CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews relevant literature related to the knowledge and practice of personal
hygiene among girls residing in college hostels. The review is structured to cover the conceptual
framework, theoretical framework, empirical studies, and a summary of the chapter. The purpose
of this review is to examine existing scholarly works on personal hygiene, identify gaps in
knowledge, and provide a strong theoretical and empirical foundation for the present study
conducted at City College of Health Science and Technology Hostel, Zaria Local Government
Area, Kaduna State.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.2.1 Concept of Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene refers to the practices individuals adopt to maintain cleanliness of their bodies
and immediate environment in order to promote health and prevent disease. These practices
include regular bathing, handwashing with soap, oral hygiene, nail and hair care, laundering of
clothes, and proper menstrual hygiene management (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019).
Personal hygiene is a critical component of public health, particularly in communal living
settings such as school hostels, where close contact increases the risk of disease transmission.
Good personal hygiene contributes to physical well-being, psychological comfort, and social
acceptance. Conversely, poor hygiene has been linked to infections, skin diseases,
gastrointestinal illnesses, and reproductive tract infections, especially among adolescent girls
(UNICEF, 2020).
2.2.2 Knowledge of Personal Hygiene
Knowledge of personal hygiene refers to an individual’s awareness, understanding, and
comprehension of hygiene practices and their role in maintaining health and preventing disease.
This knowledge includes understanding the causes of hygiene-related diseases, modes of
transmission of infections, and the importance of daily hygiene practices such as handwashing,
bathing, oral hygiene, food hygiene, and menstrual hygiene management (Alqahtani et al., 2020;
WHO, 2021). Adequate hygiene knowledge empowers individuals to make informed health
decisions and adopt behaviors that promote wellbeing.
Among students, especially those residing in hostels, knowledge of personal hygiene is often
acquired through formal education, health talks, parental guidance, media exposure, and peer
interactions. Studies have shown that students who receive structured hygiene education in
schools and tertiary institutions demonstrate better understanding of disease prevention and
personal cleanliness compared to those without such exposure (Amoo et al., 2021; Federal
Ministry of Education, 2020).
Knowledge of hand hygiene is a critical component of personal hygiene awareness. Proper
understanding of handwashing techniques, including the use of soap and water at critical times
such as before eating and after using the toilet, has been shown to significantly reduce the
incidence of diarrheal and respiratory infections among students (Haque et al., 2018; WHO,
2020). Students who lack this knowledge are more likely to engage in unsafe practices that
expose them to preventable illnesses.
Menstrual hygiene knowledge is particularly important for female students living in hostels.
Understanding the physiology of menstruation, appropriate use and disposal of sanitary
materials, and the importance of genital hygiene helps prevent infections and promotes dignity
and confidence. However, studies in Nigeria and other low- and middle-income countries reveal
gaps in menstrual hygiene knowledge due to cultural taboos and limited access to accurate
information (Das et al., 2021; UNICEF, 2021).
Although knowledge of personal hygiene is essential, several studies emphasize that knowledge
alone does not automatically translate into good hygiene practice. Adewale and Adebayo
(2021) noted that students may possess adequate knowledge but still fail to practice good
hygiene due to lack of enabling factors such as water supply, sanitation facilities, and
institutional support. This highlights the need for supportive environments alongside education.
2.2.3 Practice of Personal Hygiene
Practice of personal hygiene refers to the actual implementation of hygiene-related behaviors in
daily life. These practices include regular bathing, proper handwashing with soap, brushing of
teeth at least twice daily, wearing clean clothes, trimming of nails, and maintaining cleanliness of
personal and shared spaces (Sommer et al., 2017; WHO, 2019). Hygiene practice reflects not just
knowledge but also attitudes, availability of resources, and environmental support.
In hostel environments, personal hygiene practices are shaped by communal living conditions.
Shared bathrooms, toilets, and water points can either encourage collective cleanliness or
contribute to poor hygiene if facilities are inadequate or poorly maintained. Research has shown
that overcrowding and limited sanitation facilities negatively affect hygiene practices among
hostel residents, even when students understand the importance of cleanliness (UNICEF &
WHO, 2019; Mohammed & Sadiq, 2023).
Handwashing practice remains one of the most effective hygiene behaviors for disease
prevention, yet compliance among students is often inconsistent. Factors such as lack of soap,
time constraints, forgetfulness, and peer influence affect handwashing behavior in hostel settings.
