UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM AND GAS ENGINEERING

PGG 433: GAS DYNAMICS
LECTURER : Dr. O. A. ADEYANJU
MODULE 2: CONTROL VOLUME

Control Volume Analysis

In the study of gas dynamics we are interested in fluids that are flowing. The analysis
of flow problems is based on the same fundamental principles that you have used in
earlier courses in thermodynamics or fluid dynamics:
1. Conservation of mass
2. Conservation of energy
3. Newton’s second law of motion
When applying these principles to the solution of specific problems, you must also know
something about the properties of the fluid

Thus it will first be necessary to develop some fundamental expressions that can be used
to analyze control volumes. A technique is developed to transform our basic laws for a
control mass into integral equations that are applicable to finite control volumes.
Simplifications will be made for special cases such as steady one-dimensional flow.
We also analyze differential control volumes that will produce some valuable
differential relations.

FLOW DIMENSIONALITY AND AVERAGE VELOCITY

As we observe fluid moving around, the various properties can be expressed as

functions of location and time. Thus, in an ordinary rectangular Cartesian coordinate
system, we could say in general that

V = f (x,y,z,t ) (1)

or

p = g(x,y,z,t ) (2)

Since it is necessary to specify three spatial coordinates and time, this is called three-
dimensional unsteady flow.

Two-dimensional unsteady flow would be represented by

V = f (x,y,t ) (3)

and one-dimensional unsteady flow by

V = f(x,t ) (4)

The assumption of one-dimensional flow is a simplification normally applied to flow

systems and the single coordinate is usually taken in the direction of flow. This is not
necessarily unidirectional flow, as the direction of the flow duct might change.
Another way of looking at one-dimensional flow is to say that at any given section
(x-coordinate) all fluid properties are constant across the cross section. Keep in mind
that the properties can still change from section to section (as x changes).
The fundamental concepts were expressed in terms of a given mass of material (i.e.,
the control mass approach). When using the control mass approach we observe some
property of the mass, such as enthalpy or internal energy. The (time) rate at which this
·
property ·changes is called a material derivative (sometimes called a total or

substantial derivative). It is written by various authors as D(. )/Dt or d(. )/dt . Note that
it is computed as we follow the material around, and thus it involves two
contributions.
First, the property may change because the mass has moved to a new position (e.g., at
the same instant of time the temperature in Tucson is different from that in
Anchorage). This contribution to the material derivative is sometimes called the
convective derivative.
Second, the property may change with time at any given position (e.g., even in
Monterey the temperature varies from morning to night).
· This latter contribution is
called the local or partial derivative with respect to time and is written ∂(. )/∂t . As an
example, for a typical three-dimensional unsteady flow the material derivative of the
pressure would be represented as

dp ∂ p dx ∂ p dy ∂ p dz ∂ p
= + + + (5)
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt ∂ z dt ∂t

If the fluid properties at every point are independent of time, we call this steady flow.
Thus in steady flow the partial derivative of any property with respect to time is zero:

∂ (.)
=0 for steady staye flow (6)
∂t

Notice that this does not prevent properties from being different in different locations.
Thus, the material derivative may be nonzero for the case of steady flow, due to the
contribution of the convective portion.
Next, we examine the problem of computing mass flow rates when the flow is not one-
dimensional. Consider the flow of a real fluid in a circular duct. At low Reynolds
numbers, where viscous forces predominate, the fluid tends to flow in layers without
any energy exchange between adjacent layers. This is termed laminar flow, and we
could easily establish that the velocity profile for this case would be a paraboloid of
revolution, a cross section of which is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Velocity profile for laminar flow.

