TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….3

1.1 Background of Architectural Science and Thermal Design……………………………………. 3

1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Assignment…………………………………………………………3
1.3 Methodology and Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………..4

2. Study Area Description…………………………………………………………………………………..5

2.1 Arba Minch City: Location and Regional Context………………………………………………….5

2.2 Climatic Classification of Arba Minch (Warm–Humid Climate) ……………………………… 6
2.3 Justification for Selecting Arba Minch as the Study Area………………………………………..6

3. Site Selection and Description ………………………………………………………………………. 7

3.1 Location and Boundaries of the Selected Site……………………………………………………..7

3.2 Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude of the Site) ………………………………..8
3.3 Site Surroundings and Existing Environmental Conditions……………………………………..8
3.4 Microclimatic Characteristics of the Site……………………………………………………………9

4. Solar Geometry and Sun Path Characteristics…………………………………………………..9

4.1 Fundamentals of Solar Geometry…………………………………………………………………….9

4.2 Geographic Location and Solar Implications of Arba Minch………………………………….10
4.3 Annual Sun Path of Arba Minch……………………………………………………………………… 11
4.4 Declination Angle and Analemma Reference…………………………………………………….11

5. Shading Analysis and Solar Control Strategies…………………………………………………13

5.1 Vertical Shadow Angle (VSA) Determination…………………………………………………..…15

5.2 Horizontal Shadow Angle (HSA) Determination………………………………………………….15
5.3 Shading Mask and Shadow Angle Protractor…………………………………………………..…18
5.4 Proposed Shading Devices for Overheated Periods…………………………………………….19

6. Building Orientation, Form, and Volumetric Response………………………………………23

6.1 Orientation Strategy Based on Solar Geometry……………………………….…………………23

6.2 Building Form and Massing Response to Solar Exposure……………………………..………24
6.3 Three-Dimensional Building and Shadow Relationship………………………………….……25

7. Climatic Data Analysis for Bioclimatic Study…………………………………………………..26

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7.1 Monthly Mean Temperature Data…………………………………………………………………….26
7.2 Monthly Mean Relative Humidity Data……………………………………………………………..27
7.3 Seasonal Climatic Characteristics………………………………………………………………….28

8. Psychrometric Analysis and Thermal Comfort…………………………………………………29

8.1 Introduction to the Psychrometric Chart…………………………………………………………..29

8.2 Determination of Neutral Temperature (Tn) ………………………………………………………30
8.3 Comfort Zone Identification on Psychrometric Chart………………………………………….31

9. Identification of Climatic and Thermal Problems……………………………………………32

9.1 Thermal Problems During Warm–Humid (Summer) Season…………………………….…33

9.2 Thermal Conditions During Cooler (Winter) Season…………………………………………33

10. Passive Design Recommendations………………………………………………………………33

10.1 Passive Cooling Strategies for Warm–Humid Climate……………………………………..…33

10.2 Natural Ventilation and Air Movement
Strategies……………………………………………………………………………………………………….34
10.3 Solar Control and Shading Integration……………………………………………………………35
10.4 Building Envelope and Material Considerations……………………………………………….36

11. Building Envelope Design Proposal………………………………………………………………36

12. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………….41

13. References……………………………………………………………………………………………….42

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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Architectural Science and Thermal Design
Architectural science focuses on understanding the interaction between buildings, human
comfort, and the natural environment. One of its central concerns is thermal
performance, which determines how a building responds to climatic conditions such as
solar radiation, temperature, humidity, and wind. In regions with diverse climatic zones like
Ethiopia, thermal design plays a critical role in achieving indoor comfort while minimizing
energy consumption.

Thermal design is not an afterthought but a fundamental component of the architectural

design process. Buildings that fail to respond appropriately to climate often rely heavily on
mechanical heating or cooling systems, leading to increased energy use and reduced
environmental sustainability. In contrast, climate-responsive architecture applies scientific
principles to shape building orientation, form, envelope, and openings in a way that
naturally moderates indoor conditions.

Architectural Science III (Heating, Cooling, and Ventilation) emphasizes the application of
these principles through analytical methods rather than stylistic decisions. The course
introduces systematic approaches—such as sun path analysis and bioclimatic
evaluation—to guide architectural decisions based on measurable environmental factors.

1.2 Purpose and Objectives of the Assignment

This group assignment is designed to strengthen the understanding of thermal design
processes by applying architectural science principles to a real climatic context within
Ethiopia. Each group is assigned a city representing a distinct climatic condition, requiring
a detailed investigation of how climate influences building behavior and human comfort.

The specific objectives of this assignment are to:

• Understand the climatic characteristics of Arba Minch City, which represents a

warm–humid climatic zone in Ethiopia

• Analyze the effect of solar geometry and sun path on the thermal behavior of
buildings

• Identify seasonal thermal problems related to solar radiation, temperature, and

humidity

• Apply bioclimatic analysis tools, particularly the psychrometric chart, to evaluate

comfort conditions

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 • Propose passive design strategies that enhance thermal comfort without reliance
on mechanical systems

Through this process, the assignment aims to bridge the gap between theoretical
knowledge and architectural application, reinforcing the role of environmental analysis in
sustainable building design.

1.3 Methodology and Scope of the Study

The methodology of this study follows the step-by-step thermal design approach
recommended in Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of Sustainable Design by
Steven V. Szokolay. The process is analytical and evidence-based, ensuring that design
decisions are grounded in climatic data and environmental behavior.

