group performance or effectiveness is dependent upon the interaction of
leadership style and the amount of control that the supervisor has over the
situation. He further proposed that it may be easier for leaders in their
situation to achieve effectiveness that their leadership style. This theory can
help one to determine whether they are people or work centered.

STYLES OF LEADERSHIP
Okumbe (1998) states that leadership style refers to a particular behavior
applied by a leader to motivate his/her subordinates to achieve their
objectives of the institution.

Democratic Leadership
 This is also known as participative or consultative
 It decentralizes power and authority
 Decisions are made through consultations
 The leader agrees with the staff on goals and both expect achievement.
 Encourages personal initiative
 Encourages the staff members to find solutions to problems as a group.
 Involves staff in decision –making, which affects them.
 Faces up to conflicts calmly.
 Seeks to create a good working atmosphere in the school.

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 Enables workers to attain high morale, responsibility and job motivation.

Effects of Democratic Leadership

- Promotion of cooperation
- Harmony and unity among the staff
- Respect of the school head for authority
- Acceptance of responsibility by the staff
- If not controlled, workers may become lazy and begin taking things for
granted.

Autocratic Leadership
 Does not derive it legitimacy from those who are governed but
leadership is imposed upon the organizations.
 Power, authority and decision –making are centralized
 The head teacher assigns workers to specific tasks and expects orderly
and precise results. Utilizes workers as machines for high productivity
 The leader sets goals; workers or subordinates are what to do, how and
when to do it.
 There is close supervision, the subordinates have no say.

Effects of Autocratic Leadership

- Creates fear among the staff and students
- Kills or stifles initiative and creativity
- Leads to high staff turnover
- Leads to resistance and broken down of discipline
- Makes the teachers feel less confident in their own ability to engage in
decision –making outside their own classrooms

Advantages of Autocratic Leadership Style

- Works well in times when urgent decisions are required

- Tend to save time , as there are no discussions involved
- No rewards are given as a form of motivation

Laissez-faire Leadership

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 The group is allowed to establish goals and means for achieving progress
and success.
 Within the limits of authority given the subordinates structure their own
activities. They may consult with the leader, but he/ she is not directly
involved in making the decision.
 The leader does not have authority but he /she is just a symbolic leader.
 Laissez-faire Leadership is one without a specific leader (Mbiti ,1997:33)
 There are no definite rules and regulations to guide the organization
 Allow people to do what they want.
 There is no adequate coordination or leadership.

Limitations

- Is least effective – the goals of an organization may not be achieved.

- Leads to confusion and utter despair
- Lowers the morale of workers

Effectiveness of leadership style depends on :

 Interaction among subordinates
 Characteristics of the work situation
 Amount of time available
 Nature and type of subordinates
 The task to be accomplished
 Expectations of the school/institution
 Tradition of the school

Factors that Lead to Inefficient Leadership

a) Implementing unpopular programmes
b) Lack of commitment and devotion (workers /leaders)
c) Failure to get feedback
d) Rigidity in decision making
e) General incompetence of the leader
f) Fear /unwillingness to receive criticism
g) Perform many different roles

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Lecture 6: AUTHORITY AND POWER

Authority
According to Nzuve (1999 authority is the right to demand other people to
perform desired activities. It is vested in the position that a person holds within
the institution and it gives him/her the ability to influence the roles others play.
Authority is the right conferred on an administrator to make decision in the
course of discharging his/her responsibilities and where necessary use force to
have them carried out.

There are two main types of authority: Legal (formal) and technical authority.
 Legal authority ahs its source in the constitutions , statutes , by –laws or even
court decisions .It is subdivided into:
a) Line authority i.e executive authority for making policies and guiding their
operations.
b) Staff authority that offers support services, advice and recommendations.
c) Functional/delegated authority for specific purposes.

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 Technical authority is possessed by people who have extraordinary abilities
to perform certain tasks. This type of authority can be personal or
institutional.

Power
Power is the force behind authority. Robbins (1989:339) defines power as the
capacity that A has to influence B so that B does something he/she would not
otherwise do. In the same way Okumbe (1998) defines power as a relationship
between two people in which one has the ability to cause the other to do
something he/she would otherwise not do.

John French and Bertran Raven identified five categories of power:

a) Coercive Power
This is where the leader has the ability to inflict punishment or other
negative consequences on the workers. It is basically based on fear. Head-
teachers or educational managers may use coercive power e.g to demote,
transfer or sack the teacher’s .In this regard, teachers will follow the rules or
policies for fear of being punished.

b) Legitimate Power
This is the legal power that a person possesses by virtue of his /her position
in an organization .It is also viewed by workers as being essential to the
leader .It can be acquired either by:
1. Cultural reasons e.g. age, sex, education
2. Social status-family ,social class
3. Election or appointment to certain position

In a school institution the head –teacher has legitimate power to assign

duties to other teachers.

c) Reward Power
This is a situation where the leader has the ability to grant or withhold
rewards based on the performance of the workers. This type of power is

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 effective if the workers attach importance to the rewards e.g pay raise,
promotion, recognition etc.
d) Referent Power
Derived from one’s special/unique qualities which tend to attract people to
them and want to be identified with them. The qualities include eloquence,
physical appearance, e.t.c. It is similar to charismatic abilities.

e) Expert Power
A person possesses this power when people see him/her as having
knowledge or expertise, which is valued by them. Teacher’s have expert
power in the classroom because of both mastery and delivery of a particular
subject

Application of Power in Educational Setting/Management

 Head teacher who applies legitimate power should ensure that he or she is
confident, cordial and polite and follows proper channels.
 The rewards offered should be the ones valued by the teachers and should
be accurately tied to performance.
 Head-teacher supplying coerce power should ensure that teachers and non
teaching staff are well informed about rules, regulations and punishments
for infringing the rules.
 When applying referent power, a head teacher needs to project a model
role that teachers and other subordinates would be willing to be associated
with.
 With the expert power, the head teacher needs to maintain credibility
among the subordinates and by being confident and decisive in the
management techniques. He /She ought to be well versed with educational
theory and practice
Lecture 6: COMMUNICATON AS A TOOK FOR EFECTIVE
SCHOOL ADMINISTATION
Communication is a vital tool in the administration of any organization , a school
not excluded .Communication is the process by which information is
intentionally or unintentionally exchanged between individuals. (Nzuve,
1999:53) communication, according to Mbiti (1997) is the lifeblood of any

23
organization .It is impossible to run ay activities of an organization without good
communication.

Function of communication.
Communication plays four major functions/roles in education management.

 Helps to control behavior of teachers , students and non-teaching

 Helps to motivate teaches student and other workers in an educational
organization .Though proper feedback mechanisms, teachers, students, etc
are motivated.
 Provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment
of social needs.
 Communication facilities decision-making. It provides the people concerned
with the information required for making appropriate decisions

The communication process (model)

Source

Or Encoding Channel Decoding Recei

ver
Sender

Feed back

Source: Nzuve ( 1999) Element Of Organizational Behaviour P. 54.

Sender: A person who has a message to be commutated.

Encoding :The process of formulating ideas, thoughts and feelings about

objects and events such as morals , symbols, gestures and transforming them
into some form of message.

24
Message: Outcome of the encoding process and can be either verbal or
nonverbal

The medium: Carrier of the message from the sender to the receiver .The
common types are: face to face conversation, telephone, conversation, groups
conference, written reports and international memos. The objective of
communication determine the type of medium to be used.

Receiver: Recipient of the message.

Decoding: The process by which the received message is translated into ideas,
thoughts and feelings. The effectiveness of the decoding depends on the
receiver relationship with the sender. Once the message is decoded the
receiver is supposed to respond to the sender – Provided a feedback.

Noise: Any factor in the communication process that changes or distorts the
intended message.

Types of Interpersonal Communication.

There are three main types

i. Oral communication

ii. Written communication

These include letters, reports, notices manuals, and advertisement.
Written communication is very important where precision of language and
message documentation is necessary ( Okumbe, 19998:132)

iii. Non-verbal communication

Physical or symbolic language e.g. sirens , traffic light, status symbols
like a care.
Body language – facial expressions, postures or eye movements.

25
Organizational Communication Flow.

There are three general directions in which a message can flow : downward,
upward and horizontal.

i).Downward communication

This is the flow of information from the superiors to the subordinates .It helps
administrators to:

 Give specific task directives about job instructions,

 Give information about organizational procedures and practices
 Tells teachers, students and other workers about their performance.