At any given cross section the velocity can be expressed as

[ ( )]
2
r
u=U max 1− (7)
ro

To compute the mass flow rate, we integrate:

❑
ṁ=mass flow rate=∫ ρudA (8)
A

Where

dA = 2πr dr

Assuming ρ to be a constant, carry out the indicated integration and show that

Um Um
ṁ=ρ ( π r o )
2
= ρA (9)
2 2

Note that for a multidimensional flow problem, when the flow rate is expressed as:

ṁ=ρAV (10)

the velocity V is an average velocity, which for this case is Um/2. Since the density
was held constant during integration, V is more properly called an area-averaged
velocity. But because there is generally little change in density across any given
section, this is a reasonable average velocity.
As we move to higher Reynolds numbers, the large inertia forces cause irregular
velocity fluctuations in all directions, which in turn cause mixing between adjacent
layers. The resulting energy transfer causes the fluid particles near the center to slow
down while those particles next to the wall speed up. This produces the relatively flat
velocity profile shown in Figure 2, which is typical of turbulent flow. Notice that for
this type of flow, all particles at a given section have nearly the same velocity, which
closely approximates a one-dimensional flow picture. Since most flows of engineering
interest are well into this turbulent regime, we can see why the assumption of one-
dimensional flow is reasonably accurate.

Figure 2: Velocity profile for turbulent flow.

Streamlines and Streamtubes

As we progress through this course (PGG 433) we will occasionally mention the following:

Streamline: a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity vectors of those fluid
particles that are on the line
Streamtube: a flow passage that is formed by adjacent streamlines

By virtue of these definitions, no fluid particles ever cross a streamline. Hence fluid
flows through a streamtube much as it does through a physical pipe.
TRANSFORMATION OF A MATERIAL DERIVATIVE TO A
CONTROL VOLUME APPROACH

In most gas dynamics problems, it will be more convenient to examine a fixed region
in space, or a control volume. The fundamental equations were listed in the introductory
section of the course discuss earlier for the analysis of a control mass. We now ask
ourselves what form these equations take when applied to a control volume. In each
case the troublesome term is a material derivative of an extensive property.

It will be simplest to show first how the material derivative of any extensive property
transforms to a control volume approach. The result will be a valuable general relation
that can be used for many particular situations. Let

N ≡ the total amount of any extensive property in a given mass

η ≡ the amount of N per unit mass

Thus

❑
N=∫ ηdm=∭ ρηd v̆ =∫ ρηd v (11)
v

where

dm ≡ incremental element of mass

dv˜ ≡ incremental volume element

.
Note that for simplicity we are indicating the triple volume integral as ꭍ v

Now let us consider what happens to the material derivative dN/dt . Recall that a material
derivative
+ is the (time) rate of change of a property computed as the mass moves around. Figure
2.3 shows an arbitrary mass at time t and the same mass at time t+∆t. Remember that this system
+
is at all times composed of the same mass particles. If ∆t is small, there will be an overlap of the
two regions as shown in Figure 2.4, with the common region identified as region 2. At time t the
given mass particles occupy regions 1 and 2. At time t+∆t the same mass particles occupy
regions 2 and 3. We shall call the original confines of the mass (regions 1 and 2) the control
volume.

Figure 3: Identification of control mass.

Figure 4: Control mass for small ∆t

We construct our material derivative from the mathematical definition

dN
= lim
dt ∆ t →0 [
( Final Value of N )t +∆ t −( Initial Value of N )t
∆t ] (12)

where the final value of N is the N of regions 2 and 3 computed at time t + ∆ t, and the initial value of
N is the N of regions 1 and 2 computed at time t .

A more specific expression is:

dN
= lim
dt ∆ t →0 [
( N 2+ N 3 )t+ ∆ t −( N 1 + N 2 )t
∆t ] (13)

First, consider the term

N 3 ( t+ ∆ t )
lim (14)
∆ t →0 ∆t

The numerator represents the amount of N in region 3 at time t + ∆ t, and by definition region 3 is
formed by the fluid moving out of the control volume. Let ˆn be a unit normal, positive when pointing
outward from the control volume. Also let dA be an increment of the surface area that separates
regions 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Flow out of control volume.