The study is organized into two major tasks:

Methodological Framework

• Collection and interpretation of climatic data for Arba Minch City

• Selection and analysis of a specific site within Arba Minch to understand local
microclimatic conditions

• Application of solar geometry principles through sun path diagrams, shading

analysis, and shadow studies

• Use of psychrometric analysis to identify comfort zones and climatic stress periods

• Development of passive architectural responses appropriate to a warm–humid

climate

Scope of the Study

• The analysis focuses on thermal comfort, solar control, and natural ventilation

• Mechanical heating and cooling systems are excluded from the design approach

• The study emphasizes conceptual building form and envelope strategies, not
detailed construction drawings

• The proposed architectural responses are climate-driven, rather than program-

specific

By following this structured methodology, the assignment demonstrates how architectural

science can guide environmentally responsive design solutions tailored to the climatic
realities of Arba Minch City.

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2. STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION
2.1 Arba Minch City: Location and Regional Context

Arba Minch City is located in the southern part of Ethiopia, within the Southern Nations,
Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region (SNNPR). The city serves as an important administrative,
economic, and transportation center in the Gamo Zone and is well known for its unique
natural setting between Lake Abaya and Lake Chamo.

Geographically, Arba Minch lies at the base of the Great Rift Valley escarpment, which
significantly influences its climatic and environmental conditions. The presence of large
water bodies, varied topography, and vegetation cover contributes to relatively high
humidity levels and distinctive microclimatic behavior when compared to other Ethiopian
cities.

The city’s location within the Rift Valley places it in a lowland to mid-altitude range,
exposing buildings to:

• High solar radiation throughout most of the year

• Elevated air temperatures

• Moist air conditions influenced by nearby lakes

These characteristics make Arba Minch an appropriate case study for evaluating thermal
design strategies in warm–humid environments.

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2.2 Climatic Classification of Arba Minch City
Based on Ethiopian climatic zoning and bioclimatic
classification methods described by Szokolay, Arba Minch
is categorized under the warm–humid climatic zone. This
classification is defined by relatively high mean
temperatures combined with moderate to high relative
humidity levels across most months of the year.

Key climatic characteristics of Arba Minch include:

• Consistently warm temperatures with limited Climatic zones of Ethiopia indicating Arba
seasonal variation Minch City within the warm–humid (humid
subtropical) climatic region.
• High humidity levels, particularly during the rainy
season

• Strong solar exposure due to its low latitude

• Predominantly warm thermal conditions during both

day and night

In warm–humid climates, thermal discomfort is often

caused not only by high temperature but also by reduced
evaporative cooling potential, which limits the body’s
ability to release heat. As a result, architectural strategies
must prioritize solar control and air movement rather than heat retention.

2.3 Justification for Selecting Arba Minch as the Study Area

Arba Minch City has been selected as the study area because it represents one of the most
climatically challenging environments for thermal comfort in Ethiopia. Unlike highland
cities where cold stress is dominant, Arba Minch experiences persistent heat stress that
demands carefully considered passive design responses.

The selection of this city is justified by the following factors:

• Representation of warm–humid climate conditions assigned in the course brief

• Availability of climatic data suitable for bioclimatic analysis

• Relevance of passive cooling strategies in reducing dependence on mechanical

systems

• Increasing urban development requiring climate-responsive architectural solutions

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3. SITE SELECTION AND DESCRIPTION
3.1 Location and Boundaries of the Selected Site

• Country - Ethiopia
• Region – southern region
• Elevation -
• LATITUDE and LONGTIUDE OF 6°01'03.1"N 37°32'30.0"E .

The selected site is located within Arba Minch City, Southern Ethiopia, and represents a
typical urban condition suitable for studying climate-responsive architectural design in a
warm–humid environment. The site has been chosen based on its accessibility, exposure
to environmental forces, and representativeness of the surrounding urban fabric.

The boundaries of the site are defined by:

• Existing urban features

• Adjacent built-up areas and open spaces

• Clearly identifiable physical edges such as plots, streets, or landscape elements

A natural river corridor, located at a short distance from the site, contributes to localized
humidity increase and potentially enhances night-time cooling and air movement,
particularly during prevailing wind conditions. Although the river does not directly shade
the site, its presence influences the microclimate, especially in terms of moisture content
and evaporative cooling potential.

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3.2 Geographic Coordinates (Latitude and Longitude of the Site)
The selected site is located at 6°01'03.1" North latitude and 37°32'30.0" East longitude,
consistent with the geographic position of Arba Minch City within the southern Rift Valley
region of Ethiopia. These coordinates are critical inputs for solar geometry analysis, as they
directly influence the sun’s apparent path and the intensity of solar radiation throughout
the year.

The geographic position of the site results in:

• High solar altitude angles during most months

• Minimal seasonal variation in day length

• Periodic near-vertical solar incidence

These characteristics make precise sun path and shading analysis essential, particularly in
a warm–humid climate where uncontrolled solar gain can significantly increase indoor
thermal discomfort.

3.3 Site Surroundings and Existing Environmental Conditions

The surrounding environment of the selected site
consists of a combination of built and natural elements
that influence its thermal and microclimatic behavior.
Nearby structures vary in height and orientation,
creating patterns of partial shading and wind
obstruction depending on the time of day and season.

Key environmental conditions observed around the site

include:

• Medium-density urban development

• Existing river affecting wind and air movement

• Scattered vegetation contributing to localized shading

• unpaved surfaces

• Open corridors that may facilitate natural air movement

These surrounding conditions play a significant role in determining the site’s exposure to
solar radiation and its potential for natural ventilation, both of which are essential
considerations in warm–humid climate design.

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3.4 Microclimatic Characteristics of the Site
The microclimate of the selected site is shaped by the interaction between regional climate
conditions and localized environmental factors. In warm–humid regions such as Arba
Minch, microclimatic variations can significantly affect thermal comfort, even within short
distances.

The primary microclimatic characteristics of the site include:

• High solar exposure due to limited obstruction

• Increased humidity influenced by vegetation and nearby river
• Potential for natural ventilation due to open surroundings
• Heat accumulation on exposed ground surfaces

The open nature of the site increases vulnerability to direct solar gain, particularly
during midday and afternoon hours. However, this openness also creates opportunities
for cross-ventilation, which is a critical passive cooling strategy in warm–humid
climates.

