CSE/PC/B/T/224
Data Communication
Topic 1- Introduction
Sarbani Roy
[Link]@[Link]
Office: CC-5-7
Phone: 9051639328
Syllabus
• Introduction: Overview of Data Communications, Networks
and Network models (OSI, TCP/IP), Protocols and standards,
[1L]
• Data and signals: Analog and digital signals, Periodic and
nonperiodic signals, Signal analysis, Composite signals, Time
and Frequency domains, Bandwidth, Wave symmetry,
Linear and non-linear mixing of signals. [2L]
• Transmission Impairment: Attenuation, Distortion, Noise -
correlated and uncorrelated noises and their categories,
Harmonic distortion and intermodulation distortion, Data
rate limits for noisy and noiseless channels] [2L]
• Performance: Bandwidth, Throughput, Latency,
Bandwidth-Delay Product, Jitter [1L]
Syllabus
• Digital Transmission: Problems with digital transmission, Different
line coding schemes, Block coding schemes, Scrambling
techniques; Analog to Digital Conversion – Sampling techniques,
Sampling theorem, Pulse amplitude modulation, Pulse code
modulation, Differential pulse code modulation, Delta modulation
(along with advantages and disadvantages of each technique),
Transmission modes (serial and parallel). [4L]
• Analog Transmission: Concepts of carrier signal, modulating signal
and modulated signal; Amplitude modulation – double sideband
suppressed carrier, double sideband transmitted carrier, single
sideband; Frequency modulation – Narrowband FM and wideband
FM; Digital to analog conversion – Amplitude shift keying,
Frequency shift keying, Phase shift keying, Quadrature amplitude
modulation, Performance. [4L]
Syllabus
• Transmission Media: Guided (wired) media – Twisted pair cable,
Coaxial cable and Fibre optic cable, Construction, categories and
connectors of each type, Performance, Advantages and
disadvantages and applications of each type of media, Different
propagation modes through fibre optic cable, Unguided (wireless)
media – Different propagation modes, Radio waves, Terrestrial
microwaves, Infrared, Applications and performances, Satellite
communication. [4L]
• Multiplexing and Spreading: Concept of multiplexing, Frequency
division multiplexing, Time division multiplexing – Synchronous
and Statistical time division multiplexing, Handling variable length
data, Pulse stuffing, Concept of spreading spectrum, Frequency
hopping spread spectrum and Direct sequence spread spectrum.
[6L]
• Modems and Interfaces: Dial-up modems, modem speed,
standards; other modems; Interface standards. [4L]
Syllabus
• Error Detection and Correction: Types of errors, Basic
concepts of error detection and correction,
Redundancy, Hamming distance, Error detection –
Simple parity check codes, Two-dimensional parity
check, Cyclic redundancy check, Polynomials and cyclic
code analysis, Checksum, Error correction – Hamming
code. [6L]
• Protocols for Data Communication: Flow control and
Error control, Stop and Wait protocol and its efficiency,
Sliding window protocols - Go-back-N and Selective
repeat, Piggybacking, HDLC, Point-to-point protocol.
[6L]
Suggested Readings
1. Data & Computer Communications, William Stallings,
Pearson Education
2. Data Communications and Networking, Behrouz A
Forouzan, McGraw Hill
3. Electronic Communications Systems, Tomasi, Pearson
Education
4. Digital Communications, Haykin, Wiley
Slides are mainly prepared using online documents
available of the above books and course materials of
different institutes
Course Objectives (COs)
• Understand the fundamentals of network design, characteristics of analog and digital signals,
relationship between data and signals, network topologies and devices and the concept of data
communication within the network environment.
• Explain how impairments (noise, attenuation and distortion) affect signal traveling through a
transmission medium (noiseless and noisy channel).
• Understand and describe the concepts of digital transmission of analog and digital data, encoding
techniques, conversion techniques used to convert digital data and analog signals to digital signals
for parallel and serial transmission.
• Understand and describe the concepts of analog transmission of digital and analog data, methods,
and the procedures involved in converting digital data and analog low-pass to band-pass analog
signals.
• Understand and illustratively explain errors in communication, error detection and correction
mechanisms.
• Explain the concepts of logical link control with reference to framing, flow and error control.
2 Lectures
• Overview -1L
• Network-1L
Communication Systems
A B
Engineering System
Social System
Genetic System
We are interested to study
this system.
Data communications
• Telecommunication means communication at a
distance.
• The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties
creating and using the data.
• Data communications are the exchange of data
between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire (cable) or
wireless (any medium e.g., air, water).
• Communications Systems: Systems designed
to transmit and receive information
Info
Info Comm Destinat
Source System ion
Data communication system
Simplified model of data
communication system
Five basic components
• Source: Source is where the data is originated.
Typically it is a computer, but it can be any
other electronic equipment such as telephone
handset, video camera, etc, which can
generate data for transmission to some
destination. The data to be sent is represented
by d(t).