In this type of flow one can use both written and oral media of information
dissemination

ii). Upward communication

The flow of information is from subordinates to [Link] is used for receiving

feedback from teachers, students and other workers. Examples of such
communication flow include performance, reports prepared by heads of
departments, grievance procedures for collective bargaining agreements
suggestions boxes etc.

iii). Horizontal ( Lateral communication).

It takes place among and between peers. Horizontal communication is needed

to achieve cooperation among group members and between work groups.

The Grapevine.

This is an informal communication system in an organization. Rumours and

gossip that pass through the grapevine are due to the fact that they help the
works to structure and reduce anxiety: Try to make sense of limited or

26
disjointed information, that is, workers will always make sense of what appears
incomplete to use.

Barriers to Communication.

Communication barrier can be grouped into three categories ;

 Sender – related
 Receiver – related
 Situational barrier

Sender – Related Barriers

Communication goals: A goal or objective in any communication is very

important. This provides the sender with the basis for formulating messages.
Lack of goals can thus lead to formulation of incoherent messages.

Communication skills : Grammatical errors, incorrect usage of words, poor

delivery of messages, incorrect spelling or pronunciation , and poorly
organized and ambiguous sentences or speech make it difficult for the
receiver to understand the message.

Interpersonal sensibility: The sender may be insensitive and use a

language that is offensive to others. He /she will not have communicated the
right message.

Sender credibility: The attitude the receiver has towards the reliability of the
sender. The greater the trust the receiver has in the sender, the greater the
receiver’s willingness to listen to the sender’s message.

Receiver – Related Barriers.

Evaluation tendency : It the receiver makes a judgment about the sender or

sender’s message ,he/she cannot perceive the message
effectively .Therefore, the meaning of the messages will be distracted and
cannot be registered objectively in the mind of the receiver.

27
Preconceived ideas: The interpretation of the message can be influenced by the
receiver’s preconceived opinions about the idea.

Selective listening: People tend to be selective i.e hearing what they want to
hear. Thus they become receptive to messages that satisfy needs but deny,
reject or distort messages that do not serve their interest.

Lack of responsive feedback

Situational Barriers

They include semantic problems, information overload, time pressure

communication climate and non-verbal communication.

Semantic problems: Different words mean different things to different people. If

both receiver ad sender to not interpret the words used the same way
communication will not take place.

Information overload. This occurs when receivers are fed with more messages
than they can handle.

Time pressure: Lack of sufficient time to gather and provide adequate

information.

Communication climate: Communication is effective in an organization where

there is trust and openness. If a message is incomplete, then receivers are
likely to fill in the missing part with favorable interpretation. If communication
takes place where destruct prevails even well interpreted message can be
negatively interpreted.

Overcoming Barriers to Communication.

This can be done through sending messages effectively and listening to

messages attentively.

28
Sending Messages Effectively.

 Set communication goals

 Use appropriate language
 Use empathy
 Improve credibility
 Encourage feedback
 Develop a trustworthy climate, and
 Select appropriate medium.

Listening to messages attentively

 Avoiding evaluative judgment

 Listening to the total meaning
 Providing responsive feedback

Communication in Schools

There are several areas where communication is used in a school situation.

 Day to day communication within the school

 Communication with the staff
 Communication with the community
 Communication with the education office
 Communication with the school committee, PTA and BOG

From the above presentation of thought, it is clear that communication is a

vital tool in any organization and the school is of no exception. Therefore, the
head-teacher should ensure that there is effective communication in his/her
school and between all the members of the school community.

Lecture 7. DELEGATION

In education organization, administrators have the following tasks

1) Curriculum and instruction

2) Student personnel
3) Staff personnel/staff development

29
 4) Financial management
5) The school communication relations
6) Evaluation

A head-teacher is expected to carry out the above tasks by himself or

delegating the other members of staff. This presupposes that the leaders to
make decision in the day-to day running of the school.. This therefore
necessitates us to look at delegation and decision -making in depth.

Delegation

EFL. Brech defines delegation as “the passing on to others a share in the

essential elements of the management process”. Delegation on authority stems
from the fact that the leader of an organization cannot do everything alone. He
needs people who can carry out the various types of organizational
management on his behalf. The concept of delegating does not mean
surrender of power or control but that the one performing the particular
duty does it on behalf of and with authority from the delegator: Head –
teacher ( Mbiti, 1997).

The size of an organization determines the extent of delegation .Thus the larger
the organization, the more the delegated responsibilities there should be.
Although the head-teacher my delegate a particular duty to a teacher , the
ultimate responsibility or accountability lies with him or her.

Delegation involves the following:

 Determining the ability , reading and willingness of the teacher to take up

the job
 Ensuring that the details of the reasonability and its scope are defined in
writing
 The extent of authority and power behind the responsibility must be stated
in clear terms and in writing in the form of job description.
 Providing sufficient freedom of action to the teacher and means of carrying
out the responsibility.
 Establishing sound communication procedures between the head-teacher
and teacher for consultation and coordination.
 Delegating the responsibilities gradually and giving expert advice.

30
 The officer to whom responsibility is delegated should account for his/her
performance .Accountability is a way of evaluating progress.

Advantages of Delegation.

 The more tasks mangers are able to delegate, the more opportunity they
have to seek and accept increased responsibilities from higher - level
manger. Thus as agers , we will try to delegate not only routine matters
but also tasks requiring thought and initiatives , so that we will be free
to function with maximum effectiveness for our organizations.
 I frequently leads to better decision, since subordinate closest to the
firing line are likely to have a clearer view of the facts.
 Effective delegation also speeds up decision –making .Valuable time is
lost when subordinates must check with their superiors( who then
may have to check with their superiors ) before making a
decision .This delay is eliminated when subordinate are authorized to
make the necessary decision on the spot.
 Delegation causes subordinates to accept an accountability and
exercise judgment .This not only helps train subordinates an
important advantage of delegation but also improves their self-
confidence and willingness to take initiative.

Reasons for delegation

 To enable the head-teacher to devote more time to important matters

concerning the school.
 To facilitate prompt decision making processes in a collective way
 To develop and enrich various tasks that are conducted in the institution
 Reduce indispensability by making it easy for the person next in the line
to take the vacant post.
 To improve the quality of service since all the talents and abilities of staff
members are utilized.

What to delegate depends on:

1) Size of the school

2) Quality and quantity of staff member’s e.g academic and professional
of staff.

31
 3) The task itself .Some task are not delegated e.g evaluation /appraisal
reports of staff members, finances etc.
4) Prevailing circumstances in the institution e.g in case of a strike
5) The cost involved
6) The leadership style
7) Interpersonal relationships at the work place
8) Motivational and dedication of teachers.

No matter the size of the school, delegation is very important as a means of

creating staff unity and cooperation. A new head-teacher often has little to do
because responsibilities have already been delegated .He may change these
duties if they are to improve the efficiency of the school. To begin with, he
should read the teacher’s personal file and compare this information with his
own observation /supervision. He should regularly consult the teachers before
hand and explain reasons for his proposed changes. Where necessary he/she
should create exact descriptions of each teacher’s duties.

The head-teacher can delegate to the class-teacher the duties of taking the
register, making student progress record, class discipline as well as basic
counseling and pastoral care. The head-teacher should hold regular staff
meetings to pass information, plan school activities and settle other staff
matters without dominating the meeting.

People fear to delegate because;

1) Lack of confidence in other staff

2) That the person to whom he/she delegates may do the job better
3) Having a perfectionist attitude and thinking that no one else can do the job
the way it should be done.
4) Fear that it may reduce their importance
Fear head-teacher is giving out everything just to sit and enjoy!

SUPERVISION

Supervision literary means to oversee control or provide direction. It is at times

confused with inspection which ideally concentrates on the teacher rather than
the teaching process or the students. In Kenya for instance, inspectors are
empowered to enter any school without notice and conduct an evaluation
( Education Act sec. 18). IN this regard, inspection is part of supervision.
32
Supervision is mainly concerned with improving the classroom instruction. It can
be regarded as a service to teachers and students that aims at offering
specialized help in improving instruction ( Olivia 1996).

In educational administration supervision is a professional service involving

relevant educational administrators for the purpose of enabling the teachers
to maintain , change or improve the provision and actualization of the learning
opportunities for students

Functions of Supervision.
The main purpose of supervision is quality control .The head-teacher is
responsible for monitoring teaching and learning in his /her school and does
so by visiting classrooms , touring the school, talking with students and other
people.
The functions supervision may be discussed as below;

Staffing Function

This function helps to ensure that quality education is given to the student. This
for a long time has been performed by personnel at the teachers service
commission ( TSC) in conjunction with the relevant sections of the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology , KNUT , the Board of Governors , relevant
school committee and parents associations .The head-teacher may use his/her
office or personality to influence this function and obtain the kinds of teachers
he/she wants.