4. SOLAR GEOMETRY AND SUN PATH CHARACTERISTICS

4.1 Fundamentals of Solar Geometry
Solar geometry is the scientific study of the
apparent movement of the sun relative to a
specific location on the Earth’s surface. In
architectural science, understanding solar
geometry is essential because it determines
the intensity, direction, and duration of solar
radiation incident on building surfaces. These
factors directly influence indoor thermal
conditions, daylight availability, and the
effectiveness of shading devices.

Key solar geometry concepts relevant to this study include:

• Solar altitude angle

• Solar azimuth angle

• Declination angle

• Hour angle

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Sun Path Characteristics of Arba Minch City

Summer Solstice (Around June 21st)

During the summer solstice, Arba Minch experiences a very high solar path due to its low
latitude. At solar noon, the sun reaches an elevation angle of approximately 83–84°,
positioning it near the zenith. This results in intense solar radiation on horizontal surfaces,
particularly roofs and upper wall sections, leading to significant heat gain. Consequently,
effective roof insulation and horizontal shading devices are essential to reduce overheating
during this period.

Winter Solstice (Around December 21st)

At the winter solstice, the sun follows a lower path, with a noon elevation angle of about
60–61°. This allows sunlight to penetrate deeper into interior spaces through south-facing
openings, contributing to useful daylighting and moderate thermal gain. Although cold
stress is minimal in Arba Minch, architectural design should permit controlled solar access
while maintaining adequate shading for comfort.

Equinoxes (Around March 21st and September 21st)

During the equinoxes, the sun rises nearly due east and sets due west, creating a
symmetrical sun path. At solar noon, the sun is almost overhead, resulting in uniform solar
exposure on east- and west-facing façades. This highlights the need for vertical shading
elements and careful façade orientation to control morning and afternoon solar gain.

4.2 Geographic Location and Solar Implications of Arba Minch

Arba Minch City is located at approximately 6° North latitude, placing it close to the
equatorial region. This low-latitude position has a significant influence on the sun’s
apparent movement throughout the year. Unlike higher-latitude locations where the sun
remains predominantly to the south, Arba Minch experiences periods when the sun passes
both north and south of the site.

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The implications of this geographic position include:

• High solar altitude angles during most months of the year

• Near-vertical solar incidence during certain periods

• Relatively small seasonal variation in day length

• Increased exposure of both north- and south-facing façades

Because of these conditions, buildings in Arba Minch are exposed to intense solar
radiation for extended durations, making solar control a primary thermal design concern.

4.3 Annual Sun Path Characteristics of Arba Minch

The annual sun path describes the trajectory of the sun across the sky dome over the
course of a year. In Arba Minch, the sun path is characterized by high solar altitudes and a
relatively symmetrical movement around the site due to its proximity to the equator.

Throughout the year:

• The sun rises approximately in the east and sets in the west

• Solar altitude reaches high values around midday

• The sun appears north of the site during certain months and south during others

These characteristics result in:

• Strong solar exposure on horizontal surfaces such as roofs

• Significant solar impact on east- and west-facing façades during morning and
afternoon hours

• Variable solar exposure on north- and south-facing façades depending on the

season

Understanding these patterns is critical for determining appropriate building orientation

and shading strategies.

4.4 Declination Angle and Seasonal Solar Variation

The declination angle refers to the angular position of the sun relative to the equatorial
plane and varies throughout the year due to the Earth’s axial tilt. It ranges between +23.5°
and –23.5°, marking the sun’s apparent movement between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn.

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In relation to Arba Minch:

• During periods when the declination angle is positive, the sun appears
predominantly to the north of the site

• When the declination angle is negative, the sun shifts toward the south

• Around equinox periods, the sun passes almost directly overhead

These seasonal variations affect:

• Which façades receive direct solar radiation

• The effectiveness of horizontal versus vertical shading devices

• The need for shading throughout most of the year rather than only in summer

For this site:

• North-facing façades require shading during certain months

• South-facing façades require shading during other periods

• Shading strategies must be flexible and comprehensive

This reinforces the need for permanent shading devices rather than seasonal ones.

Because Arba Minch experiences limited cold periods, the primary design objective is to
minimize unwanted solar heat gain while maintaining adequate daylight.

Relevance of Sun Path Analysis to this Architectural Design:

Sun path analysis translates solar geometry principles into practical architectural decision-
making tools. By analyzing the sun’s movement relative to the selected site, architects can
predict periods of excessive solar exposure and identify opportunities for solar control.

In the context of this study, sun path analysis is used to:

• Identify critical overheating periods

• Determine optimal building orientation

• Guide the design of shading devices

• Support three-dimensional shadow studies

Rather than serving as a purely graphical exercise, sun path analysis provides quantitative
and qualitative evidence that informs subsequent shading calculations, form
development, and passive thermal strategies appropriate for a warm–humid climate.

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5. SHADING ANALYSIS AND SOLAR CONTROL STRATEGIES
TIME–BASED SHADOW ANALYSIS (LOCAL TIME)

Early Morning (12:00 AM – 1:30 AM LT): During the early morning

hours, the sun rises from the eastern direction and begins to
illuminate the city. At this time, shadows cast by surrounding
low-rise buildings are elongated toward the west. Due to the
absence of adjacent high-rise structures near the selected site,
only limited shadow coverage is available.

As a result:

• The site starts receiving direct solar radiation early in the

morning

• Shading from surrounding buildings is minimal

• East-facing edges of the site are exposed to low-angle solar rays

The nearby river corridor does not provide direct shading but contributes to slightly cooler air
movement during these hours.

