PHY 1261 GENERAL PHYSICS II

CHAPTER 5: ALTERNATING
CURRENT CIRCUITS

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 Units of Chapter 5
• Alternating Voltages and Currents
• Capacitors in AC Circuits
• RC Circuits
• Inductors in AC Circuits
• RLC Circuits
• Resonance in Electrical Circuits

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 5.1. Alternating Voltages and Currents in
AC circuits containing resistor R only
Wall sockets provide current and voltage that
vary sinusoidally with time.
Here is a simple ac circuit:

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 Alternating Voltages and Currents
The voltage as a function of time is:

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 Alternating Voltages and Currents
Since this circuit has only a resistor, the
current is given by:

Here, the current and

voltage have peaks
at the same time –
they are in phase.

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 Alternating Voltages and Currents
In order to visualize the phase relationships
between the current and voltage in ac circuits,
we define phasors – vectors whose length is the
maximum voltage or current, and which rotate
around an origin with the angular speed of the
oscillating current.
The instantaneous
value of the voltage or
current represented
by the phasor is its
projection on the y
axis.
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 Alternating Voltages and Currents
The voltage and current in an ac circuit both
average to zero, making the average useless in
describing their behavior.
We use instead the root mean square (rms) or
effective value; we square the value, find the
mean value, and then take the square root:

220 volts is the rms value of household ac.

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 Alternating Voltages and Currents

By calculating the power and finding the

average, we see that:

2
Vrms
= = Vrms I rms ( for a pure resistor )
R

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 Alternating Voltages and Currents
Electrical fires can be started by improper or
damaged wiring because of the heat caused by a
too-large current or resistance.
A fuse is designed to be the hottest point in the
circuit – if the current is too high, the fuse melts.
A circuit breaker is similar, except that it is a
bimetallic strip that bends enough to break the
connection when it becomes too hot. When it
cools, it can be reset.

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 Example 5.1: For a particular device, the
house ac voltage is 120-V and the ac current
is 10 A. What are their maximum values?
irms = 0.707imax

imax = 14.14 A Vmax = 170 V

The ac voltage actuallyVvaries

Vrms = 0.707 max
from +170 V to
-170 V and the current from 14
14..1 A to –14
14..1 A.
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 5.2. Capacitors in AC Circuits

How is the rms current in the capacitor

related to its capacitance and to the
frequency? The answer, which requires
calculus to derive:

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 Capacitors in AC Circuits
In analogy with resistance, we write:

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 Capacitors in AC Circuits
The voltage and
current in a capacitor
are not in phase. The
voltage lags by 90°.

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 5.3. RC Circuits

In an RC circuit, the current across the resistor

and the current across the capacitor are not in
phase. This means that the maximum current is
not the sum of the maximum resistor current
and the maximum capacitor current; they do
not peak at the same time.
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 RC Circuits
This phasor diagram
illustrates the phase
relationships. The
voltages across the
capacitor and across the
resistor are at 90° in the
diagram; if they are
added as vectors, we
find the maximum.

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 RC Circuits

This has the exact same form as V = IR if we

define the impedance, Z:

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 RC Circuits

There is a phase angle

between the voltage and
the current, as seen in the
diagram.

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 RC Circuits

The power in the circuit is given by:

Because of this, the factor cos Ф is called

the power factor.

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 5.4. Inductors in AC Circuits

Just as with capacitance, we can define

inductive reactance:

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 Inductors in AC Circuits
The voltage across an inductor leads the
current by 90°.

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 Inductors in AC Circuits
The power factor for an RL circuit is:

Currents in resistors,
capacitors, and
inductors as a
function of
frequency:
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S. J. de la Croix, CST, April 2016

 Example 5. 3: A coil having an inductance of 0.6 H is
connected to a 120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Neglecting
resistance, what is the effective current through the coil?

πfL
Reactance: XL = 2π L = 0.6 H
A
π(60 Hz)(0.6 H)
XL = 2π V

XL = 226 Ω
120 V, 60 Hz

ieff = 0.531 A

Show that the peak current is Imax = 0.750 A

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 5.5. RLC Circuits
A phasor diagram is a useful way to analyze an
RLC circuit.

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 RLC Circuits

The phase angle for an RLC circuit is:

If XL = XC, the phase angle is zero, and the

voltage and current are in phase.

The power factor:

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 RLC Circuits
At high frequencies, the capacitive reactance is
very small, while the inductive reactance is very
large. The opposite is true at low frequencies.