The following activities form the staffing function of supervision both at the
national and the local school level.

 Determining the school’s training and staffing needs. Personal records

and other relevant data both on a short and long-term basis.
 Recruitments, advertising , processing applications , interviewing ,
screening and selecting both staff and pupils where applicable.
 Terms both staff and pupils where applicable.
 Terms and service for teachers and administrators , carrier lives for
teachers
 Transfers, promotions, dismissal or loss of designation, negotiation,
appeal and disciplinary procedures.

33
Motivation and Stimulation.

This involves providing assistances and support services to teaching and

learning.

This would mean assisting teachers and students with instructional problems
identifying factors which interfere with teacher with teaching and learning ,
guiding and counseling , maintaining good working relationships with and
among staff supervision is to encourage between performance of teaching –
learning activities.

Consultation /Professional Development.

This refers to helping teachers to develop further their professional knowledge

and competence and to keep abreast with professional advances. There are two
basic approaches to consultation. The directive and non- directive.

Directive: Supervisor is in a superior solution gives position, providing the

teachers with predetermined information and solutions to institutional
problems.

The teacher plays a minimal role in defining or solving problems that affect
him/her.

Non-Directive: consultation involves the supervisor in a helping, facilitating role.

The teacher is assisted to define and generate possible solutions to problems.
The supervisor remains neutral but shows confidence in the teacher’s capacity
assuring him of confidentiality.

Programme Development.

This involves the improvement of course, content, materials and the learning
environment to suit the needs of teachers and (pupils) students. The supervisor
co-ordinates various teaching - learning activities, monitors effective use of
funds other facilities and resource.

Evaluation

This is the process of providing feedback for improvement of instructional

programmes. Supervision is to ensure that adequate, valid and criteria based
records are available. The programme outcome in relation to set objectives

34
are evaluated , so that it forms the basis for planning for future needs , such
that if there is need for introducing change, it can be done smoothly.
Evaluation also helps in adapting to changing conditions and identifying needed
improvements.

From the above then we can see the difference between supervision and
inspection. Inspection is an old concept in management, which aims at catching
the workers red-handed. This is a faultfinding attitude of management
/Administration.

Types /models of supervision

a). Informal supervision : where the supervisor and supervisee are in

cordial relationship. In most cases it is a casual encounter characterized by
frequent brief observations.

b). Self directed: Here the members of staff set their own annual goals /plans
which become a basis for assessing his/her needs. These are then shared with
the supervisor. (e.g head-teacher can support teachers but teachers must set
personal goals.)

c). Collegial supervision : This process is non evaluative in nature .IN this
model , employees set up small groups that help each other to develop
professionally .This occurs in terms of professional conferences, common
research , development learning materials etc.

d). Clinical supervision : This specifically deals with classroom activities

and is designed to improve classroom management as well as the teaching –
learning [Link] has five stages.

i. Pre-0bservation: supervisor and teacher reach agreement about

supervision. Where possible they may develop the supervisory
programme together and agree on how it will work.
ii. Observation of teaching : Deals with actual teaching .The supervisor
checks on the lesson plans , interaction of teaching strategies
personality , etc.

35
iii. Analysis: The supervisor converts the raw data or information collected
from observation into manageable and meaningful form. This will enable
objective feedback.

iv. Post-observation: it involves giving /showing of feedback .The supervisor

then advices the teacher accordingly. The feedback should be objective,
descriptive and aimed art issues that can changed. Negative issues are
to be discussed later and one should not be judgmental so as to motivate
the teacher.
v. Post conference analysis: This consolidates all the evaluation activities
and creates a basis for staff development process.

Lecture 8: FUNDAMENTALS OF NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

IN KENYA.

The education of Kenya is guided by a number of constitutional institutions

which play vital and critical roles in their various jurisdictions. Such bodies
include and not limited to; commissions, policies, circulars, reports and trade
unions.

THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

The Ministry of Education derives its mandate from the Constitution of Kenya,
Chapter Four Articles 43, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, and 59 have provisions on
children’s right to free and compulsory basic education, including quality
services, and to access education institutions and facilities for persons with
disabilities that are integrated into society, to the extent compatible with the
interests of the person. This includes the use of Sign language, Braille or other
appropriate means of communication, and access to materials and devices to
overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability. There are also
provisions on access for youth to relevant education and training; access to
employment; participation and representation of minorities and marginalized
groups in governance and other spheres of life, special opportunities in
educational and economic fields, and special opportunities for access to
employment. The rights of minorities and marginalized groups to reasonable
access to water, health services and infrastructure are also enshrined, as it is
incumbent upon government to develop a culture of human rights, promote

36
gender equality and equity and facilitate gender mainstreaming in national
development.

The functions of Educational and training are shared between the national and
county governments as contained in Schedule 4 of the Constitution. The
functions of the National Government are: education policy, standards,
curriculum, examinations, granting of university charters, universities, tertiary
educational institutions, institutions of research, higher learning, primary
schools, special education, secondary schools, special education institutions and
promotion of sports and sports education. The functions of the County
Government in relation to education are: pre-primary education, village
polytechnics, home-craft centres, farmers training centres and childcare
facilities.

In addition, Parliament, over the years has enacted a series of Acts on various
dimensions of education whose objects and goals the Ministry is expected to
implement to give effect to the Constitutional provisions pertaining to education
and training of Kenyans.

Under the Executive Order No. 2/2013 on the Organisation of the Government
of the Republic of Kenya, the Ministry is responsible for Education Policy
Management; Management of Continuing Education; Administration of Early
Childhood Education, education; Standards and Norms; Management of
Education Standards; Management of National Examinations and Certification;
Curriculum Development; Quality Assurance in Education; Primary and
Secondary Education Institutions Management; Teacher Education and
Management; School Administration and Programmes; Registration of Basic
Education and Training Institutions; Special Needs Education Management;
Representation of Kenya in UNESCO; Adult Education Management; University
Education Policy Management; University education; Public Universities and
Tertiary Institutions; Science technology innovation policy; Management of
Technical Training Institutes including Youth Polytechnics; Management of
Institutes of Science and Technology; Management of National Polytechnics;
National Council for Sciences and Technology.

The Ministry has established an elaborate network through its established

departments, and sector institutions, to effectively deliver on its mandate. The
specific mandate of the Ministry includes the following:
37
  Education Policy Management

 Management of Continuing Education

 Administration of Early Childhood Education, Standards and Norms

 Management of Education Standards

 Management of National Examinations and Certification

 Curriculum Development

 Quality Assurance in Education

 Primary and Secondary EducationInstitutions Management

 Teacher Education and Management

 School Administration and Programmes

 Registration of Basic Education and Training Institutions

 Special Needs Education management

 Representation of Kenya in UNESCO

 Adult Education Management

 University Education Policy Management

 University Education

 Public Universities and Tertiary Institutions

 Science Technical and Innovation Policy

 Management of Technical Training Institutes including Youth Polytechnics

 Management of Institutes of Science and Technology

 Management of National Polytechnics

 National Council for Science and Technology

KENYA INSTITUTE OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (KICD)

The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development is mandated to

perform some of the following functions:
1. Advises the Government on matters pertaining to curriculum development
2. Evaluate, vet and approve, for application in Kenya, any local and foreign
curricula and curriculum support materials in relation to the levels of education
and training” referred to in bullet (4)

38
3. Implement the policies relating to curriculum development in basic and tertiary
education and training;
4. Develop, review and approve programs, curricula and curriculum support
materials that meet international standards for—
i) Early childhood care, development and education;
ii) Pre-primary education;
iii) Primary education;
iv) Secondary education;
v) Adult, continuing and non-formal education;
vi) Teacher education and training;
vii) Special needs education; and
viii) Technical and vocational education and training.
5. Initiate and conduct research to inform curriculum policies, review and
development.
6. Collect document and catalogue information on curricula, curriculum support
materials and innovations to create a data bank and disseminate the
information to educational institutions, learners and other relevant
organizations
7. Print, publish and disseminate information relating to curricula for basic and
tertiary education and training
8. Collaborate with other individuals and institutions in organizing and conducting
professional development programs for teachers, teacher trainers, quality
assurance and standards officers and other officers involved in education and
training on curriculum programs and materials
9. Develop disseminate and transmit programs and curriculum support materials
through mass media, electronic learning, distance learning and any other mode
of delivering education and training programs and materials
10. Promote equity and access to quality curricula and curriculum support
materials
11. Promote appropriate utilization of technology to enhance innovations and
achievement of a knowledge based economy
12. Offer consultancy services in basic and tertiary education and training
13. Incorporate national values, talent development and leadership values in
curriculum development
14. Receive, consider, develop and review curriculum proposals

39
TEACHERS SERVICE COMMISSION
Mandate and Functions of the Teachers Service Commission (TSC)

The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) of Kenya is an Independent

government Commission established under the Constitution of Kenya to
manage human resource within the education sector. It is based in the capital
city, Nairobi with offices in the counties, its inception in 1967 the secretariat
has grown from 100 to over 3000 officers in 2017.