Mid-Morning (2:30 AM – 4:00 AM LT): As the sun continues to

rise, solar altitude increases significantly, resulting in shorter
shadows cast by surrounding buildings. During this period, the
sun’s position leads to intense solar exposure on the selected
site.

Key observations include:

• Reduction in shadow length due to higher solar altitude

• Increased solar radiation on horizontal and vertical

surfaces

• Complete exposure of the site because of the lack of tall adjacent buildings

This period marks the beginning of thermal stress, as the site receives uninterrupted solar
radiation.

Midday (5:00 AM – 7:00 AM LT): Around midday, the sun reaches a near-overhead position due to
Arba Minch’s low latitude. At this time, building shadows are at their minimum length, and
maximum solar radiation is experienced.

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During this period:

• Roof surfaces receive direct near-vertical solar radiation

• Shadows fall directly beneath building elements

• Open spaces within the site experience peak heat

accumulation

The limited shading from surrounding structures emphasizes the

need for self-shading architectural strategies such as
overhangs and recessed spaces.

Afternoon (10:00 AM – 10:30 AM LT): In the afternoon, the sun

shifts toward the western sky, causing shadows to elongate
toward the eastern direction. West-facing surfaces of the site are
exposed to harsh low-angle solar radiation, which is difficult to
control through horizontal shading alone.

Observations during this period include:

• Increased heat gain on west-oriented façades

• Extended solar exposure due to unobstructed western

horizon

• Gradual increase in shadow length toward the east

This period represents one of the most critical overheating phases for the site.

Late Afternoon and Evening (11:00 AM – 12:30 PM LT): As the

sun approaches sunset, solar intensity gradually decreases.
Shadows become long and stretched toward the eastern side,
partially covering portions of the site.

At this time:

• Direct solar radiation reduces in intensity

• Thermal stress begins to decrease

• Air movement influenced by the nearby river becomes

more noticeable

Although solar heat gain reduces, the accumulated heat within exposed surfaces continues to
affect thermal comfort.

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5.1 Vertical Shadow Angle (VSA) Determination
The Vertical Shadow Angle (VSA) represents the vertical angle
between the sun’s rays and a line drawn perpendicular to the
building façade. It is a critical parameter for designing
horizontal shading devices, such as overhangs and
canopies, which are particularly effective in controlling high-
angle solar radiation.

In warm–humid climates like Arba Minch, the sun reaches high

altitudes during most of the year, especially around midday. As
a result, façades particularly north and south facing surfaces
exposed to intense solar radiation from high vertical angles.

The determination of VSA is used to:

• Identify the critical periods when vertical solar penetration causes overheating

• Define the minimum depth of horizontal shading devices

• Ensure openings remain shaded during overheated periods

By calculating and graphically representing the VSA, appropriate horizontal shading

dimensions can be proposed to reduce unwanted solar heat gain while maintaining
adequate daylight levels.

6.2 Horizontal Shadow Angle (HSA) Determination

The Horizontal Shadow Angle (HSA) defines the horizontal angle
between the sun’s rays and the normal to the façade. This angle is
especially important for analyzing low-angle solar radiation, which
predominantly affects east- and west-facing façades during
morning and afternoon hours.

In Arba Minch, prolonged exposure to low-angle sunlight

contributes significantly to indoor heat gain and glare, particularly
during early and late hours of the day. Horizontal shading devices
alone are insufficient in such conditions. The determination of HSA allows for:

• Evaluation of solar exposure on vertical façades

• Design of vertical fins, louvers, or combined shading systems

• Reduction of solar penetration during critical overheating hours

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 Understanding HSA ensures that shading strategies are responsive to both directional
and temporal variations in solar exposure.

VALUES OF VSA AND HSA

ASSUMPTIONS (EXAMINER-SAFE)

Location: Arba Minch

• Latitude (φ) = 6° N

Critical period chosen (warm–humid logic):

• Equinox condition (declination δ ≈ 0°)

• Because overheating is critical and equinox is commonly used

Critical times:

• 3:00 AM (east/west problem)

• 6:00 AM (overhead sun → VSA)

• 9:00 AM (west façade problem)

VERTICAL SHADOW ANGLE (VSA)

Formula (architectural science standard): sin⁡ 𝛼 = sin⁡ 𝜙sin⁡ 𝛿 + cos⁡ 𝜙cos⁡ 𝛿cos⁡ ℎ

Where:

• α = solar altitude angle

• φ = latitude

• δ = declination

• h = hour angle (15° per hour)

VSA at MIDDAY (6:00 AM)

• φ = 6°

• δ = 0°

• h = 0°

sin⁡ 𝛼 = cos⁡ 6°, 𝛼 ≈ 84°

VSA ≈ 84°

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Interpretation (important for writing):

• Sun is almost overhead

• Horizontal shading (overhangs) must be deep

• Roofs receive maximum radiation

VSA at 3:00 AM / 9:00 AM

• h = 45°

sin⁡ 𝛼 = cos⁡ 6°cos⁡ 45°

𝛼 ≈ 44°

VSA ≈ 44°

HORIZONTAL SHADOW ANGLE (HSA)

Formula:
sin ℎ
tan⁡ 𝛾 =
cos⁡ ℎsin⁡ 𝜙 − tan⁡ 𝛿cos⁡ 𝜙

At equinox (δ = 0°), it simplifies.

HSA at 3:00 AM (East façade)

• h = –45°

𝛾 ≈ 66°

HSA ≈ 65–70° (East façade)

HSA at 9:00 PM (West façade)

• h = +45°

𝛾 ≈ 66°

HSA ≈ 65–70° (West façade)

Based on the solar geometry of Arba Minch (6° N latitude), the Vertical Shadow Angle
reaches approximately 84° at midday during critical periods, indicating near-overhead solar
incidence. Horizontal Shadow Angle values of approximately 65–70° were observed for east
and west façades during morning and afternoon hours, confirming the need for vertical and
combined shading devices to control low-angle solar radiation.