• Transmitter: As data cannot be sent in its
native form, it is necessary to convert it into
signal. This is performed with the help of a
transmitter such as modem. The signal that is
sent by the transmitter is represented by s(t).
• Communication Medium: The signal can be sent
to the receiver through a communication medium,
which could be a simple twisted-pair of wire, a
coaxial cable, optical fiber or wireless
communication system. It may be noted that the
signal that comes out of the communication
medium is s’(t), which is different from s(t) that
was sent by the transmitter. This is due to various
impairments that the signal suffers as it passes
through the communication medium.
• Receiver: The receiver receives the signal s’(t)
and converts it back to data d’(t) before
forwarding to the destination. The data that
the destination receives may not be identical
to that of d(t), because of the corruption of
data.
• Destination: Destination is where the data is
absorbed. Again, it can be a computer system,
a telephone handset, a television set and so
on.
Block Diagram
So
urc
e
d(t)
message n(t)
from noise
source
Signal to data
Transmitter Receiver
Channel Rx
Tx s(t) s’(t)
transmitted received
signal signal
d’(t) received
message
to
Destination
Desti
natio
n
What is Data?
• Data refers to information that conveys some
meaning based on some mutually agreed up
rules or conventions between a sender and a
receiver.
• And today it comes in a variety of forms such
as text, graphics, audio, video and animation.
• Data can be of two types: analog and digital.
Signal
• Stated in mathematical terms, a signal is merely a
function of the data.
– For example, a microphone converts voice data into
voice signal, which can be sent over a pair of wire.
• Analog signals are continuous-valued; digital
signals are discrete-valued.
– The independent variable of the signal could be time
(speech, for example), space (images), or the integers
(denoting the sequencing of letters and numbers in
the football score).
Analog Data/Signal
• Analog data take on continuous values on some
interval. Typical examples of analog data are voice and
video. The data that are collected from the real world
with the help of transducers are continuous-valued or
analog in nature.
Digital Data/Signal
• Digital data take on discrete values. Text or character strings can
be considered as examples of digital data. Characters are
represented by suitable codes, e.g. ASCII code.
Noise (also a signal)
Analog signal with
noise
Digital signal with
some noise
Too much of noise
..cannot recognize the
actual signal
• Signaling: It is an act of sending signal over
communication medium
• Transmission: Communication of data by
propagation and processing is known as
transmission.
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Transmission Media
• Transmission media is a pathway that carries
the information from sender to receiver.
– Different types of cables or waves are used to transmit data.
– Data is transmitted normally through electrical or
electromagnetic signals.
• An electrical signal is in the form of current.
• An electromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic energy pulses at
various frequencies.
– These signals can be transmitted through copper wires, optical
fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum.
• Different Medias have different properties like bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
• Transmission media is also called Communication channel.
Different deciding factors
• The data transmission capabilities of various medias vary
differently depending upon the various factors. These factors are:
– Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or
medium. Higher bandwidth communication channels support higher
data rates.
– Radiation. It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to
undesirable electrical characteristics of the medium.
– Noise Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external
electrical noise that can cause distortion of data signal.
– Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards.
The amount of energy lost depends on frequency. Radiations and
physical characteristics of media contribute to attenuation.
Broad Categories
• Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
– Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media
– Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission
Media
Coaxial Cable
▪First type of networking media
used
▪Available in different types
(RG-6 – Cable TV, RG58/U –
Thin Ethernet, RG8 – Thick
Ethernet
▪Largely replaced by twisted
pair for networks
Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Advantages
– Inexpensive
– Easy to terminate
– Widely used, tested
– Supports many network
types
• Disadvantages
• Susceptible to interference
• Prone to damage during
installation
• Distance limitations not
understood or followed
Glass Media
• Core of silica, extruded glass or plastic
• Single-mode is 0.06 of a micron in diameter
• Multimode = 0.5 microns
• Cladding can be Kevlar, fibreglass or even steel
• Outer coating made from fire-proof plastic
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
– Can be installed over long distances o Most expensive media to
– Provides large amounts of bandwidth purchase and install
– Can not be easily tapped (secure) o Rigorous guidelines for
installation
Connectors
Fibre Optic
RJ45
Token Ring
Thicknet
T-Piece
Wireless
What is Wireless Communication ?
• Transmitting voice and data using electromagnetic waves in
open space (atmosphere)
• Electromagnetic waves
• Travel at speed of light (c = 3x108 m/s)
• Has a frequency (f) and wavelength (λ)
c=fxλ
• Higher frequency means higher energy photons
• The higher the energy photon the more penetrating is the
radiation
Electromagnetic wave
Electromagnetic wave
• The amount of information carried by an
electromagnetic wave depends on
– Width of the wavelength band
– Encoding technique
• No of bits encoded per Hz
• X-rays and Gamma rays are better for communication
theoretically
– Difficult to modulate, generate and are harmful
What is RF?