Article 237 of the Kenyan Constitution stipulates the mandate and functions of
the Teachers Service Commission (TSC) as to:

 register trained teachers;

 recruit and employ registered teachers;
 assign teachers employed by the Commission for service in any public
school or institution;
 promote and transfer teachers;
 exercise disciplinary control over teachers;
 Terminate the employment of teachers.
 review the standards of education and training of persons entering the
teaching service;
 review the demand for and the supply of teachers; and
 Advise the national government on matters relating to the teaching
profession.
Additional mandate and functions of the Teachers Service Commission (TSC)
under Section 11 of the TSC Act are to:

 formulate policies to achieve its mandate;

 provide strategic direction, leadership and oversight to the secretariat (of
the Commission under Section 18 of TSC Act);
 ensure that teachers comply with the teaching standards prescribed by
the Commission under TSC Act;
 manage the payroll of teachers in its employment;

40
  facilitate career progression and professional development for teachers in
the teaching service including the appointment of head teachers and
principals;
 monitor the conduct and performance of teachers in the teaching service;
and
 do all such other things as may be necessary for the effective discharge
of its functions and the exercise of its powers.

Powers Of The Commission

According to Article 252 of the Kenyan Constitution, the Commission has the
powers:

 to conduct investigations on its own initiative or on a complaint made by

a member of the public;
 necessary for conciliation, mediation and negotiation;
 to recruit its own staff; and
 to perform any functions and exercise any powers prescribed by
legislation, in addition to the functions and powers conferred by the
Constitution.
Section 3 of the Teachers Service Commission Act also stipulates the
Commission has the powers to:

 acquire, hold, charge and dispose of movable and immovable property;

and
 perform or do all such other things or acts for the proper discharge of its
functions under the Constitution and the Act as may lawfully be done or
performed by a body corporate.
Section 12 of the Teachers Service Commission Act stipulates that in the
performance of its functions and in the exercise of its powers, the Commission—

 may inform itself in such manner as it considers appropriate;

 may receive written or oral statements from members of the public;
 may require the attendance of a person before it or its committee, and
 shall not be bound by the strict rules of evidence.

41
For more about the mandate and functions of the Teachers Service Commission
(TSC) Kenya, and other provisions, check the TSC Act and visit its website at
[Link].
Duties and Roles of TSC County Directors

The County Director shall:-

 Facilitate the processing of teacher registration and enforcement of

the requirements for teacher registration;
 Coordinate teacher recruitment at the county and ensure that the
Commission’s recruitment guidelines in force are adhered to;
 Maintain a data base of registered teachers including the unemployed
teachers within the county;
 Manage aspects of teacher management as per the existing policy
and guidelines within the county through: –
[Link];
[Link];
[Link];
iv. Receiving and recommending teachers’ study leave;
v. Handling disciplinary matters as directed by the Commission
Secretary; and
vii. Identifying through a competitive process and recommending to the
Commission Secretary, teachers to be deployed to administrative
positions;
 Implement guidelines issued by the Commission from time to time;
 Maintain a data base for all administrative posts in the county;
 Maintain a data bank of all teacher vacancies available at the county;
 Coordinate identification and selection of candidates for Teacher
Professional Development Courses (TPDC) within the county as per the
guidelines issued by the Commission from time to time;
 Coordinate teacher promotions under the common cadre establishment
within the county;
 Ensure that teachers comply with the teaching standards prescribed by
the Commission;
 Monitor the conduct and performance of teachers at the county level;

42
  Oversee performance appraisal of teachers at the county level;
 Submit other reports related to performance of teachers as the
Commission may require from time to time;
 Transmit reports from heads of institutions to the Commission;
 Supervise staff within the county;
 Advise the respective county governments on matters relating to
the teaching profession;
 Establish mechanisms to enhance communication and service delivery
at the county;
 Perform any other duty as may be assigned by the Commission from
time to time.
 Liaise with the Commission Secretary and other stakeholders in
resource mobilization.
 In discharging the functions spelt out under the Code or Regulations
for
Teachers, the County Director shall at all times be answerable to, and
work under the direction of the Commission Secretary.

Quality Assurance and Standards

Quality assurance involves the systematic review

of educational programmes and processes to maintain and improve
their quality, equity and efficiency. ... Quality assurance is important for
accountability as well as to support ongoing development of schools and of
teaching and learning.

Quality assurance. also has been defined as “systematic management and

assessment procedure adopted by. higher education institutions and systems
in order to monitor performance against. objectives, and to ensure achievement
of quality outputs and quality improvement

Functions

 Establishing, maintaining and improving standards in all basic and

training institutions.
 Quality Assurance and Standards assessment of basic educational and
training institutions

43
 Co-ordination, organization and implementation of co-curriculum
activities at national and international levels
 Vetting of expatriate teachers and institutions offering international
curriculum
 Liaison with KNEC on assessment of pre-service primary, ECDE and
diploma teacher education examination teaching practice.
 policy formulation and implementation on matters related to Quality
Assurance
 Developing of assessment standards
 Liaison with KNEC in moderation, awards and National Assessment and
Learning Achievement (NASMLA) and examinations
 liaison with Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) on
curriculum, design, development and evaluation of the national
curriculum
 Talent identification and development in schools and colleges.
 Advising the Ministry of Education on all matters of Quality Assurance and
Standards in the country.

Example of School Quality Assurance Framewok.

source Education bureau, circular 11/2015

44
 KENYA NATIONAL EXAMINATION COUNCIL (KNEC)

Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) carries out many duties as far as
education in Kenya is concerned.

Below are its functions.

 Development of both school and post-school examinations

 Registration of candidates for examinations
 Administration and processing of the examinations
 Certification - Awards various certificate and diplomas to students of different
levels
 Researching on examinations and curriculum
 Equation of certificates from other examination boards
 Assists students in replacement of lost and misplaced academic certificate
 It is mandated with the task of confirming that certificates are genuine or
authentic. The confirmation can be requested from time to time by government,
colleges and universities as well as employers
 Conducts various examinations at school level as well as in other institutions of
higher learning e.g. colleges and polytechnics. It also facilitates marking of the
examinations and processing of results
 It works on ensuring the qualifications it confers are recognized globally.
 Conducts examinations locally on behalf of other foreign examination bodies
 Facilitates registration of KNEC exams to students in primary schools, secondary
schools as well as tertiary institutions
 Provides guidelines on what is expected of the students pursuing examinations
and ensures that the guidelines are adhered to.

Lecture 10: TRADE UNIONS

The Labour Relations Act defines a trade union as “an association of employees
whose principal purposed is to regulate relations between employees and
employers, including any employers’ organisation”.

45
Principal purpose of a trade union is to regulate relations between workers and
employers. Basically, a trade union fights for better working conditions and
remuneration for its members. ... Employer may deduct union dues from the
wages of the members only after their written consent.

The main role of trade union is to ensure the welfare of its members such as
safeguarding the interests of its members, protecting the reliability of its trade,
achieving higher wages by securing economic benefits.

FUNCTIONS OF TRADE UNIONS

 Secure fair wages for workers

 Safeguard security of tenure and improve conditions of working
 Enlarge opportunities for promotion and training
 Improve working and living conditions
 Provide educational, cultural and recreational facilities
 Promote interest of workers in their industries
 Promote Collective and individual welfare
 Cooperate and facilitate technological advancements.

KENYA NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS (KNUT)

The Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT) is the largest teachers' trade
union in Kenya. It was formed on December 4, 1957. Its first secretary-general
was Joseph Kioni. The union held its first strike in 1963, soon before Kenyan
independence. Other major strikes have been held in 1966, 1969, 1997, 1998,
2002 , 2009 and others subsequently.