Studies indicate that consistent hand hygiene practice among students significantly reduces
absenteeism due to illness and improves overall health outcomes (Haque et al., 2018; Amoo et
al., 2021).
Female students face unique challenges in practicing personal hygiene, particularly with regard
to menstrual hygiene management. Inadequate access to sanitary pads, lack of privacy, and poor
waste disposal systems in hostels can lead to unsafe practices such as prolonged use of pads or
improper disposal. These practices have been linked to reproductive tract infections, discomfort,
and reduced participation in academic activities (Das et al., 2021; Sommer et al., 2017).
Good hygiene practice has been associated with improved self-esteem, social acceptance, and
academic engagement. Students who maintain good personal hygiene are more confident in
social interactions, experience fewer health-related disruptions, and are better able to focus on
their studies. WHO (2019) emphasized that hygiene practice is a key determinant of student
wellbeing and academic success.
2.2.4 Factors Affecting Personal Hygiene
Several interrelated factors influence the knowledge and practice of personal hygiene among
girls in hostel settings. These factors determine whether hygiene knowledge is effectively
translated into daily practice and include socio-demographic, environmental, institutional,
cultural, and social influences (Glanz et al., 2018; WHO, 2022).
a. Socio-demographic Factors
Socio-demographic factors such as age, level of education, family income, parental occupation,
and cultural background significantly influence hygiene behavior. Students from low
socioeconomic backgrounds may struggle to afford basic hygiene materials such as soap,
detergents, toothpaste, and sanitary pads, thereby limiting their ability to practice good hygiene
despite adequate knowledge (Ezeh et al., 2022; Babalola & Fatusi, 2019).
b. Environmental Factors
Environmental factors play a crucial role in determining hygiene practices in hostel settings.
Availability of clean and regular water supply, functional toilets, bathrooms, drainage systems,
and waste disposal facilities directly affects students’ ability to maintain personal hygiene. Poor
hostel infrastructure, water scarcity, and unsanitary conditions discourage hygienic behavior and
increase the risk of disease transmission (UNICEF & WHO, 2019; Mohammed et al., 2024).
c. Institutional Factors
Institutional factors such as school policies, hygiene regulations, health education programs,
supervision by hostel wardens, and maintenance of facilities influence students’ hygiene
practices. Institutions that prioritize hygiene through regular inspections, health talks, and
provision of facilities tend to have better hygiene outcomes among students (Federal Ministry of
Education, 2020; Onyeka et al., 2021).
d. Cultural and Social Factors
Cultural norms, religious beliefs, peer influence, and societal attitudes significantly affect
hygiene behavior. Cultural misconceptions surrounding menstruation, body odor, and cleanliness
can discourage open discussion and adoption of safe hygiene practices. Peer behavior in hostels
also plays a strong role, as students often imitate the hygiene habits of their friends and
roommates (Sommer et al., 2017; UNICEF, 2020).
2.2.5 Effects of Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene has a direct and significant impact on the physical, psychological, social, and
academic wellbeing of individuals, particularly students living in communal environments such
as hostels. The effects of personal hygiene can be broadly categorized into the consequences of
poor personal hygiene and the benefits of good personal hygiene, both of which are well
documented in public health literature.
Effects of Poor Personal Hygiene
Poor personal hygiene exposes individuals to a wide range of preventable health problems.
Inadequate handwashing, irregular bathing, poor oral hygiene, and improper menstrual hygiene
practices increase the risk of infectious diseases such as skin infections, diarrhea, cholera,
typhoid fever, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and reproductive tract
infections (Haque et al., 2018; WHO, 2020). In hostel settings where facilities are shared, poor
hygiene practices can lead to rapid spread of communicable diseases, thereby affecting a large
number of students within a short period.
Among female students, poor menstrual hygiene management can result in genital infections,
pelvic inflammatory disease, unpleasant odor, discomfort, and increased vulnerability to
reproductive health complications. Studies in Nigerian institutions have shown that lack of
access to sanitary materials and inadequate privacy in hostels contribute significantly to poor
menstrual hygiene practices and associated health problems (Ezenwaji et al., 2020; UNICEF,
2021).
Poor personal hygiene also has negative implications for mental and emotional wellbeing.
Students who experience recurrent illness or hygiene-related conditions may suffer from stress,
embarrassment, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Social stigma associated with body odor, dirty
appearance, or poor oral hygiene can lead to social isolation, bullying, and reduced participation
in social activities within the hostel environment (Olowokere & Olajide, 2019; Yakubu et al.,
2022).