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 Example 5.4: A 60-Ω resistor, a 0.6 H inductor,
and an 8-µF capacitor are connected in series with
a 120-V, 60 Hz ac source. Calculate the
impedance for this circuit.
0.6 H
1
X L = 2π fL and XC = A
2π fC 8 µF
X L = 2π (60Hz)(0.6 H) = 226 Ω 120 V
1
XC = = 332 Ω
2π (60Hz)(8 x 10 F)
-6 60 Hz 60 Ω

Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C ) 2 = (60 Ω) 2 + (226 Ω − 332 Ω) 2

Thus, the impedance is: Z = 122 Ω

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 Example 5.5: Find the effective current and the phase
angle for the previous example.
XL = 226 Ω; XC = 332 Ω; R = 60 Ω; Z = 122 Ω
0.6H

A 8 µF
ieff = 0.984 A 120 V

Next we find the phase 60 Ω

60 Hz
angle:
Impedance XL –XC = 226 – 332 = -106 Ω

XL - XC Z X L − XC
φ R = 60 Ω tan φ =
R
R
3/31/2016 Continued . . .
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 Example 5.5 (Cont.): Find the phase angle φ for the
previous example.

60 Ω XL – XC = 226 – 332 = -106 Ω

φ
-106 Ω X L − XC
Z R = 60 Ω tan φ =
R

φ = -60.50

The negative phase angle means that the ac

voltage lags the current by 60.50. This is
known as a capacitive circuit.
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 5.6. Power in AC Circuits
• In RLC circuit, the voltage V across the entire circuit has
some phase angle φ with respect to the current I:

I = I m sin ωt and V = Vm sin (ωt + φ )

• The instantaneous power P is given by

P = VI = Vm sin (ωt + φ ) ⋅ I m sin ωt

(
= Vm I m cos φ sin 2 ωt + sin φ sin ωt cos ωt )

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• The average value of sin2ωt (over one cycle) is 1/2 . The
average value of sinωtcosωt is zero because this product
is equal to 1/2sin(2ωt), whose average over a cycle is
zero.
• So, the average power Pav is

1
Pav = Vm I m cos φ = Vrms I rms cos φ
2

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 5.7. Resonance in Electrical Circuits
If a charged capacitor is connected across an
inductor, the system will oscillate indefinitely in
the absence of resistance.

32
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 Resonance in Electrical Circuits

The rms voltages across the capacitor and

inductor must be the same; therefore, we can
calculate the resonant frequency.

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 Resonance in Electrical Circuits
In an RLC circuit with an ac power source, the
impedance is a minimum at the resonant
frequency:

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 Resonance in Electrical Circuits
The smaller the resistance, the larger the
resonant current:

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 Series Resonance

• The current intensity is at maximum for an AC circuit of

fixed input frequency ω when the impedance Z is at
minimum:
Vm
Im =
Z
2
 1 
Z = R + (X L − X C ) = R +  ωL −
2 2 2

 ωC 
• Z is max when
1
X L − X C = ωL −
1
=0 ω0 = 2πf =
ωC OR LC
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 Series Resonance (cont.)

The magnitude of the current response for the series resonance circuit
is as shown below.

Vm
R
|I| Vm
2R

Half power point

ω1 ωo ω2
ω
Bandwidth:

BW = ωBW = ω2 – ω1
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 Series Resonance (cont.)

The peak power delivered to the circuit is;

2 2
VVrms Vm2
PP== m
=
RR 2 R

. when
The so-called half-power is given
Vm
I=
2R
We find the frequencies, ω1 and ω2, at which this
half-power occurs by using;

1 2
2 R = R 2 + (ω L − )
ωC
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 Series Resonance (cont.)
After some insightful algebra one will find two frequencies at which
the previous equation is satisfied, they are:

2
R  R  1
ω1 = − +   +
2L  2 L  LC
and
2
R  R  1
ω2 = +   +
2L  2 L  LC

The two half-power frequencies are related to the resonant frequency by

ωo = ω1ω2
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 Series Resonance (cont.)
The bandwidth of the series resonant circuit is given by;
R
BW = ωb = ω2 − ω1 =
L

We define the Q (quality factor) of the circuit as;

ω0 ωo L1 1 L
Q= ⇒ Q= = =  
∆ω R ωo RC R  C 

Using Q, we can write the bandwidth as;

ωo
BW =
Q

These are all important relationships.

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 Series Resonance (cont.)

An Observation:

If Q > 10, one can safely use the approximation;

BW BW
ω1 = ωo − and ω 2 = ωo +
2 2

These are useful approximations.

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• The curves plotted here show that a high-Q circuit
responds to only a very narrow range of frequencies,
whereas a low-Q circuit can detect a much broader
range of frequencies.
• Typical values of Q in electronic circuits range from 10
to 100.
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• The receiving circuit of a radio is an important application
of a resonant circuit.
• One tunes the radio to a particular station (which
transmits an electromagnetic wave or signal of a specific
frequency) by varying a capacitor, which changes the
resonance frequency of the receiving circuit.
• When the resonance frequency of the circuit matches
that of the incoming electromagnetic wave, the current in
the receiving circuit increases.
• This signal caused by the incoming wave is then
amplified and fed to a speaker.

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• Because many signals are often present over a range of
frequencies, it is important to design a high-Q circuit to
eliminate unwanted signals. In this manner, stations
whose frequencies are near but not equal to the
resonance frequency give signals at the receiver that are
negligibly small relative to the signal that matches the
resonance frequency.