CORE FUNCTIONS

 To bring together and unite teachers of all grades and qualifications in

Kenya and providing a forum for co-operation.
 To fight for improved terms and conditions of service for teachers and
protecting teachers interests.

46
  Promoting programmes aimed at improving teachers’ welfare or socio-
economic status.
 To offer assistance to individual members in professional as well as
legal matters.
 To settle disputes between members of the union or between its
members and their employers through collective and constitutional
means.
 To co-operate with other societies, bodies, unions or organisations
within or outside Kenya with similar objectives.
 To promote matters leading to the improvement of education and the
establishment of a common system of education.
 To secure effective representation of the teaching profession on the
government, public and private bodies or organisations where such
representation may be necessary.

KENYA UNION OF POST PRIMARY EDUCATION TEACHERS (KUPPET)

The idea to come up with Kenya Union of Post Primary Education Teachers –
KUPPET Kenya was hatched in 1985 when the undergraduate education
students at Kenyatta University agitated for better terms and conditions of
service for graduate teachers entering the teaching service. Initially teachers
were discriminated in employment status on first appointment since other
professions were recruited on higher job groups by the government. The first
move to register the Union in 1993 was thwarted when a rival union obtained
court orders to stop its registration. However in 1998 on 26th November, under
TU/136 registration number the Union was registered.

KUPPET OBJECTIVES

 Unions principally, negotiates wages and working conditions terms;

 regulations between workers its members and the employer;
 take collective action to enforce the terms of collective bargaining;
 raise new demands on behalf of its members, and; help settle their
grievances.

Lecture 10: EDUCATION COMMISSIONS IN KENYA SINCE 1964

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Kenya education's system has welcomed several commissions since
independence. Each of these commissions fought for different policies evident
in our current education system. Some of the education commissions in Kenya
since independence are as follows.

 Ominde Report (1964) Established for colonial education reforms.

Eventually served to mobilize human resources to achieve national
development and unity
 Gachathi Report (1976) Helped to redefine vocational policies, cultural
aspirations, socio-economic, and national unity
 Mackay Report (1981) Terminated A-Level education, established 8-4-4
education system, commission for higher education and Moi University
 Kamunge Report (1988) Featured mostly on education quality, relevance,
and financing
 Koech Report (1999) Advocated for Total Integrated Quality Education
and Training. The report was not adopted entirely except for a number of
its key proposals.

The Ominde Commission

The Ominde Commission is one of the pioneering education commissions since

independence in Kenya. Joseph James Otiende, then an Education Minister,
instituted the commission. The commission was chaired by Prof Simeon H.
Ominde who was holistically responsible for restructuring Kenyan education
system.

From the Ominde Commission recommendations, the Government set out six
clear broad goals of education:

1. National unity
2. National development
3. Individual development and self-fulfillment
4. Social equality
5. Respect and development of cultural heritage
6. International consciousness

The commission further recommended on the following:

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  The Commission endorsed for a universal free primary education,
 the creation of the Kenya Institute of Education, and recommended
 a 7-4-2-3 system model of education, seven years of the primary cycle,
four years of secondary education, two years of advanced secondary
education and a minimum of three years of university education.
 Regulating Harambee schools.
 Establishment of the East African Examinations Board to replace the
Cambridge University Local Examinations Syndicate.
 Development of adult education to enable people with elementary
education to participate in national and economic development.
 In-service training for primary school teachers and that primary school
graduates should not be recruited as untrained teachers.
 Planning of education be taken centrally by the Government, with school
committees and Parent Teachers Associations (PTAs) overseeing
administration and management of primary schools.

The Ndegwa Commission 1970-1971

Duncan N. Ndegwa, the head of public served chaired the Commission of

Enquiry on the verge of 1970 and 1971. The meeting was mainly organized to
tackle emerging issues in Civil Service. Besides, Ndegwa Commission managed
to come up with prolific recommendations helping reshape its development.
One of the most recounted

Recommendations proposed by Ndegwa Commission;

 District Education Boards re-establishment to promote primary education.

 Phasing out all unqualified instructors from schools across the country.
 Diversify academic curriculum to have more secondary schools eligible to
offer both vocational and technical skills to learners. This move was
responsive to the surging need for specialist workforce in different
sectors.
 Harambee schools run by the government to ease educational
standardization. Ndegwa Commission identified unmatched vocational
and technical training about what the job market had to offer.
 Review of the curriculum in collaboration with industrial and commercial
firms to improve on its relevance.
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  Teacher education particular in sciences.
 Higher salaries for teachers to attract talented trainees.

GACHATHI COMMISSION 1979

The Gachathi commission was purposely established to evaluate the education
system of the country. As part of its course, the commission was expected to
come up with newer strategies to salvage the education system of the day.
Moreover, the commission favored reforms to curb excessive rural-urban
migration, employment creation, and reduction of the educational budget to
seven percent from fifteen.
Gachathi Report Main Recommendations
 Basic education to take nine years for all children
 Practical oriented academic experience for learners
 Establishment of Kenya National Examination Council
 Public and Harambee schools’ integration
 Kiswahili made compulsory in primary education
 Establishment of Higher Education Commission.
The Mackay Commission 1981
The commission came into being in 1981 when President Moi chose Dr. Colin
Mackay, a Canadian scholar to spearhead the establishment of the second
university. Gachathi report in 1976 proposed the upgrade of Kenyatta University
College to become a full-fledged University. Kenyatta University served as a
constituent of Nairobi University during the time. The report also recommended
for the restructuring of the third university.
Mackay Report Main Recommendations
 Restructuring education system to the current 8-4-4 system
 Removal of A-levels promptly adding extra years for primary and
university studies
 Cost sharing in university studies
 Establishment of Moi University in 1984
 The government adopted institutes of technology for sponsorship
 Establishment of faculties in university education
Kamunge Commission 1988
The Kamunge Commission started executing its mandate in 1986 under the
leadership of James M. Kamunge, the chair. Below are some of the
recommendations forwarded in its final report released in 1988.
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Kamunge Commission Fundamental Recommendations;
 Introduction of in-service courses
 Full payment of feeding and boarding fees for all academic levels
 Categorized primary education as compulsory
 Abolished school ranking as low or high cost
 Proposed to have bachelor studies take at least five years

Impacts of Kamunge Report

 The report resulted in rising academic burden for guardians and parents
who were unable to finance the education of their children.
 School dropout cases surged for lack of finances
 Class repetition for learners escalated
The Koech Commission
The Koech Commission came up to address enormous challenges that were
drawing back educational reforms. Formation of this commission took effect
after Master Plan on Education and Training panel presented its report.
The Koech Report: 8-4-4 System Strengths
 Introduction of practical subjects equipped students with practical skills
 Additional primary education was necessary for the learners who failed to
attend secondary school studies
 An increase in essential education studies to eight years in duration was
especially advantageous to the girl child in higher learning and career
enrollment
The Koech Report: 8-4-4 System Weaknesses
 Failed to incorporate a pre-school circle
 Lost two years in secondary schools,
 denied students time enough to prepare for higher learning
 Mismatched academic spans and content of the study
 The proposals were implemented hurriedly without sufficient

Koech Commission: Top Recommendations

 Widening of post-secondary level opportunities to prepare learners
for further studies
 Implementation of modular learning criterion as well as credit
accumulation

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  Preparation of manageable curriculum content for learners
 Increasing the accessibility of education to learners Inclusion
managerial content at all levels of studies

Lecture 11: THE ROLE OF HEAD-TEACHER, TEACHERS, and PTA AND

BOG IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION.
In this lecture we shall explore the role of head-teachers, teachers, parent’s
teachers Association and Board of Governors.

A role is the dynamic or behavior component of a position .Within a school

setting, a person has a position such as head-teacher or deputy head-teacher.
Associated with each position is a role, which consists of appropriate patterns
of behavior for a person , occupying that position .A role may be specified in
details or it may be determined by the norms , the expectations held by
persons in related positions of how a person is that particular position should
behave.

What Are The Roles of a School Head?

The roles of a school head include the following;
i. An adviser to parents, teachers and pupils
ii. A provider of resources required by teachers and pupils
iii. A leader in the school and to the surrounding community
iv. A relations officer in the school
v. A financial manger in the school
vi. A guide and counselor to the pupils and teachers.