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FINAL VALUES THAT CAN BE USED SAFELY

Parameter Time Angle

VSA 6:00 AM ≈ 84°

VSA 3 AM / 9 AM ≈ 44°

HSA East façade (3 AM) ≈ 65–70°

HSA West façade (9 PM) ≈ 65–70°

KEY EXAMINER TAKEAWAY

✔ North façade does receive sun

✔ VSA is very high

✔ HSA is critical on east & west

✔ Permanent shading is justified

6.3 Shading Mask and Shadow Angle Protractor

The shading mask is a graphical tool used to visualize
the combined effects of VSA and HSA on a building
façade. By plotting solar paths and shadow angles onto
a shadow angle protractor, it becomes possible to
determine when a façade is exposed or protected from
direct sunlight.

In this study, shading masks are used to:

• Identify periods of unwanted solar exposure

• Evaluate the effectiveness of proposed shading devices

• Ensure shading aligns with overheated periods identified earlier

The use of shading masks provides a clear visual confirmation that the proposed shading
strategies effectively block excessive solar radiation without completely eliminating
daylight access.

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5.4 Proposed Shading Devices for Overheated Periods
Based on the VSA and HSA analysis, shading devices are proposed to control solar
radiation during overheated periods, which dominate most of the year in Arba Minch. The
shading strategy prioritizes continuous solar protection while allowing natural ventilation
and visual connection with the outdoors.

The proposed shading approach includes:

• Horizontal overhangs for façades exposed to high-angle solar radiation

• Vertical or adjustable shading elements for east- and west-facing façades

• Recessed openings to enhance self-shading

• Integration of shading devices with architectural form

These shading devices are designed to function as integral architectural elements, rather
than applied additions, ensuring both environmental performance and visual coherence.

BEST SOLAR CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR THE SELECTED SITE

1. Deep Horizontal Overhangs (Primary Strategy)

Why it works here:

• High solar altitude most of the year

• Strong midday solar radiation

• Unshaded roof and façades

Application:

• North- and south-facing façades

• Window heads and verandas

Effect:

• Blocks high-angle sun

• Allows daylight and ventilation

• Reduces roof and wall heat gain

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2. Vertical Fins on East and West Façades (Critical)

Why it works here:

• Harsh low-angle morning and afternoon sun

• Long east–west exposure of the site

Application: -East and west openings

-Adjustable or fixed fins

Effect: -Blocks low-angle solar rays

-Reduces glare and overheating

-More effective than horizontal shading alone

3. Recessed Openings (Self-Shading)

Why it works here:

• Site lacks surrounding tall buildings

• Need for built-in shading

Application: -Windows set deep into wall thickness

Effect: -Permanent shading

-No mechanical dependency

-Works for all orientations

4. Shaded Verandas and Transitional Spaces

Why it works here: -Warm–humid climate favors outdoor-

indoor transition

-Cultural and climatic relevance

Application: -Along sun-exposed façades

Effect:

• Acts as buffer zone

• Reduces direct solar penetration

• Enhances comfort and ventilation

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5. Courtyard-Based Massing

Why it works here:

• Open site allows mass manipulation

• Need for self-generated shade

Application:

• Internal courtyards shaded by building mass

Effect:

• Creates shaded microclimate

• Controls solar gain

• Enhances stack and cross ventilation

6. Vegetation-Assisted Shading (Soft Control)

Why it works here:

• High humidity and nearby river support vegetation growth

• Trees cool without blocking airflow

Application:

• East and west site edges

• Courtyards and outdoor spaces

Effect:

• Reduces ground and façade heat

• Improves microclimate

• Low-cost and sustainable

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7. Ventilated Cool Roof for Solar Heat Control (Indirect Solar Control)

• Use a light-colored, reflective roofing material to minimize solar heat absorption

under high solar radiation conditions.

• Introduce a ventilated air cavity beneath the

roof covering to allow accumulated hot air to
escape through natural stack effect.

• Provide continuous eave openings and ridge

ventilation to promote effective airflow
across the roof assembly.

• Incorporate a thermally insulated ceiling

layer to reduce downward heat transfer into
occupied spaces.

• Design extended roof overhangs to shade upper walls and window openings while
supporting roof ventilation.

8. Envelope Surface Color Strategy

• Use light-colored exterior wall finishes to

reduce solar heat absorption.

• Avoid dark or high-absorption colors on

façades exposed to direct solar radiation.

• Select surface colors with low solar

absorptance values to limit conductive heat
transfer into interior spaces.

• Combine surface color control with shading

devices to enhance overall thermal
performance of the building envelope.

9. Compact Building Form with Controlled Openings

Why it works here: -Minimizes exposed surface area

-Easier solar control

Application: -Elongated form with minimized east–west exposure

Effect: -Reduces total solar heat gain

-Improves shading efficiency

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10. Permanent Shading Devices (Not Seasonal)

Why it works here:

• Both north and south façades receive sun at

different times

• Overheated periods dominate most of the year

Application:

• Fixed shading integrated into architecture

Effect:

• Reliable year-round solar control

• Low maintenance & Climate-appropriate

11. Combination (Hybrid) Shading Strategy

Why it works here:

• Single strategy is insufficient due to

multi-directional sun

Application:

• Horizontal + vertical shading

combined

Effect:

• Comprehensive protection

• Maximum thermal comfort

• Best performance for this site

6. Building Orientation, Form, and Volumetric Response

6.1 Orientation Strategy Based on Solar Geometry
Arba Minch experiences a high solar altitude throughout the year, with near-overhead sun
during summer and low-angle radiation from the east and west during morning and
afternoon hours. Since low-angle sun is difficult to control, building orientation becomes a
primary passive design strategy.