The numerator represents the amount of N in region 3 at time t + ∆ t, and by definition region 3 is
formed by the fluid moving out of the control volume. Let ˆn be a unit normal, positive when pointing
outward from the control volume. Also let dA be an increment of the surface area that separates
regions 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 5.

V ·ˆn = component of V ⊥ to dA

(V ·ˆn) dA = incremental volumetric flow rate

ρ(V ·ˆn) dA = incremental mass flow rate

ρ(V ·ˆn) dA_t = amount of mass that crossed dA in time ∆ t

ηρ(V ·ˆn) dA_t = amount of N that crossed dA in time ∆ t

The final transformation equation becomes

❑ ❑

( )
dN
dt
=
material derivative
∂
∫ ηρd ^v +∫ ηρ ( v . n^ ) dA
∂ t cv cs
(15)
Equation 15 can be interpreted as:

The rate of change of N for a given mass as it is moving around is equal to the rate of change of N
inside the control volume plus the net efflux (flow out minus flow in) of N from the control volume.

CONSERVATION OF MASS

If we exclude from consideration the possibility of nuclear reactions, we can account separately
for the conservation of mass and energy. Thus if we observe a given quantity of mass as it moves
around, we can say by definition that the mass will remain fixed. Another way of stating this is
that the material derivative of the mass is zero

d ( mass )
=0 (16)
dt

This is the continuity equation for a control mass. What corresponding expression can

we write for a control volume? To find out, we must transform the material derivative

according to the relation developed

d ( mass ) ∂ ❑ ❑
= ∫ ρdv +∫ ρ ( v . n^ ) dA (17)
dt ∂t cv cs

But we know by equation (16) that this must be zero; thus the transformed equation is
❑ ❑
∂
0= ∫ ρdv +∫ ρ ( v . n^ ) dA
∂t cv
(18)
cs

This is the continuity equation for a control volume. State in words what each term

represents. For steady flow, any partial derivative with respect to time is zero and the

equation becomes
 ❑
0=∫ ρ ( v . n^ ) dA (19)
cs

Let us now evaluate the remaining integral for the case of one-dimensional flow.

Figure 6 shows fluid crossing a portion of the control surface. Recall that for one dimensional
flow any fluid property will be constant over an entire cross section.

Thus both the density and the velocity can be brought out from under the integral sign. If the
surface is always chosen perpendicular to V , the integral is very simple to evaluate:

Figure 6: One-dimensional velocity profile.

^
∫ ρ ( v . n^ ) dA= ρv . n∫ dA=ρvA (20)

This integral must be evaluated over the entire control surface, which yields
❑

∫ ρ ( v . n^ ) dA=∑ ρvA (21)

cs

This summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface and

is positive where fluid leaves the control volume (since V · ˆn is positive here) and

negative where fluid enters the control volume. For steady, one-dimensional flow, the

continuity equation for a control volume becomes

∑ ρAv=0 (22)

If there is only one section where fluid enters and one section where fluid leaves the control
volume, this becomes

(ρAV )out − (ρAV )in = 0 (23)

or

(ρAV )out = (ρAV )in (24)

We usually write this as

ṁ=ρAv=constant (25)

Implicit in this expression is the fact that V is the component of velocity perpendicular to the area
A. If the density ρ is in lbm per cubic foot, the area A is in square feet, and the velocity V is in
feet per second.

Note that as a result of steady flow the mass flow rate into a control volume is sequal to the mass
flow rate out of the control volume. The converse of this is not necessarily true; that is, just
because it is known that the flow rates into and out of a control volume are the same, this does
not ensure that the flow is steady.

Example 1: Air flows steadily through a 1-in.-diameter section with a velocity of 1096 ft/sec.
The temperature is 40°F and the pressure is 50 psia. The flow passage expands to 2 in. in
diameter, and at this section the pressure and temperature have dropped to 2.82 psia and -240°F,
respectively. What is the average velocity at this section?