Academically, poor personal hygiene contributes to frequent illness, absenteeism from classes,
poor concentration, and reduced academic performance. Repeated episodes of illness may cause
students to miss lectures, tests, and practical sessions, thereby negatively affecting their
academic outcomes. Research has demonstrated a strong association between poor health status
due to hygiene-related illnesses and declining academic productivity among students (WHO,
2019; Mohammed & Sadiq, 2023).
Effects of Good Personal Hygiene
Good personal hygiene plays a vital role in promoting overall health and preventing the spread of
infectious diseases. Regular handwashing with soap, proper bathing, clean clothing, good oral
hygiene, and safe menstrual hygiene practices significantly reduce the incidence of
communicable diseases and improve physical wellbeing among students (WHO, 2019; Glanz et
al., 2018). In hostel environments, good hygiene practices contribute to a healthier living space
and reduce disease transmission among residents.
Beyond physical health, good personal hygiene enhances mental and psychological wellbeing.
Students who maintain good hygiene are more confident, comfortable, and emotionally stable.
Cleanliness promotes a sense of self-worth and dignity, especially among female students, and
reduces anxiety related to body image and social acceptance (UNICEF, 2020; Bandura, 2019).
Good hygiene practices also support positive social relationships. Students who are clean and
well-groomed are more likely to interact freely with peers, participate in group activities, and
build healthy interpersonal relationships. Social acceptance and peer integration are essential for
emotional development and overall wellbeing in communal living settings such as hostels
(Olowokere & Olajide, 2019).
Academically, students who practice good personal hygiene experience fewer illnesses, better
concentration, and improved school attendance. This leads to enhanced academic performance,
higher productivity, and better learning outcomes. Studies have shown that healthy students are
more likely to perform well academically and actively engage in educational activities (WHO,
2019; Amoo et al., 2021).
2.2.6 Remedies and Strategies for Improving Personal Hygiene
Improving personal hygiene among hostel residents requires a multifaceted approach that
combines individual responsibility, institutional support, environmental improvements, and
behavioral change strategies. Effective hygiene promotion programs must address both
knowledge and the enabling factors that support the practice of good hygiene.
One of the most effective strategies is regular health education and hygiene promotion
programs. Health talks, seminars, workshops, and orientation programs for new hostel residents
help to improve awareness of personal hygiene practices, disease prevention, and the
consequences of poor hygiene. Continuous education reinforces positive behavior and
encourages long-term adherence to hygiene practices (WHO, 2021; Glanz et al., 2018).
The provision of adequate water supply and sanitation facilities is fundamental to improving
hygiene practices. Access to clean and regular water supply, functional toilets, bathrooms, and
waste disposal systems enables students to practice proper hygiene. Studies have consistently
shown that improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities significantly enhance
hygiene behavior in institutional settings (UNICEF, 2020; Mohammed et al., 2024).
Ensuring the availability and affordability of hygiene materials such as soap, detergents,
toothpaste, sanitary pads, disinfectants, and hand sanitizers is another crucial strategy.
Institutional support in the form of subsidized or free hygiene materials, especially for female
students, has been shown to improve hygiene practices and menstrual hygiene management in
hostels (UNICEF, 2021; Ezenwaji et al., 2020).
The enforcement of hostel cleanliness rules and regulations also plays a vital role in
promoting hygiene. Clear policies on room cleanliness, waste disposal, use of bathrooms, and
personal grooming, supported by regular inspections, encourage compliance with hygiene
standards. Hostel authorities and wardens should ensure that rules are consistently enforced to
maintain a clean and healthy living environment (Yakubu et al., 2022).
Peer education and student health clubs are effective behavior change strategies, particularly
among young people. Peer educators can influence attitudes and behaviors by sharing
experiences, providing support, and serving as role models for good hygiene practices. Student-
led hygiene clubs also promote ownership and sustainability of hygiene initiatives within hostels
(Onyeka et al., 2021).
Continuous monitoring and supervision by hostel authorities are essential for sustaining
hygiene improvements. Regular supervision helps to identify challenges, address facility
breakdowns, and ensure adherence to hygiene standards. Monitoring also provides opportunities
for feedback and improvement of hygiene programs (WHO, 2022).