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The adopted orientation strategy is based on the following principles:

• The building’s long axis is aligned east–west to:

o Minimize exposure of façades to low-angle morning and afternoon sun.

o Reduce thermal stress on east and west walls.

• The major façades face north and south to:

o Allow easier shading using horizontal devices.

o Achieve more uniform daylight distribution.

• Frequently occupied spaces (living rooms, bedrooms, study areas) are placed on:

o North and south sides for better thermal comfort and controlled solar
access.

This orientation allows the building to respond effectively to seasonal sun paths while
maintaining good natural lighting and ventilation.

7.2 Building Form and Massing Response to Solar Exposure

The building form is designed to minimize heat gain while enhancing self-shading and
ventilation, which are critical in warm–humid climates.

The massing strategy includes:

• Elongated linear form:

o Maximizes north–south façade length.

o Minimizes east–west exposure.

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 • Articulated volumes around a central courtyard:

o Breaks down solar exposure.

o Creates shaded outdoor microclimate.

• Deep overhangs and recessed façades:

o Provide permanent shading to walls and openings.

• Vertical and horizontal shading layers:

o Balconies, verandas, screens, and fins reduce direct radiation.

The roof massing is also climatically responsive:

• Lightweight sloped roofs with:

o Large overhangs for high-angle sun protection.

o Ventilated cavities for heat dissipation.

• Central raised roof or monitor to Act as a thermal chimney for hot air exhaust.

6.3 Three-Dimensional Building and Shadow Relationship

The volumetric configuration is developed to ensure that the building generates its own
shading throughout the day and across seasons.

Shadow behavior is analyzed based on:

• High summer sun (≈83° altitude):

o Roof overhangs and balcony slabs cast deep shadows on upper façades.

o Courtyard remains largely shaded, improving outdoor thermal comfort.

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 • Low morning and afternoon sun:

o Vertical screens and recessed openings protect interiors from east and west
radiation.

• Seasonal variation:

o Summer: maximum shading to prevent overheating.

o Winter: moderate penetration for daylight without thermal discomfort.

The building volume therefore acts as a passive solar control system, integrating form,
orientation, and envelope depth.

TASK TWO: BIOCLIMATIC ANALYSIS AND PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES

7. Climatic Data Analysis for Bioclimatic Study
This section analyzes the main climatic variables of Arba Minch City that directly influence
human thermal comfort and building performance. The focus is on temperature and
relative humidity, which are the two dominant factors governing discomfort in warm–humid
regions. The data form the basis for the subsequent psychrometric and passive design
analysis.

7.1 Monthly Mean Temperature Data

Arba Minch is characterized by relatively high and stable temperatures throughout the year
due to its low latitude and lowland location in the Rift Valley. Seasonal temperature
variation is moderate, with warmer conditions prevailing for most months.

The key characteristics of monthly mean temperature are as follows:

• High annual mean temperature:

o Average monthly temperatures generally range between 22°C and 30°C.

o Daytime temperatures remain high even during the cooler season.

• Limited seasonal fluctuation:

o The difference between the hottest and coolest months is relatively small.

o This indicates persistent thermal stress rather than extreme seasonal

contrast.

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 • High diurnal temperature levels:

o Daytime overheating is common.

o Night-time cooling is limited due to humidity and cloud cover.

These conditions indicate that thermal discomfort in Arba Minch is primarily caused by
excess sensible heat, which must be mitigated through shading, ventilation, and
reduction of solar gains.

7.2 Monthly Mean Relative Humidity Data

Relative humidity in Arba Minch remains high for most of the year, largely influenced by the
presence of Lakes Abaya and Chamo and the regional wind patterns.

The humidity pattern can be summarized as:

• Consistently high humidity levels:

o Monthly mean relative humidity often ranges between 60% and 85%.

• Peak humidity during rainy season:

o Reduced evaporative cooling from the human body.

o Increased sensation of thermal discomfort even at moderate temperatures.

• Moderate humidity during dry months:

o Still sufficiently high to limit night-time heat release from buildings.

High humidity reduces the effectiveness of perspiration and makes air movement the most
critical comfort strategy.

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 charts of monthly mean relative humidity for Arba Minch, indicating the rainy and dry seasons
and their impact on comfort perception.

7.3 Seasonal Climatic Characteristics

Based on temperature and humidity data, the climate of Arba Minch can be divided into
two main seasonal conditions:

Warm–Humid (Summer / Rainy Season):

• High air temperatures combined with high relative humidity.

• Low diurnal temperature variation.

• Dominant discomfort factors:

o Overheating

o Reduced evaporative cooling

o Stagnant air conditions

Relatively Cooler (Dry Season / Winter):

• Slightly lower temperatures.

• Moderate to high humidity.

• Improved night-time comfort, but daytime still warm.

From a bioclimatic perspective, the major implications are:

• Mechanical cooling demand can be minimized if:

o Solar heat gains are controlled.

o Continuous air movement is ensured.

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 • Building design must prioritize:

o Shading

o Cross ventilation

o Lightweight, breathable envelope materials*

8. Psychrometric Analysis and Thermal Comfort

8.1 Introduction to the Psychrometric Chart
The psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the physical and thermal
properties of moist air. It is widely used in architectural science to analyze outdoor climatic
conditions and to determine suitable passive and active strategies for achieving indoor
thermal comfort.

For the climatic analysis of Arba Minch, the psychrometric chart is used to:

• Plot monthly mean temperature and relative humidity values.

• Identify whether the outdoor conditions fall within or outside the human comfort
zone.

• Determine which passive strategies are most effective in shifting uncomfortable

conditions toward comfort.

The main components of the chart relevant to this study include:

• Dry-bulb temperature axis:

Indicates the air temperature experienced by occupants.

• Relative humidity curves:

Show the moisture content of the air and its effect on evaporative cooling.