SOLUTION

Knowing that

p = ρRT and A = πD2/4

for steady, one-dimensional flow, we obtain

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2
[ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
2 2
p1 π D 1 p2 π D2
V 1= V2
RT1 4 R T2 4

2
D 1 p1 T 2
V 2=V 1 2
D 2 p1 T 1

( ) ( 2.82 )( 500 )=2138 ft /sec

2
1 50 220
V 2=( 1096 )
2

An alternative form of the continuity equation can be obtained by differentiating equation (25).
For steady one-dimensional flow this means that

d(ρAV ) = AV dρ + ρV dA + ρAdV = 0 (26)

Dividing by ρAV yields

dρ dA dV
+ + =0 (27)
ρ A V

This expression can also be obtained by first taking the natural logarithm of equation (25) and
then differentiating the result. This is called logarithmic differentiation.

This differential form of the continuity equation is useful in interpreting the changes that must
occur as fluid flows through a duct, channel, or stream tube. It indicates that if mass is to be
conserved, the changes in density, velocity, and cross sectional area must compensate for one
another. For example, if the area is constant (dA = 0), any increase in velocity must be
accompanied by a corresponding decrease in density. We shall also use this form of continuity
equation in several future derivations.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

The first lawof thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy. For a system composed
of a given quantity of mass that undergoes a process, we can say that

Q = W + ΔE (From PGG 433 Module 1)

where

Q =the net heat transferred into the system

W = the net work done by the system

ΔE = the change in total energy of the system

This can also be written on a rate basis to yield an expression that is valid at any instant of time:

δQ δW dE
= = (28)
dt dt dt

We must carefully examine each term in this equation to clearly understand its significance.

δQ/dt and δW/dt represent instantaneous rates of heat and work transfer between the system and
its surroundings. They are rates of energy transfer across the boundaries of the system. These
terms are not material derivatives. (Recall that heat and work are not properties of a system.) On
the other hand, energy is a property of the system and dE/dt is a material derivative.

We now ask what form the energy equation takes when applied to a control volume.

To answer this, we must first transform the material derivative in equation (28)

If we let N be E, the total energy f the system, then η represents e, the energy per unit mass:

2
v g
e=u+ + z (29)
2 g c gc
Substitution into equation (15) yields
❑ ❑
dE ∂
= ∫ eρd ^v +∫ eρ ( v . n^ ) dA (30)
dt ∂ t cv cs

and the transformed equation that is applicable to a control volume is

❑ ❑
δQ δW ∂
= + ∫ eρd v^ +∫ eρ ( v . n^ ) dA (31)
dt dt ∂ t cv cs

In this case, δQ/dt and δW/dt represent instantaneous rates of heat and work transfer across the
surface that surrounds the control volume. State in words what the other terms represent. [See the
interpretation of equation (15)]

For one-dimensional flow the last integral in equation (31) is simple to evaluate, as e, ρ, and V
are constant over any given cross section. Assuming that the velocity V is perpendicular to the
surface A, we have

_
❑

∫ eρ ( v . n^ ) dA=∑ eρv ∫ dA=∑ eρvA=∑ ṁ e (32)

cs

The summation is taken over all sections where fluid crosses the control surface and is positive
where fluid leaves the control volume and negative where fluid enters the control volume.

In using equation (31) we must be careful to include all forms of work, whether done by pressure
forces (from normal stresses) or shear forces (from tangential stresses). Figure 7 shows a simple
control volume. Note that the control surface is chosen carefully so that there is no fluid motion
at the boundary except

(a) where fluid enters and leaves the system, or

(b) where a mechanical device such as a shaft crosses the boundaries of the system.

This prudent choice of the system boundary simplifies calculation of the work quantities.

For example, recall that for a real fluid there is no motion at the wall (e.g., see Figures 1 and 2).
Thus the pressure and shear forces along the sidewalls do no work since they do not move
through any distance.

The rate at which work is transmitted out of the system by the mechanical device is called δWs/dt
and is accomplished by shear stresses between the device and the fluid.