Major Tasks of a School Head.

i. Interpret policy and make the school’s purposes clear to everyone.

ii. Make sure that the necessary equipment and momentary resources are
available for school use.
iii. Maintain school discipline
iv. Attend to pupils welfare
v. Induce , motivate and retain teacher
vi. Establish and maintain good community relations
vii. Be accountable to school fences
viii. Maintain and keep school records
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 The role of a head in relation to the pupils
A school head is expected to;
i. Foster the right atmosphere for child growth and development
ii. Provide the learning facilities
iii. Maintain discipline among pupils
iv. Promote effective teaching and learning in the school
v. Establish effective community channels with the pupils
vi. Mind the welfare of his pupils.

The Role of School Head In Relation to the Staff.

A school head is expected to;
i. Set an example of curtsey and trust towards other people
ii. Provide the teaching material required by the teachers
iii. Orient his new staff members to school life as a whole
iv. Avoid showing favours to particular teachers
v. Seek the welfare of his staff
vi. Promote teachers or recommend them for promotion as his positive way of
rewarding them for his staff.
vii. Treat confidential matters about other teachers with care
viii. Refrain from discussing some teachers with other teachers
ix. Create a sense of respect , understanding and trust in every teacher
x. Delegate responsibilities to other able teachers
xi. Counsel and give advice to other teachers when need arises
xii. Consult staff on school maters regularly
xiii. Communicate important matters to the staff
xiv. Create high sense of morality and professional commitment in the school

The Role Of A School Head In Relation To The Parents And The School
Community

1) Consult with parent about their children

2) Act as the secretary to the school committee
3) Execute the policies of the school committee
4) Communicate to the parents important events taking place in the school

The Role Of The Deputy School Head

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 Whereas both the teacher in the classroom and the head in the school as a
whole have considerable freedom to shape their own roles, the scope of the
deputy heads duties is determined mainly by the school heads conception of
his own role and the pattern of delegation he operates within . However, the
following duties are identifies for a deputy head in the head’s manual

i. He deputies for the head in his absence.

ii. He helps the head-teacher to maintain good discipline in the school
iii. He is responsible for ordering, issuing, caring, accounting and controlling all
school stores.
iv. He is in charge of the school workers, their discipline, organization and
planning of their duties.
v. He takes and maintains records of the proceedings of the staff meetings.
vi. He maintains the staff register and checks the marking of class registers.
vii. He performs any other duty delegated to him by the school head.

The Role of a Teacher

i. A teacher is the representative of a society. He inculcates moral perception

or ideas.
ii. A teacher is seen as a judge because he awards marks and rates the pupils.
iii. A teacher is a resource person because he gives knowledge and skills.
iv. He is a helper – he counsels and guides pupils in difficulties
v. He is a referee because he settles disputes among pupils.
vi. He is a detective because he discovers rule breakers.
vii. He is an object of affection because he meets the psychological needs of his
pupils.
viii. He is a group leader –he establishes climate of the group
ix. He is a friend – he establishes a warm relationship with pupils and shares
some confidence with them.

Duties of a Teacher

A teacher is expected to:

i. Teach a full programme as allocated by the school head

ii. Prepare lesson notes for personal use

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iii. Keep a record of pupils progress and record of work
iv. Set and mark test
v. Participate and show interest in organizing co-curricular activities

Out Of a School a Teacher Is Expected

i. Maintain a high standard of dressing and behavior

ii. Foster a friendly relationship with parents
iii. Promote the interests of the school.

PARENT –TEACHER ASSOCIATION

Objectives of Parent –Teacher Association (PTA)
i. To further the educational welfare of the children
ii. To foster cooperation between parents, pupils and the educational
authorities
iii. To encourage a spirit of loyalty and pride in the school.

Composition of the Parent –Teacher Association (PTAs)

PTA stands for Parent Teacher Association, a school-based organization with a

mission to make the school a better place for children to learn. Parents of
students work together with teachers to volunteer in classes, raise money
for school supplies, and generally support the school's efforts.

The parents elect a chairman .A treasurer and five other parents who become
executive of the association

All parents are automatically members of the association

The Functions of PTA Are:

1) Organize meetings for the purpose of raising funds from different

stakeholders, well wishers, NGO and government for construction of
school building and co-curricular activities.
2) Provision of physical facilities through self-help efforts
3) Opening channels for –two –way
4) Solving many of the pupils problems
5) Acquainting parents on school aims, methods and aspirations
6) Securing the cooperation’s of parents
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 7) Helping teachers to have more knowledge about their pupils and the
home environment

Limitations of PTA

i. The PTA cannot usurp powers of the school committee since it has no
ececutive powers
ii. It has no authorities over the administration, syllabuses or organization of
the school
iii. It cannot be used as a platform to criticize the school, staff or pupils.

BOARD OF MANAGEMENT (B.O.M)

Constitution of Board of Management

According to the education order made under the education Act No. 14 2013 A
school board shall consist of;-

1) A chairman appointed by the Ministry of Education County director or in

the case of church- related schools in consultation with the church.
2) Three members representing the community served by the school,
appointed by the Ministry of Education County director.
3) Four persons representing bodies or organizations, which the minister
feels should be represented on the Board, appointed by the Minister.
4) Not more than three persons considered by the minister to be necessary
on the school Board, appointed by the Ministry of Education County
director.
5) Not more than three persons co-opted by the Board.

Orders that govern function of the Board of Management.

1) Members shall hold for a period of three years, but each of them is
eligible for re-appointment.
2) Any vacancy caused by the resignation or death of a governor shall be
filled immediately .Anyone so appointed shall hold office for the remaining
period of office of the governor whose vacancy was filled.

56
 3) Any governor who is absent from all meetings of the Board during a
period of one year or who is adjudicated bankrupt shall be required to
resign.
4) No governor shall hold any interest in any property belonging to the
school in which he is a governor or receive any payment or be interested
in any contract in which the school is concerned , without the approval of
the Minister.
5) The income of the school shall be spent entirely on those matters, which
have to do with the promotion of the school.

FUNCTIONS OF BOMs

The Boards Of management perform the following roles:

 They promote the best interests of the school and ensure that there is
development within the school.
 Promote quality Education for all learners as enshrined in the Basic
Education Act Number 14 of 2013
 Ensure there are adequate physical facilities within the school:
Dormitories, Classrooms, Co-Curricular among other facilities.
 Advise the County Education Board, CEB, on the staffing needs of the
school.
 Hear and make determination on cases of learners’ indiscipline and
present reports to the County Education Boards.
 Prepare termly comprehensive reports on all areas of their mandate
and present them to County education boards.
 Provide for the welfare and observe the human rights and ensure
safety of the learners, teachers and support staffs within the learning
institution.
 Administer and manage schools’ resources.
 Recruit, remunerate and discipline members of the non-teaching staff/
Support staff as may be required by the institution.
 Receive, collect and account for any funds meant for the institution.
 Allow reasonable use of the facilities of the institution for community,
social and other lawful purposes.

57
  Hear and make recommendations on teachers’ discipline cases as
guided by the teachers Service Commission’s Regulations.
 Participate during the recruitment of TSC teachers.

TENURE OF THE BOMs

 Once constituted, the Board Of Management’s tenure runs for a period

of 3 years from the date of appointment. A member shall be eligible for
re-appointment for one final term of a period not exceeding 3 years.

COMMITTEES OF BOMs

The institution’s BOM may appoint the following sub-committees:

1. Human Rights and Students’ welfare Committee.

2. Audit Committee
3. Finance and Procurement Committee.
4. Academic Standards Committee.
5. Discipline, Ethics and Integrity Committee.

ADMINISTRATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND TERTIARY

INSTITUTIONS.

 Office management

Teachers, parents, alumni and community members can serve

as managers in the management committee and participate in decision-
making of the school. The functions of a school manager are to manage
the school and formulate policies that best suit the needs of the school as
well as the overall interests of the students.

A head teacher is the most senior teacher and leader of a school,

responsible for the education of all pupils, management of staff, and
for school policy making. ... Head teachers lead, motivate
and manage staff by delegating responsibility, setting expectations and
targets and evaluating staff performance against them.

 Finances; School financial management comprises the planning and

implementation of a financial plan, accounting, reporting and the
58
 protection of assets from loss, damage and fraud. Schools can regulate
their financial management with internal rules.
It is a principal's responsibility to account for the school's revenue and
how it is spent. Most schools use manages their finances using
accounting systems that are able to generate and compare required
reports such as cash flow statement quickly and correctly.