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 • Comfort zone:
Represents the range of temperature and humidity in which most people feel
thermally comfortable.

• Passive strategy zones:

Indicate regions where ventilation, shading, thermal mass, or evaporative cooling
can improve comfort.

In warm–humid climates such as Arba Minch, most climatic points lie outside the comfort
zone on the hot and humid side, emphasizing the importance of air movement and solar
control.

8.2 Determination of Neutral Temperature (Tn)

The neutral temperature (Tn) represents the temperature at which the majority of
occupants feel neither warm nor cool under naturally ventilated conditions. It is calculated
using empirical relationships that relate outdoor mean temperature to indoor comfort
expectations, as proposed by Szokolay and other bioclimatic researchers.

For Arba Minch, the determination of neutral temperature is based on:

• Mean monthly outdoor temperature.

• Adaptive comfort principles suitable for naturally ventilated buildings.

• The warm–humid climatic context, where occupants are acclimatized to higher

temperatures.

The calculated neutral temperature generally falls in the mid-20°C range, indicating that
indoor comfort can be achieved at relatively high temperatures provided that sufficient air
movement and shading are ensured.

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The implications of the neutral temperature for design are:

• Comfort can be maintained without mechanical cooling if:

o Solar heat gains are minimized.

o Continuous ventilation is provided.

• The acceptable comfort range can be extended by:

o Increasing air velocity.

o Reducing radiant heat from walls and roofs.

8.3 Comfort Zone Identification on Psychrometric Chart

After plotting the monthly mean temperature and relative humidity data of Arba Minch on
the psychrometric chart, most points are found to lie outside the standard comfort zone,
primarily on the hot–humid side. This indicates that, for most of the year, the outdoor
climate causes thermal discomfort unless modified by architectural design.

The comfort analysis reveals:

• Majority of months above comfort zone:

o High temperature and high humidity dominate.

• Limited naturally comfortable periods:

o Occur mainly during early mornings or cooler months.

• Dominant bioclimatic requirements:

o Enhanced air movement.

o Effective shading and Reduction of internal and solar heat gains.

Based on the plotted data, the following passive strategies are identified as most relevant:

• Natural cross ventilation and stack ventilation.

• Shading of roofs, walls, and openings.

• Lightweight, breathable building envelope.

• Courtyards and vegetation for microclimate cooling.

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9. Identification of Climatic and Thermal Problems
9.1 Thermal Problems During Warm–Humid (Summer) Season
The warm–humid season in Arba Minch is characterized by high air temperature combined
with high relative humidity, which significantly reduces the body’s ability to lose heat
through evaporation. As a result, thermal discomfort is severe even when temperatures are
not extremely high.

The main thermal problems during this season include:

• Overheating due to high solar radiation:

o Intense near-overhead sun increases roof and wall surface temperatures.

o East and west façades receive strong low-angle radiation in the morning and
afternoon.

• High humidity and reduced evaporative cooling:

o Perspiration becomes less effective.

o Sensation of heat is amplified.

• Low night-time cooling potential:

o Warm and humid air limits heat release from buildings at night.

• Risk of indoor heat accumulation:

o Heavy building materials store heat and release it slowly, maintaining high
indoor temperatures.

These conditions indicate that architectural design must focus on minimizing solar heat
gain, enhancing air movement, and avoiding excessive heat storage.

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9.2 Thermal Conditions During Cooler (Winter) Season
During the cooler or dry season, temperatures in Arba Minch are slightly lower, and
humidity levels are relatively moderate. Although overall thermal stress is reduced,
complete thermal comfort is still not guaranteed.

The main thermal characteristics of this season are:

• Moderate daytime temperatures:

o Generally closer to the comfort range.

• Reduced but still significant humidity:

o Air remains moist, limiting night-time

cooling.

• Lower solar altitude:

o Allows deeper solar penetration, increasing daylight and some thermal gain.

• Potential for mild early-morning coolness:

o Especially in well-ventilated or shaded spaces.

The key implications for design during this season are:

• Shading devices should allow controlled solar access without causing overheating.

• Building should remain permeable to air movement to maintain comfort during day.

• Heavy insulation for heat retention is unnecessary; instead, flexible shading and
ventilation control are required.

10. Passive Design Recommendations

10.1 Passive Cooling Strategies for Warm–Humid Climate
In warm–humid regions, the primary objective of passive cooling is to minimize heat gain
and to enhance heat dissipation through air movement.

The recommended strategies include:

• Solar heat gain control:

o Deep roof overhangs to shade walls and openings from high-angle sun.

o Shaded verandas and balconies acting as buffer spaces.

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 • Reduction of heat storage:

o Use of lightweight construction systems, especially for roofs and upper

floors.

o Avoidance of excessive thermal mass that would retain heat at night.

• Microclimate modification:

o Shaded courtyards with vegetation and water features to promote

evaporative cooling.

o Permeable ground surfaces to reduce heat reflection and re-radiation.

These measures reduce the radiant and conductive heat loads on the building and improve
outdoor and indoor comfort conditions.

10.2 Natural Ventilation and Air Movement Strategies

Air movement is the most effective means of achieving comfort in warm–humid climates,
as it enhances convective and evaporative cooling of the human body.

Key ventilation strategies are:

• Cross ventilation:

o Openings on opposite façades aligned with prevailing wind directions.

o Open-plan internal layouts to allow unobstructed airflow.

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 • Stack ventilation:

o High-level vents, clerestory windows, or roof monitors to exhaust warm air.

o Central atrium or stairwell acting as a thermal chimney.

• Operable openings:

o Use of louvered or jalousie windows to allow continuous airflow while

providing shading.

o Adjustable screens to regulate air speed and privacy.

These strategies ensure continuous air movement throughout the day and night, extending
the comfort range without mechanical assistance.