(Think of the subscript s for shear stresses or shaft work.) The other work quantities considered
are where fluid enters and leaves the system. Here the pressure forces do work to push fluid into
or out of the control volume. The shaded area at the inlet represents the fluid that enters the
control volume during time dt. The work done here is

δW= F · dx = pA dx = pAV dt (33)

The rate of doing work is

.
dw
= pAv (34)
dt
Figure 7: Identification of work quantities

This is called flow work or displacement work. It can be expressed in a more meaningful form by
introducing

ṁ=ρAV (35a)

Thus the rate of doing flow work is

ṁ
pAV = p = mpv
˙ (35b)
ρ

This represents work done by the system (positive) to force fluid out of the control volume and
represents work done on the system (negative) to force fluid into the control volume. Thus the
total work

δW δ W s
= + ∑ ṁ pv (36)
dt dt

You can now rewrite the energy equation in a more useful form which is applicable

to one-dimensional flow. Notice how the flow work has been included in the last term:

❑
δQ δ W s ∂
= = ∫ eρd v^ + ∑ ṁ ( e + pv ) (37)
dt dt ∂ t cv

If we consider steady flow, the term involving the partial derivative with respect to time is zero.
Thus for steady one-dimensional flow the energy equation for a control volume becomes

δQ δ W s
= + ∑ ṁ ( e+ pv ) (38)
dt dt

If there is only one section where fluid leaves and one section where fluid enters the

control volume, we have (from continuity)

ṁ¿ =ṁout =ṁ (39)

We may now divide equation (38) by ṁ :

1 δQ 1 δ W s
= + ( e + pv )out −( e + pv )¿ (40)
ṁ dt ṁ dt

We now define

1 δQ
q= (41)
ṁ dt

where q and ws represent quantities of heat and shaft work crossing the control surface per unit
mass of fluid flowing.

Our equation has now become

q = ws + (e + pv)out − (e + pv)in (42)

This can be applied directly to the finite control volume shown in Figure 8, with the result

q = ws + (e2 + p2v2) − (e1 + p1v1) (43)

Detailed substitution for e [from Module 1)] yields

2 2
v1 g v2 g
u1 + p 1 v 1 + + z 1 +q=u2 + p 2 v 2+ + z +w (44)
2 gc gc 2 gc gc 2 s

If we introduce the definition of enthalpy

h ≡ u + pv (45)

the equation can be shortened to

2 2
v1 g v2 g
h1 + + z1 +q=h2+ + z +w (46)
2 gc gc 2 gc gc 2 s
Figure 8: Finite control volume for energy analysis.

This is the form of the energy equation that may be used to solve many problems.

Note that in Figure 8 we have not drawn a dashed line completely surrounding the fluid inside
the control volume.

Example 2.2 Steam enters an ejector (Figure E2.2) at the rate of 0.1 lbm/sec with an enthalpy of
1300 Btu/lbm and negligible [Link] enters at the rate of 1.0 lbm/sec with an enthalpy of
40 Btu/lbm and negligible velocity. The mixture leaves the ejector with an enthalpy of 150
Btu/lbm and a velocity of 90 ft/sec. All potentials may be neglected. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the heat transfer.
Fig. 9:

m1 = 0.1 lbm/sec V1 ≈ 0 h1 = 1300 Btu/lbm

˙m2 = 1.0 lbm/sec V2 ≈ 0 h2 = 40 Btu/lbm

V3 = 90 ft/sec h3 = 150 Btu/lbm

Note the importance of making a sketch. It is necessary to establish the control volume and
indicate clearly where fluid and energy cross the boundaries of the system. Identify these
locations by number and list the given information with units.