The financial sources of acquiring teaching and learning resources

were identified to be the Government (in form of teachers' salaries),
school fees, teacher improvising, and PTA and Ministry
of Education supplies. ... Bursaries, CDF and LATF funds needed to be
disbursed on time to schools.
Some of the possible sources are; school fees; school commercial
activities; fund raising; support from activities of alumni associations (old
students association) such as annual conventions, dinner
etc; schools extra curricula activities; school farm such as poultry farm
etc; school equipment leasing and Education

Common duties and defining the financial terms that every school
leader must know.

• Understanding the financial limitations and flexibility of the school; set goals
and formulate the right financial management strategies. All of these duties
require the consideration of factors such as available school resources,
background, and the needs of students, etc

Regularly approving and revising school budgets.

59
• Reviewing and analyzing income and expenditures on a regular basis,
ensuring that resource allocation follows the school development plan.

• Understanding that the school income must be handled in accordance with

relevant requirements, regulations and rules. Ensuring that other financial
management bodies follow those guidelines.

• Establishing procedures for handling income and expenditure, procurement

and quotation as well as rules on acceptance of advantages, and other financial
management criteria and procedures. All procedures are carried out according
to the relevant laws and regulations to avoid conflict of interest and the misuse
of resources.

• Organizing controls of budgets, including accounting and reporting systems

that will monitor finances.

• Hiring an accountant as an auditor for regular school account tracking and

evaluations.

• Reporting the use of school funds to the relevant parties

CHALLENGES FACING EDUCATION FINANCING TODAY

Despite the Kenya's government efforts towards the realization of Education

For All (EFA), it continues to experience a number of challenges. These
include gender disparities, high poverty levels, Teacher supply and quality,
HIV/AIDS Pandemic and Inadequate financial resources.


1. Lack of adequate infrastructure and shortage of permanent
classrooms in primary schools, particularly in poor counties.
For example in North Eastern parts of the country.

2. Lack of clear legal guidelines on the implementation of

inclusive education and non formal education programs. The
guidelines provided for implementation of educational plan
are always inefficient.
3. Lack of reliable data on children with special needs, out-of-
school children and illiterate adults and youth. This results
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 due to inadequate machines and personnel in collecting,
analyzing and recording correct data.

4. Shortfall of adult literacy teachers as well as teaching and

learning materials. There are no proper motivation and clear
follow up on adult education which discourages education in
this level.

5. Low transition rates from primary to secondary, secondary

to higher education institutions, and higher education to
special fields or job market.

6. Outdated curricula for technical, vocational education and

training.

7. Inadequate physical facilities for technical, vocational

education and training as well as mechanisms for quality
assurance;

8. Limited resources for expansion of universities to cope with

the number of students leaving secondary schools.

9. Mismatch between skills offered by universities and the

demands of the labour market.

10. High number of HIV/AIDS orphans.

11. High pupils to teacher ratios in densely populated areas

and low pupil to teacher ratios in less populated regions.

12. Due to the need to contain the wage bill to manageable

levels, the government does not employ new teachers, but
only replaces
 Drug and substance abuse
 Technology- ICT education policies

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ROLES OF HR IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

The broad purpose of the human resource management function in

any educational organisation is to attract, develop, retain, and motivate
personnel in order to achieve the school's mission. It defines the school's
'people objectives'.
Operative Functions
1. Recruitment: This is the most challenging task for any HR manager. A lot
of attention and resources are required to draw, employ and hold the
prospective employees. A lot of elements go into this function of
recruitment, like developing a job description, publishing the job posting,
sourcing the prospective candidates, interviewing, salary negotiations and
making the job offer.
2. Training and Development: On the job training is the responsibility of the
HR department. Fresher training may also be provided by some companies
for both new hires and existing employees. This Fresher training is mainly
done to make the employees up to date in their respective areas as
required by the company. This function makes the employees understand
the process and makes it easy for them to get on their jobs with much ease.
During the process of the training and development, the results are
monitored and measured to find out if the employees require any new skills
in addition to what he/she has.
3. Professional Development: This is a very important function of Human
Resource Management. This function helps the employees with opportunity
for growth, education, and management training. The organization
undertakes to sponsor their employees for various seminars, trade shows,
and corporal responsibilities. This, in turn, makes the employees feel that
they have been taken care by their superiors and also the organization.
4. Compensation and Benefits: A company can attain its goals and
objectives if it can acclimatize to new ways of providing benefits to the
employees. Some of the benefits given by companies are listed below for
our understanding:
1. Working hour flexibility
2. Extended vacation

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 3. Dental/Medical Insurance
4. Maternal/Paternal Leave
5. Education Reimbursement for children
5. Performance Appraisal: The employees of any organization will be
evaluated by the HR department as per the performance. This function of
Human Resource Management is to help the organization in finding out if
the employee they have hired is moving towards the goals and objectives of
the organization. On the other hand, it also helps the company to evaluate
whether the employees needs improvement in other areas. It also helps the
HR team in drawing certain development plans for those employees who
have not met the minimal requirements of the job.
6. Ensuring Legal Compliance: To protect the organization this function
plays a crucial role. The HR department of every organization should be
aware of all the laws and policies that relate to employment, working
conditions, working hours, overtime, minimum wage, tax allowances etc.
Compliance with such laws is very much required for the existence of an
organization.

Managerial Functions

1. Planning: This function is very vital to set goals and objectives of an

organization. The policies and procedures are laid down to achieve these
goals. When it comes to planning the first thing is to foresee vacancies, set
the job requirements and decide the recruitment sources. For every job
group, a demand and supply forecast is to be made, this requires an HR
manager to be aware of both job market and strategic goals of the
company. Shortage versus the excess of employees for that given job
category is determined for a given period. In the end, a plan is ascertained
to eliminate this shortage of employees.
2. Organizing: The next major managerial function is to develop and design
the structure of the organization. It fundamentally includes the following:
1. Employees are grouped into positions or activities they will be
performing.
2. Allocate different functions to different persons.
3. Delegate authority as per the tasks and responsibilities that are
assigned.
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3. Directing: This function is preordained to inspire and direct the employees
to achieve the goals. This can be attained by having in place a proper
planning of career of employees, various motivational methods and having
friendly relations with the manpower. This is a great challenge to any HR
manager of an organization; he/she should have the capability of finding
employee needs and ways to satisfy them. Motivation will be a continuous
process here as new needs may come forward as the old ones get fulfilled.
4. Controlling: This is concerned with the apprehension of activities as per
plans, which was formulated on the basis of goals of the company. The
controlling function ends the cycle and again prompts for planning. Here the
HR Manager makes an examination of outcome achieved with the standards
that were set in the planning stage to see if there are any deviations from
the set standards. Hence any deviation can be corrected on the next cycle.

Advisory role

1. Top Management Advice: HR Manager is a specialist in Human Resource

Management functions. She/he can advise the top management in
formulating policies and procedures. He/she can also recommend the top
management for the appraisal of manpower which they feel apt. This
function also involves advice regarding maintaining high-quality human
relations and far above the ground employee morale.
2. Departmental Head advice: Under this function, he/she advises the
heads of various departments on policies related to job design, job
description, recruitment, selection, appraisals.

DISCIPLINE IN SCHOOLS

 meaning;
 the practice of training people to obey rules or a code of
behaviour, using punishment to correct disobedience.
 An action by management to enforce organizational
standards( Okumbe 2013)

 Causes of indiscipline

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  Favoritism: Indiscipline may be caused by teachers who favor some
students in their teaching and classroom management. ...
 The rules are not enforced: ...
 Lack of Communication: ...
 Teacher-student relationship: ...
 Lack of leadership: ...
 Lack of motivation: ...
 Bad habits:
 lack of guidance and counseling,
 peer pressure, drugs,
 lack of proper systems to enforce school rules and regulations,
 failure to involve students' opinion in school management out of others
Causes of Indiscipline in Educational Institution:
Lack of guidance and counseling, peer pressure, drugs, lack of proper
systems to enforce school rules and regulations, failure to involve
students' opinion in school management out of others
Factors affecting School Discipline

 Lack of Leadership in Teacher.

 The Current Education System.
 Lack of Sustaining Ideal in the Students.
 Economic Difficulties.
 Lack of Communication.
 Disruptive behavior of the teacher.