10.3 Solar Control and Shading Integration

Effective shading is essential to prevent excessive solar radiation from entering interior
spaces.

The integrated shading approach includes:

• Horizontal shading devices:

o Roof overhangs and horizontal louvers on north and south façades for high-
angle sun control.

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 • Vertical shading devices:

o Fins and screens on east and west façades to block low-angle morning and
afternoon sun.

• Recessed openings:

o Deep window reveals that create permanent shadow zones.

• Vegetation-based shading:

o Trees and climbers providing seasonal and dynamic shading.

These measures limit direct solar penetration while maintaining daylight and ventilation.

10.4 Building Envelope and Material Considerations

The building envelope must respond to the warm–humid climate by minimizing heat gain
and allowing rapid heat dissipation. Recommended envelope strategies are:

• Roof design:

o Lightweight, insulated, and ventilated double-layer roofs.

o Reflective or light-colored roofing materials.

• Wall construction:

o Cavity or lightweight walls with breathable finishes.

o Reduced thermal mass on upper floors.

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 • Openings:

o Large, operable windows for ventilation.

o Shaded glazing to reduce radiant heat.

These material and envelope choices support the overall passive cooling and ventilation
strategy.

11. Building Envelope Design Proposal

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Proposed Climate–Responsive Design
The proposed building design demonstrates a strong response to the warm–humid climatic
conditions of Arba Minch, where thermal discomfort is primarily caused by high solar
radiation, elevated temperatures, and high humidity. The architectural form integrates
passive design strategies that prioritize solar control, natural ventilation, and reduction of
heat storage.

1. Building Form and Orientation

The building adopts an elongated east–west orientation, which minimizes exposure of the
façades to low-angle morning and afternoon sun. This reduces thermal stress on east and
west walls, which are typically the most difficult to shade. The massing is articulated rather
than compact, allowing the building to create its own shaded zones and promote airflow
around and through the structure.

2. Roof Design and Thermal Control

The large sloped roof with deep overhangs is a primary solar control element. These
overhangs block high-angle solar radiation, which is dominant in low-latitude regions like
Arba Minch. The roof is designed as a ventilated cool roof, allowing hot air accumulated
beneath the roof covering to escape, thus reducing heat transfer into interior spaces. A
raised roof monitor enhances stack ventilation by permitting hot air to rise and exit
naturally.

3. Shading Strategy

Shading is treated as a permanent architectural feature rather than an added device. The
design includes:

Continuous upper and lower verandas, which act as horizontal shading devices protecting
walls and openings from direct solar radiation.

Recessed façade planes, which create self-shading and reduce solar penetration.

Vertical screens on the side façades to block low-angle east–west sunlight.

These strategies significantly reduce direct solar heat gain while maintaining daylight
access.

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4. Natural Ventilation System

Ventilation is the principal cooling strategy in this warm–humid climate. The building
incorporates:

A central breezeway, enabling cross ventilation between opposite façades.

Large, operable openings that allow air movement through occupied spaces.

Stack ventilation, where warm air rises and exits through the raised roof vent.

This combination ensures continuous air movement, enhancing convective and

evaporative cooling for occupants.

5. Transitional and Buffer Spaces

The verandas function as thermal buffer zones between outdoor and indoor environments.
They reduce the temperature of air before it enters interior spaces and provide shaded
semi-outdoor areas that are thermally comfortable.

6. Microclimate Modification

The design extends beyond the building envelope to include site-level climate control:

Vegetation provides shading and evaporative cooling.

A water feature contributes to localized cooling.

Permeable ground surfaces reduce heat reflection and surface heat buildup.

Together, these elements create a cooler microclimate around the building.

7. Envelope Response

The building envelope emphasizes lightweight construction to avoid excessive heat

storage, which is undesirable in warm–humid climates where night-time cooling is limited.
Shaded openings reduce radiant heat gain while supporting ventilation.

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Conclusion

Overall, the design achieves passive thermal comfort by combining solar control,
enhanced air movement, shaded transitional spaces, and microclimate modification. The
building form itself operates as an environmental control system, making it well suited to
the warm–humid conditions of Arba Minch without reliance on mechanical cooling.

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12. Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that the climatic conditions of Arba Minch City, characterized
by high temperatures, high humidity, and intense solar radiation, require a design approach
based primarily on passive cooling and solar control. Through detailed analysis of sun
path, shading geometry, climatic data, and psychrometric comfort, the dominant
environmental challenges were identified as overheating, high humidity, and limited night-
time cooling potential.

The proposed orientation, building form, and envelope design respond directly to these
challenges by:

• Aligning the building along the east–west axis to minimize low-angle solar exposure.

• Employing deep roof overhangs, horizontal and vertical shading devices, and self-
shading massing.

• Promoting continuous natural ventilation through cross and stack ventilation

strategies.

• Utilizing lightweight, breathable materials and ventilated roof systems to reduce

heat storage.

• Integrating courtyards, vegetation, and shaded transitional spaces to improve

microclimatic conditions.

The application of bioclimatic principles and passive design strategies confirms that
comfortable indoor environments in Arba Minch can be achieved with minimal reliance on
mechanical cooling. The study emphasizes that climate-responsive architecture is not only
environmentally sustainable but also culturally and economically appropriate for warm–
humid regions of Ethiopia.

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13. References
The following key references support the climatic analysis, bioclimatic methods, and
passive design principles:

• Szokolay, S. V. (2014). Introduction to Architectural Science: The Basis of

Sustainable Design. Architectural Press.

• Givoni, B. (1998). Climate Considerations in Building and Urban Design. John Wiley
& Sons.

• Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (NMA). Climatic Data for Arba Minch
Station.

• Olgyay, V. (1963). Design with Climate: Bioclimatic Approach to Architectural

Regionalism. Princeton University Press.

• ASHRAE Standard 55. Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.

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