Continuity:

˙m3 = ˙m1 + ˙ m2 = 0.1 + 1.0 = 1.1 lbm/sec

Energy:

˙2
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
V1 g V2 g V3 g
ṁ1 h1 + + z + ṁ2 h2 + + z + Q=ṁ3 h 3+ + z + Ẇ s
2 gc gc 1 2 gc gc 2 2 gc gc 3

˙ 2
( V
ṁ1 h1+ ṁ2 h2 + Q̇= m3 h3 + 3
2 gc )
[ ]
2
90
( 0.1 ) ( 1300 ) + ( 1.0 ) ( 40 )+ Q̇=( 1.1 ) 150+
( 2 )( 32.2 ) ( 778 )

130+ 40+ Q̇=( 1.1 ) ( 150+0.162 ) =165.2

Q=165.2−130−40=−4.83 Btu /sec

The minus sign indicates that heat is lost from the ejector.

Example 3 A horizontal duct of constant area contains CO2 flowing isothermally (Figure 10). At
a section where the pressure is 14 bar absolute, the average velocity is know to be 50 m/s.
Farther downstream the pressure has dropped to 7 bar abs. Find the heat transfer.

Figure 10

p1 = 14 × 105 N/m2 p2 = 7 × 105 N/m2 ws(1—2) = 0

V1 = 50 m/s V2 = ? q1—2 = ?
z1 = z2 (horizontal) A1 = A2 (given)

Energy:

2 2
v1 g v2 g
h1 + + z1 +q=h2+ + z +w (From Equ. 46)
2 gc gc 2 gc gc 2 s
Since perfect gas and isothermal, Δh = cpΔt = 0 by equation (in Module 1), and thus

2 2
V 2−V 1
q 1→ 2=
2 gc

State:

p1 p2 p1 ρ 1
= → =
ρ1 T 1 ρ 2 T 2 p 2 ρ2

Continuity:

ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

Show that

V 2 ρ2 p 2
= =
V 1 ρ1 p 1

and thus

p1
( )
5
14∗10
V 2= V 1= 5
(50 )=100 m/s
p2 7∗10

Returning to the energy equation, we have

2 2
V 2−V 1 1002−502
q 1→ 2= = =3750 J /kg
2 gc ( 2 )( 1 )
Example 4 Air at 2200°R enters a turbine at the rate of 1.5 lbm/sec (Figure 11). The air expands
through a pressure ratio of 15 and leaves at 1090°R . Velocities entering and leaving are
negligible and there is no heat transfer. Calculate the horsepower (hp) output of the turbine.

Figure 11

T1 = 2200°R T2 = 1090°R ˙m = 1.5 lbm/sec

V1 ≈ 0 V2 ≈ 0 q=0

Energy:

2 2
v1 g v2 g
h1 + + z1 +q=h2+ + z +w (From Equ. 46)
2 gc gc 2 gc gc 2 s

w s=h1−h2=C p ( T 1−T 2 )

¿ ( 0.24 )( 2200−1090 )=266 Btu /lbm

hp=ṁ w s ( 778
550 )
=( 1.5 ) ( 266 ) (
550 )
778
=564 hp

Differential Form of Energy Equation

One can also apply the energy equation to a differential control volume, as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12: Energy analysis on infinitesimal control volume.

We assume steady one-dimensional flow. The properties of the fluid entering the control volume
are designated as ρ, u, p, V , and so on. Fluid leaves the control volume with properties that have
changed slightly as indicated by ρ + dρ, u + du, and so on. Application of equation (42) to this
differential control volume will produce

[ ( v +dv )2 g
( )]
2
v g
δq=δ w s + ( p+ dp ) ( v +dv ) + ( u+ du ) + + ( z +dz ) − pv +u+ + z
2 gc gc 2 gc gc
 2
2 vdv + ( dv ) g
δq=δ w s + pdv+ vdp+ dpdv +du+ + z
2 gc gc

Higher order term dpdv = 0 and (dv)2 = 0

2
2 vdv =d v

pdv+vdp = d(pv)

2
dv g
( )
δq=δ w s +d pv + du+ + dz
2 g c gc

dh=du+ d ( pv )

2
dv g
δq=δ w s +dh+ + dz
2 gc g c