• Radio frequency is an electromagnetic signal with a
frequency between 3kHz and 300 GHz
• RF signals carry analog or digital information
– Analog: Information content varies continuously over time
• Example: radio and TV station
– Digital: Information content consists of discrete
units (0s and 1s)
• Example: Cell phones and wireless networks
Electromagnetic radiation spectrum
Wireless
Wired vs Wireless
Wired Wireless
• Each cable is a different • One media shared by all
channel • High Signal attenuation
• Signal attenuation is low • High interference
• No interference – Noise
• Immensely high speeds – Co-channel interference
(depending on cable and – Adjacent channel interference
hardware) • Speed not as fast as wired
communication systems
NETWORKS
Networks
• Network is a set of devices (often referred to as
nodes) connected by communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.
A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Network Criteria
• Performance
– Depends on Network Elements
– Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
• Reliability
– Failure rate of network components
– Measured in terms of availability/robustness
• Security
– Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
– Errors
– Malicious users
Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
– Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
– Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
• Physical Topology
– Connection of devices
– Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Types of Connections
Categories of Topology
A fully connected mesh topology (five
devices)
A star topology connecting four
stations
A bus topology connecting three
stations
A ring topology connecting six stations
A hybrid topology: a star backbone
with three bus networks
Categories of Networks
• Local Area Networks (LANs)
– Short distances
– Designed to provide local interconnectivity
• Wide Area Networks (WANs)
– Long distances
– Provide connectivity over large areas
• Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
– Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
LAN
WANs: a switched WAN and a
point-to-point WAN
WAN technologies
• There are two types of long distance
communication technologies that are used for
WANs.
– Dedicated connection
• A dedicated line is a full-time point-to-point connection
provided by a communication carrier that lasts for the
length of the lease period.
– Switched connection
• There are several types of switched connections: circuit
switched, packet switched, and cell switched
Circuit Switching
• In circuit switching, circuits are established prior
to the transmission of data and torn down at the
end of the transmission.
• During transmission of data, all of the packets take
the same path.
• The Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN) is an
example of a circuit switch system.
– A call is placed and a circuit established when the
other end of the circuit is answered.
– Modems that operate between computer systems are
a specific example.
Packet Switching
• In packet switching, circuits may be selected
on a packet-by-packet basis.
• The Internet widely uses packet switch
networks, for individual packets in the same
transmission may take different routes
through the network to the same destination.
• Upper layers of the OSI model place the
packets into the correct order.
Cell Switching
• Cell switching is associated with Asynchronous Transmission Mode
(ATM) which is considered to be a high speed switching technology
that attempted to overcome the speed problems faced by the
shared media like Ethernet.
• Cell switching uses a connection-oriented packet-switched
network.
– It is called cell switching because this methodology uses a fixed length of
packets of 53 bytes out of which 5 bytes are reserved for header.
– Unlike cell technology, packet switching technology uses variable length
packets.
– Even though cell switching closely resembles packet switching because
cell switching also breaks the information into smaller packets of fixed
length.
LAN🡪MAN🡪 WAN
Big and getting bigger….
INTERNET
Hierarchical organization of the
Internet
Protocols
• A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists
of a set of rules that govern data
communications. It determines -
– what is communicated
– how it is communicated and
– when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics and timing
Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
– When data should be sent and
– What speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being
received.
NETWORK MODELS
Example
• We use the concept of layers in our daily life.
As an example, let us consider two friends
who communicate through postal mail. The
process of sending a letter to a friend would
be complex if there were no services available
from the post office.
Tasks involved in sending a letter
OSI Model
• Established in 1947, the International
Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards. An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications
is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.
ISO or OSI
• ISO (International Organization for
Standardization)
– is the organization.
• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection )
– is the model.
OSI Model
The interaction between layers in the
OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
Hop to Hop Delivery
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from the source host to
the destination host.
Source to destination delivery
Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process to
another.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of
a message
Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
Presentation layer
• The presentation layer is responsible for
translation, compression, and encryption.
Application layer
• The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
Summary of layers
TCP/IP protocol suite
• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not
exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
TCP/IP and OSI model
Addressing
• Physical Addresses
• Logical Addresses
• Port Addresses
• Specific Addresses
Addresses in TCP/IP
Relationship of layers and addresses in
TCP/IP
Physical Addresses
• Here a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node
with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a
link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer
with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with
physical address 87 is the receiver.
• Most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical
address.
IP Addresses: A part of an internet with
two routers connecting three LANs
• Each device (computer
or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and
physical) for each
connection.
• In this case, each
computer is connected
to only one link and
therefore has only one
pair of addresses.
• Each router, however, is
connected to three
networks (only two are
shown in the figure).
• So each router has three
pairs of addresses, one
for each connection.
Port addresses
• The sending computer is
running three processes at
this time with port
addresses a, b, and c.
• The receiving computer is
running two processes at
this time with port
addresses j and k.
• Process a in the sending
computer needs to
communicate with process
j in the receiving
computer.
• Note that although
physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical
and port addresses remain
the same from the source
to destination.
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
• A port address is a 16-bit address represented
by one decimal number as shown.
753
• A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.