 Lack of Leadership in Teacher

 1. Teachers have no respect as they had in the past.
 2. Students do not show respect the teachers
 3. Teachers get involved in the cesspool of politics and self-
interest
 4. Teachers lose their ideals and do not pay their intentions for
the development of the students
 5. Teachers usually excite the students and use them as tools of
private tuitions.
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  6. Miserable economic condition is also one of the main reason
for lack of leadership
 7. They are incapable of giving the guidance to the students
 The Current Education System
 1. Current education system is always being criticized
 2. Students came to know that education given to them is not
good
 3. Students have no regard for education
 4. Students just consider the education for the sake of their
earning
 5. In present, primary aim of educational system is to get good
position in the annual examination
 6. Students use their unfair means for achieving their objectives
 Lack of Sustaining Ideal in the Students
 1. Society has pitiable condition now a days
 2. Social changes are going to be changed
 3. Moral values have shaken our society
 4. Individual have no security of his life
 5. Lack of healthy ideals among the students
 Economic Difficulties
 1. Our economic condition has its deplorable degree
 2. Increased population created many national problems
 3. Less resources
 Lack of Communication
 1. Between staff
 2. Between students
 3. Between parents
 Disruptive behavior of the teacher
 1. No interest toward the students
 2. No new methodologies
 3. No interest in the curriculum
 4. No interest in the development of the students’ personalities

 Ways of instilling discipline

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A combination of methods used in a consistent and fair manner
typically offers the best approach to classroom discipline.

1. Increase Parental Involvement

Parents make a difference in student achievement and behavior. Schools
should institute policies requiring teachers to contact parents periodically
through the year. Half-term or end-of-term reports are often not enough.
Calling takes time, but parents can often provide solutions to difficult
classroom problems. While not all parental involvement will be positive or
have a measurable effect on student behavior, many successful
schools use this approach.
2. Create and Enforce a School wide Discipline Plan
Discipline plans provide students with acknowledged consequences for
misbehavior. Effective classroom management should include the
dissemination and use of a discipline plan. Teacher training on
implementation along with periodic reviews can encourage the consistent
and fair application of behavior standards.
3. Establish Leadership
The actions of the principal and assistant principals form the basis of the
overall mood for the school. If they consistently support teachers, fairly
implement the discipline plan, and follow-through on disciplinary actions,
then teachers will follow their lead. If they slack on discipline, it becomes
apparent over time and misbehavior typically increases.
4. Practice Effective Follow-Through
Consistently following through on the action plan is the only way to truly
foster discipline in schools. If a teacher ignores misbehavior in the
classroom, it will increase. If administrators fail to support the teachers,
they could easily lose control of the situation.
5. Provide Alternative Education Opportunities
Some students need controlled environments where they can learn
without distracting the wider school community. If one student
continually disrupts a class and shows an unwillingness to improve his or
her behavior, that student might need to be removed from the situation
for the sake of the rest of the students in the class. Alternative
schools provide options for disruptive or challenging students. Moving

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 other students to new classes that can be controlled at the school level
can also help in some situations.
6. Build a Reputation for Fairness
Hand-in-hand with effective leadership and consistent follow-through,
students must believe that teachers and administrators are fair in their
disciplinary actions. While some extenuating circumstances require
administrators to make adjustments for individual students, in general,
students who misbehave should be treated similarly.
7. Implement Additional Effective School wide Policies
Discipline in schools can evoke the image of administrators stopping
fights before they begin or dealing with hostile students in a classroom
setting. However, effective discipline begins with the implementation of
school-wide housekeeping policies that all teachers must follow. For
example, if a school implements a tardy policy that all teachers and
administrators follow, tardies will decrease. If teachers are expected to
handle these situations on a case-by-case basis, some will do a better job
than others and tardies will have a tendency to increase.
8. Maintain High Expectations
From administrators to guidance counselors to teachers, schools must
institute high expectations for both academic achievement and behavior.
These expectations must include messages of encouragement and means
of support to help all children succeed. Michael Rutter researched the
effect of high expectations at school and reported his findings in "Fifteen
Hundred Hours": "Schools that foster high self-esteem and that promote
social and scholastic success reduce the likelihood of emotional and
behavioral disturbance.
 strategies adopted to manage discipline
 revealed provision of moral leadership and moral training,
 value re-orientation,
 provision of adequate facilities for teaching games and sports,
 establishment of effective and functional Parent-Teacher
Association (PTA),
 reduction in class size,

 Be Organized. ...
 Deal with Problems Right from the Start. ...
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  Have Good Control Procedures. ...
 Teach the Procedures Well. ...
 Keep your Students Engaged. ...
 Move around the Classroom. ...
 Develop a Rapport with the Students. ...
 Be Professional.
Maintaining Classroom Discipline

Promoting Good Methods of Classroom Discipline

Helping students to govern their own behavior in ways that help them learn is a
longstanding goal of all teachers. There are a number of ways that a teacher
can promote good discipline in the classroom.
 Know school guidelines for discipline procedures.
 Be fair, positive and consistent. Be the kind of person young people
can like and trust—firm, fair, friendly, courteous, enthusiastic and
confident. Keep your sense of humor.
 Provide a list of standards and consequences to parents and students.
Make sure they are consistent with district and building policy. When in
doubt, ask a colleague or your principal.
 Keep your classroom orderly. Maintain a cheerful and attractive
classroom rather than a disorderly one which might encourage disruptive
behavior.
 Get to know your students. Learn their names quickly and use them in
and out of class. You will soon develop almost a sixth sense for
anticipating trouble before it begins, but doesn’t act as though you expect
trouble or you will almost certainly encounter some.
 Let the students know you care. Determine jointly with the class what
is acceptable in terms of behavior and achievement and what is not. Show
interest in what students say whether or not it pertains directly to the
lesson.
 Treat students with the same respect you expect from them; keep
confidences.
 Learn the meaning of terms, especially slang, used by students.
 Begin class on time and in a professional manner.

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  Make learning fun. Make education interesting and relevant to the
students’ lives. Poor planning and a full curriculum can provoke
disruptions.
 Praise good work, good responses and good behavior.
 Don’t threaten or use sarcasm. Never use threats to enforce
discipline. Never humiliate a child.
 Avoid arguing with students. Discussions about class work are
invaluable, but arguments can become emotional encounters.
 Be mobile, moving around the room as students works or responds to
instruction.
 Keep your voice at a normal level. If “disaster” strikes and you trip
over the wastebasket, don’t be afraid to laugh.
 Grade assignments and return them as soon as possible.
 Give reasonable assignments. Don’t use schoolwork as punishment.
Give clear directions.
 Keep rules simple. Establish as few classroom rules as possible, and
keep them simple.

SCHOOL RECORDS

School records include all the books and files containing information relating to
what goes on in the school, who is in the school, and types of property the
school owns ( Mbiti, 1997:61)

Records that show what goes on in a school include:

a) The school logbook

b) End of year examinations results
c) Official correspondence files
d) Staff meeting minutes book
e) School committee minutes book
f) Teacher’s records of work
g) Visitors book
h) Punishments book

Log book

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This is a daily record of the significant happenings , which take place when
the school is in session during the school year e.g the date of opening and
closing in a term , a sports day , music festivals , parents day etc.

Punishment book

This is the book where any form of punishment given to the students is
recorded. It is important because;-

 It controls the nature of punishment given to students and so prevents

teachers from administering excessive punishment because there has to
be witness and a limit.
 Protects teachers from unwarranted criticism by parents
 Helps to check misbehavior by the students

ii). Attendance records

 The school admission register .Which shows the date a student was
admitted to the school .The name(s) of the pupil /student, name of parent
or guardian etc.

References
1. Bogonko, S.N &Sifuna , D.N (1980) A history of education in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya KLB.
2. Campbell, R.E (1975) Introduction to Educational Administration. Boston Allyn& Bacon.
3. Castaldi, basil. 1994. Educational Facilities: Planning, Modernization and Management. Boston: Allyn
and Bacon
4. Mbiti, D.M (1975) Foundations of school administration. Nairobi: OUP.
5. Ministry of Educatio Brubaker, c. William. 1998. Planning and Designing Schools. New York: McGraw Hill.
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6. Ministry of education, Kenya (1986) Teachers code for regulations. Nairobi, The Government Printer
7. Miskel, C.G. & Hoy, W; (2012). Educational Administration: Theory, Research, and Practice 9th Ed. OH:
[Link] 13: 9780078024528 (978-0-07-802452-8)
8. Mohany B. (2001), School Administration and Supervision. Deep & Deep Publications, Pvt. Ltd.
9. Okumbe J.A (1998) Educational Management: Theory and Practice. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press;
1998.
10. A Manual for Heads of secondary schools in Kenya. Nairobi: Longman.

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