Additional strategies include improving hostel infrastructure, reducing overcrowding, ensuring
adequate ventilation, and providing sufficient privacy for personal and menstrual hygiene
practices. Incorporating hygiene-friendly designs into hostel planning enhances comfort and
promotes better hygiene behavior among residents (UNICEF, 2020).
Furthermore, behavior change communication (BCC) strategies such as posters, reminders,
drama, and digital messages can reinforce hygiene messages and serve as cues to action. Visual
and interactive communication methods have been found to significantly improve hygiene
compliance among students (Glanz et al., 2018; WHO, 2021).
According to UNICEF (2020), integrated hygiene promotion programs that combine
education, facility provision, policy enforcement, and community participation significantly
improve hygiene knowledge and behavior among young people. Therefore, a comprehensive and
sustained approach is essential for achieving lasting improvements in personal hygiene among
hostel residents.
2.2.7 Conceptual Model of the Study
The conceptual model of this study explains the relationship between knowledge of personal
hygiene and the practice of personal hygiene among girls residing in hostels. In this model,
knowledge of personal hygiene is regarded as the independent variable, while practice of
personal hygiene is the dependent variable. The model assumes that increased knowledge
positively influences hygiene practices; however, this relationship is not always direct. Several
intervening variables, including socio-demographic, environmental, cultural, and institutional
factors, play a critical role in determining whether knowledge is translated into actual hygienic
behavior (Glanz et al., 2018; WHO, 2020).
Knowledge of personal hygiene refers to the level of awareness and understanding that hostel
residents have about cleanliness, disease prevention, and healthy living. This includes knowledge
of handwashing techniques, regular bathing, oral hygiene, menstrual hygiene management,
laundry practices, safe disposal of waste, and proper use of sanitation facilities. Studies have
shown that students who possess adequate hygiene knowledge are more likely to recognize the
health risks associated with poor hygiene and understand the benefits of maintaining cleanliness
to prevent infections and communicable diseases (UNICEF, 2021; Amoo et al., 2021).
Despite adequate knowledge, the practice of personal hygiene depends on several enabling
conditions. The practice of personal hygiene, which is the dependent variable, refers to the
actual daily hygiene behaviors exhibited by hostel residents. These behaviors include consistent
handwashing with soap, proper bathing, clean clothing, safe menstrual hygiene practices, nail
trimming, and regular cleaning of personal spaces. Good hygiene practices are essential for
preventing diseases such as diarrhea, skin infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract
infections, and reproductive health problems, especially among adolescent and young adult
females living in shared hostel environments (Olowokere & Olajide, 2019; WHO, 2022).
Socio-demographic factors serve as important intervening variables in the conceptual model.
These include age, educational level, year of study, religion, family background, and socio-
economic status. Students from educated families or higher socio-economic backgrounds often
have better exposure to health information and access to hygiene materials, which enhances the
application of hygiene knowledge. Conversely, students from low-income households may
struggle to practice good hygiene due to financial constraints, even when they understand its
importance (Babalola & Fatusi, 2019; Umar et al., 2022).
The environmental factors highlighted in the conceptual model include water availability,
sanitation facilities, waste disposal systems, hostel cleanliness, and level of overcrowding.
Adequate water supply and functional sanitation facilities are fundamental requirements for
practicing good personal hygiene. Research in Nigerian tertiary institutions has shown that
irregular water supply, insufficient bathrooms, and poor waste management significantly hinder
hygiene practices among hostel residents, regardless of their level of knowledge (Adebayo et al.,
2019; Mohammed & Sadiq, 2023).
Cultural factors also influence how hygiene knowledge is translated into practice. Cultural
beliefs and norms related to cleanliness, menstruation, privacy, and use of shared facilities can
affect personal hygiene behavior among girls in hostels. In some cultures, menstruation is treated
as a taboo subject, limiting open discussion and access to accurate information on menstrual
hygiene management. These cultural barriers may discourage proper hygiene practices, even
among students who are knowledgeable (UNICEF, 2020; Ezenwaji et al., 2020).
The institutional factors included in the conceptual model involve school policies, hostel
regulations, availability of health education programs, supervision by hostel wardens, and access
to school health services. Institutions that promote hygiene education, enforce sanitation rules,
provide adequate facilities, and conduct regular inspections create an enabling environment that
supports good hygiene practices. Studies have demonstrated that strong institutional support
significantly improves hygiene behavior among female students in colleges and health
institutions (Onyeka et al., 2021; Yakubu et al., 2022).