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 Example 5.6: Find the resonant frequency for
the previous circuit example: L = .6 H, C = 8 µF
1 Resonance XL = XC
fr =
2π LC 0.6 H

1 A
fr = 8 µF
2π (0.6 H )(8 ×10 −6
F ) 120 V

Resonant fr = 72.6 Hz ? Hz 60 Ω

At resonant frequency, there is zero reactance (only

resistance) and the circuit has a phase angle of zero.
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 Example 5.7: What is the average power loss for the
previous example: V = 120 V, φ = -60.50, i = 0.984 A,
and R = 60Ω .
P = i2R = (0.984 A)2(60 Ω) Resonance XL = XC
0.6 H
Average P = 58.1 W
A 8 µF
The power factor is: cos 60.50 120 V

cos φ = 0.492 or 49.2% ? Hz 60 Ω

The higher the power factor, the more

efficient is the circuit in its use of ac power.
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 Summary of Chapter 5
• The voltage from an ac generator varies
sinusoidally:

• Phasor represents voltage or current in ac

circuit; as it rotates, its y component gives the
instantaneous value.
• Root mean square (rms) of a sinusoidally
varying quantity:

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 Summary of Chapter 5

• rms current in a capacitor:

• Capacitive reactance:
• Voltage across capacitor lags current by 90°
• Impedance in an RC circuit:

• Average power:
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 Summary of Chapter 5
• Inductive reactance:
• Impedance of an RL circuit:

• Impedance of an RLC circuit:

• Resonant frequency of an LC circuit:

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 5.8. Transformer
• A transformer is a device that uses induction and ac
current to step voltages.
• A transformer is basically
two coils of wire wrapped
around each other, or
wrapped around
an iron core.

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• When an ac voltage VP is applied to the
primary coil with NP turns, it induces an ac
voltage VS in the secondary coil with NS
turns.
• A “step up” transformer increases the
output voltage in the secondary coil; a
“step down” transformer reduces it.

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The ac voltage in the primary coil causes a magnetic
flux change given by
∆φB
VP = NP .
∆t
The changing flux (which is efficiently “carried” in the
transformer core) induces an ac voltage in the
secondary coil given by
∆φB
VS = NS .
∆t
Recognizing that ∆ϕB/∆
∆t is the same in each coil and
dividing the two equations gives the transformer
equation: VS NS
= .
VP NP
For a step-up transformer, NS > NP and VS > VP (the
voltage is stepped up).
For a step-down transformer, NS < NP and VS < VP (the
voltage is stepped down).

Transformers only work with ac voltages; a dc voltage

does not produce the necessary changing flux.
A step-up transformer increases the voltage. Is this
an example of “getting something for nothing?”

No, because even though transformers are

extremely efficient, some power (and therefore
energy) is lost.
If no power is lost, we can use P = IV to get
IS NP
= .
IP NS
Example 5.8: A generator produces 10 A at 600 V.
The primary coil in a transformer has 20 turns.
How many secondary turns are needed to step up
the voltage to 2400 V?

Applying the I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V

transformer equation:
a.c
VP NP
= . Np Ns
VS NS 20
turns R

NS =
N PVS (20)(2400 V)
= NS = 80 turns
VP 600 V
This is a step-up transformer; reversing coils
will make it a step-down transformer.
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 Transformer Efficiency
There is no power gain in stepping up the voltage
since voltage is increased by reducing current. In an
ideal transformer with no internal losses:

Ideal Transformer An ideal

a.c transformer::
. Np Ns I P VS
VP I P = VS I S or =
R I s VP
The above equation assumes no internal energy
losses due to heat or flux changes. Actual
efficiencies are usually between 90 and 100%.
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 Example 5.9: The transformer in Ex. 5.8 is
connected to a power line whose resistance is 12 Ω.
How much of the power is lost in the transmission
line?
I = 10 A; Vp = 600 V
VS = 2400 V
Ei 12 Ω
EP iP = ES iS iS = P P a.c
ES . Np Ns
(600V)(10 A) 20
iS = = 2.50 A turns R
2400 V

Plost = i2R = (2.50 A)2(12 Ω) Plost = 75.0 W

Pin = (600 V)(10 A) = 6000 W

%Power Lost = (75 W/6000 W)(100%) = 1.25%

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 Summary

Effective current: ieff = 0.707 imax

Effective voltage: Veff = 0.707 Vmax

Inductive Reactance: Capacitive Reactance:

1
XL = 2π fL Unit is the Ω XC = Unit is the Ω
2π fC
Ohm's law: VL = iX L Ohm's law: VC = iX C
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 Summary (Cont.)
VL − VC
VT = V + (VL − VC )
2 2 tan φ =
R VR

X L − XC
Z = R + (X L − XC )
2 2 tan φ =
R

VT 1
VT = iZ or i = fr =
Z 2π LC

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 Summary (Cont.)
Power in AC Circuits:
In terms of ac voltage: In terms of the resistance R:

P = iV cos φ P = i2R

Ideal Transformers:

VP NP
= VP iP = VS iS
VS NS
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