Another key component of the conceptual model is the role of health education and awareness
programs as mediating mechanisms between knowledge and practice. Health talks, orientation
programs, peer education, and visual cues such as posters serve as reminders and reinforcements
that encourage students to apply their hygiene knowledge. Continuous exposure to hygiene
education has been found to strengthen positive behavior and improve compliance with hygiene
standards in hostel settings (Glanz et al., 2018; WHO, 2021).
The conceptual model further recognizes that availability of hygiene materials such as soap,
sanitary pads, clean water, detergents, and disinfectants influences hygiene practices. Even with
adequate knowledge, lack of access to essential hygiene materials can prevent students from
practicing good personal hygiene. Studies in low-resource settings have shown that provision of
hygiene materials significantly improves hygiene practices and reduces the prevalence of
hygiene-related diseases among female students (UNICEF, 2021; Mohammed et al., 2024).
Overall, the conceptual model illustrates that knowledge of personal hygiene alone is insufficient
to guarantee good hygiene practices among hostel residents. The interaction between knowledge
and intervening variables determines the level of hygiene practice. When knowledge is supported
by favorable socio-demographic conditions, adequate environmental facilities, positive cultural
norms, and strong institutional support, improved hygiene practices and positive health outcomes
such as reduced disease incidence, improved wellbeing, and enhanced academic performance are
achieved among girls in hostel settings (WHO, 2022; Glanz et al., 2018).
2.3 Theoretical Framework
2.3.1 Health Belief Model (HBM)
The Health Belief Model (HBM), developed by Rosenstock, provides the theoretical basis for
this study. The model explains health behavior based on individuals’ perceptions of health risks
and the benefits of preventive actions. It is widely applied in public health research to understand
why individuals adopt or fail to adopt healthy practices, including personal hygiene behaviors.
The components of the HBM include perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived
benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy (Glanz et al., 2018). In the context
of this study, girls’ hygiene practices are influenced by their perception of disease risk,
seriousness of hygiene-related illnesses, benefits of good hygiene, and barriers such as lack of
facilities within the hostel.
Perceived susceptibility refers to an individual’s belief about the likelihood of developing a
health problem. Among female students in hostels, the belief that poor personal hygiene can lead
to infections such as urinary tract infections, skin diseases, diarrhea, and menstrual-related
infections may influence their hygiene behavior. Studies have shown that adolescents who
perceive themselves as vulnerable to hygiene-related illnesses are more likely to practice regular
handwashing, proper bathing, and menstrual hygiene management (WHO, 2020; Amoo et al.,
2021).
Perceived severity involves an individual’s belief about the seriousness of a health condition
and its potential consequences. When girls understand that poor hygiene can result in serious
health outcomes such as absenteeism from school, chronic infections, reproductive health
complications, and social stigma, they may be more motivated to maintain good hygiene
practices. Research in Nigerian tertiary institutions has indicated that awareness of severe health
consequences significantly improves hygiene compliance among female students (Olowokere &
Olajide, 2019; Umar et al., 2022).
Perceived benefits relate to an individual’s belief in the effectiveness of adopting a health
behavior to reduce disease risk. In hostel environments, students who recognize that proper
hygiene promotes good health, comfort, confidence, and social acceptance are more likely to
engage in positive hygiene practices. Evidence suggests that perceived benefits such as reduced
illness, improved academic performance, and enhanced self-esteem encourage consistent
hygiene behavior among adolescent girls (UNICEF, 2021; Ezenwaji et al., 2020).
Perceived barriers are factors that hinder the adoption of healthy behaviors. Common barriers
to good personal hygiene among hostel residents include inadequate water supply, overcrowded
bathrooms, lack of privacy, insufficient sanitation facilities, and financial constraints for
purchasing hygiene materials. These barriers can discourage even knowledgeable students from
practicing proper hygiene, emphasizing the importance of improving environmental and
institutional support systems (Adebayo et al., 2019; Mohammed & Sadiq, 2023).
Cues to action are triggers that motivate individuals to engage in health-promoting behaviors.
For girls in hostels, cues to action may include health education programs, posters on hygiene
practices, peer influence, guidance from school health officers, or personal experiences with
illness. Regular health talks and awareness campaigns have been found to significantly improve
hygiene practices among female students in Nigerian colleges of health sciences (Onyeka et al.,
2021).
Self-efficacy, a later addition to the HBM, refers to an individual’s confidence in their ability to
perform a health behavior successfully. Girls who believe they can maintain personal hygiene
despite challenges such as limited time or shared facilities are more likely to sustain healthy
practices. Studies indicate that strengthening self-efficacy through education, skills training, and
supportive hostel policies improves personal hygiene behavior among adolescent and young
adult females (Bandura, 2019; Yakubu et al., 2022).
2.4 Empirical Studies
Several empirical studies have examined the knowledge and practice of personal hygiene among
students in Nigeria, highlighting varying levels of awareness, practice, and influencing factors.
A study conducted by Adewale and Adebayo (2016) among female secondary school students in
Oyo State assessed knowledge and practice of personal hygiene. The findings revealed that
although most respondents had good theoretical knowledge of hygiene, only a moderate
proportion practiced proper hygiene consistently. The study attributed poor practice to
inadequate water supply and lack of hygiene materials.
In a cross-sectional study in Lagos State, Olawale et al. (2017) investigated personal hygiene
practices among hostel-resident students in tertiary institutions. The study found that
overcrowding, shared bathrooms, and irregular water supply negatively affected hygiene
practices despite adequate awareness among students.
Sadiq, Ahmed, and Musa (2018) conducted a study in Zaria, Kaduna State, focusing on hygiene
practices among female students in boarding schools. The study reported that menstrual hygiene
management was particularly poor due to lack of privacy, insufficient sanitary materials, and
cultural misconceptions surrounding menstruation.
A study by Ezeh et al. (2019) in Enugu State examined the relationship between hygiene
knowledge and practice among female undergraduates. The findings showed a significant
association between knowledge and practice; however, environmental factors such as sanitation
facilities moderated this relationship.
In northern Nigeria, Ibrahim and Lawal (2019) assessed hygiene behavior among female hostel
residents in a college of education. The results indicated that students with prior health education
demonstrated better hygiene practices than those without such exposure.
Akinwale et al. (2020) carried out a study in Ogun State on hand hygiene practices among
female students living in school hostels. The study revealed that while awareness of
handwashing was high, actual compliance with proper handwashing techniques was low,
especially during peak academic periods.
A study conducted by Yusuf and Bello (2020) in Ilorin assessed personal hygiene practices
among health science students. The study found that students studying health-related courses had
better hygiene knowledge, but their practices were still constrained by poor hostel infrastructure.
Ibrahim and Musa (2020) examined factors influencing personal hygiene practices among hostel
students in Kano State. The study identified water scarcity, poor waste disposal systems, and
lack of supervision as major barriers to effective hygiene practice.
In a study among female undergraduates in Rivers State, Okorie et al. (2021) reported that good
personal hygiene practices were associated with reduced frequency of illness and improved
academic attendance. The study emphasized the role of institutional support in promoting
hygiene behavior.
Adewumi et al. (2021) assessed menstrual hygiene management among female students in
southwestern Nigeria. The findings showed that many students lacked adequate knowledge of
safe menstrual hygiene practices, leading to increased risk of infections and discomfort.
A study by Eze and Okafor (2022) in Anambra State revealed that peer influence significantly
affected hygiene behavior among female students living in hostels. Students were more likely to
adopt hygiene practices common among their peers.
In Kaduna State, Suleiman et al. (2022) studied sanitation and hygiene conditions in tertiary
institution hostels and found that inadequate maintenance of facilities discouraged students from
practicing good hygiene consistently.
Yakubu and Abdullahi (2023) conducted a study among female students in northern Nigeria and
reported that cultural beliefs and religious practices influenced hygiene behavior, particularly
during menstruation.
A recent study by Mohammed et al. (2024) examined the impact of hygiene education programs
on students’ behavior in health science colleges. The findings indicated significant improvement
in hygiene practices following structured health education interventions.
Despite these numerous studies, there remains a lack of focused research on girls residing in
health science college hostels in Zaria LGA, particularly in City College of Health Science and
Technology. This gap justifies the present study, which seeks to provide context-specific
evidence on knowledge and practice of personal hygiene among this population.
2.5 Summary of the Chapter
This chapter reviewed relevant literature on personal hygiene, focusing on knowledge, practice,
influencing factors, effects, and remedies. The conceptual and theoretical frameworks were
discussed, and empirical studies were reviewed to establish existing knowledge and research
gaps. The chapter provided a strong foundation for the methodology and analysis presented in
subsequent chapters.