PROBLEM SOLVING SUBJECT

Weeks 6–7: Mathematical Investigation & Modeling (Complete Guide)

Lesson Objectives
By the end of Weeks 6–7, students should be able to:
1. Define and explain the concepts of mathematical investigation and modeling.
2. Pose mathematical problems or questions based on real-life situations.
3. Collect data, observe patterns, and formulate conjectures.
4. Apply mathematical modeling to represent real-world problems.
5. Test and justify conjectures logically.
6. Communicate solutions effectively, both orally and in writing.

Lesson Concepts & Contents

1. Mathematical Investigation
 Definition: A structured approach to explore mathematical problems, look for
patterns, and make conjectures.
 Purpose:
o Develops critical, logical, and creative thinking.
o Encourages students to ask meaningful questions.
o Prepares students to think like mathematicians.
 Key Steps in Investigation:
0. Pose a problem or question
o Must be interesting, challenging, and solvable.
o Example: “How does the number of diagonals in a polygon change as the
number of sides increases?”
1. Collect Data / Observations
o Use experiments, tables, graphs, or examples.
o Example: Draw polygons and count diagonals for n = 3, 4, 5, …
2. Identify Patterns
o Look for repeated behaviors or relationships in the data.
o Example: For polygons, diagonals seem to follow the formula n(n–3)/2.
3. Formulate Conjectures
o Make an educated guess about a general rule or formula.
o Example: The formula for the number of diagonals: D = n(n–3)/2.
4. Test and Justify Conjectures
o Use logic, proofs, or counterexamples to verify.
o Example: Test D = n(n–3)/2 for n = 6, 7, 8.
5. Reflect and Communicate Findings
o Present findings orally or in written form.
o Discuss alternative methods and insights gained.

2. Mathematical Modeling
 Definition: Representing real-world situations with mathematical tools
(equations, graphs, statistics).
 Purpose:
o Helps understand, predict, and solve real-world problems.
o Bridges abstract math concepts and practical applications.
 Types of Mathematical Models:
0. Physical Models: Objects or shapes representing problems.
 Example: Using blocks to model volume or combinatorics
problems.
1. Algebraic / Functional Models: Using equations or functions.
 Example: Modeling cost: Total Cost = Fixed Cost + (Price per Item
× Quantity)
2. Statistical / Data Models: Using charts, tables, or probability.
 Example: Predicting trends in population growth using line graphs.

3. Problem Posing (Open-Ended Problems)

 Encourages students to create problems rather than just solve them.
 Develops creativity, reasoning, and critical thinking.
 Example Activity:
 o Given a sequence: 1, 4, 9, 16… ask students to:
o Predict the next three numbers.
o Formulate a rule for the sequence.
o Test their conjecture.

4. Use of Heuristics in Investigation

Students can use heuristics from Weeks 8–10 to aid their investigation:
 Pattern Recognition: Identify numerical or geometric patterns.
 Diagram / Visualization: Draw tables, charts, or graphs.
 Logical Reasoning: Deduce or inductively reason rules.
 Simplifying / Special Cases: Start with smaller examples to observe trends.
 Work Backwards: Analyze the desired outcome to guide problem-solving.
 Guess and Check: Make an initial conjecture and test for validity.

Sample Real-Life Applications

1. Budgeting Problem: Investigate how weekly expenses change based on
varying prices and quantities.
2. Traffic Pattern Modeling: Collect data on cars passing a street and predict peak
times using graphs.
3. Polygon Study: Investigate the number of diagonals or angles in polygons and
formulate general rules.
4. Population Growth: Model using data, observe trends, and make prediction

Weeks 8–10: Heuristics in Problem Solving (Complete Guide)

Lesson Objectives
By the end of Weeks 8–10, students should be able to:
1. Define heuristics and explain their role in mathematical problem solving.
2. Identify and apply various heuristics to solve non-routine problems.
3. Combine multiple heuristics effectively for complex problem solving.
4. Justify the choice of heuristics and explain their application.
5. Communicate solutions clearly using reasoning and appropriate representations.
Lesson Concepts & Contents
1. Introduction to Heuristics
 Definition: Heuristics are strategies or techniques used to guide thinking when
solving problems that do not have obvious solutions.
 Purpose:
o Simplifies complex problems.
o Encourages systematic exploration.
o Enhances critical and creative thinking.
 Role in Problem Solving:
o Provides a structured approach to tackle non-routine or real-world
problems.
o Helps in investigations, modeling, and verifying solutions.

2. Major Heuristics in Mathematics

Here is a comprehensive list of heuristics, with explanations, examples, and
applications:
1. Pattern Recognition
o Identify repeated numbers, shapes, or relationships.
o Example: Sequence 2, 4, 8, 16 → predict the next terms.
2. Diagram / Visualization
o Use drawings, graphs, tables, or charts to represent problems.
o Example: Draw a Venn diagram to solve set problems.
3. Logical Reasoning
o Use deductive (rule-based) or inductive (generalization from examples)
reasoning.
o Example: Solve “if-then” puzzles or proofs.
4. Symmetry
o Recognize balanced or repeating structures to simplify problems.
o Example: Solve geometry problems using reflective or rotational
symmetry.
5. Guess and Check
o Make a conjecture and test its validity, adjusting as necessary.
o Example: Find a number whose square minus 3 equals 13.
6. Work Backwards
o Start from the desired outcome and reverse the steps to the initial
condition.
o Example: “The final amount is $100 after adding 25%. What was the
original amount?”
7. Simplifying / Special Cases
o Reduce problems to smaller or simpler examples to observe patterns.
o Example: Solve a 5×5 grid problem by first solving a 2×2 grid.
8. Divide and Conquer / Breaking into Parts
o Split complex problems into smaller sub-problems.
o Example: Solve combinatorics problems by considering separate cases.
9. Use of Formulas / Known Results
o Apply formulas, theorems, or previously solved problems to simplify
solutions.
o Example: Use n(n+1)/2 to find the sum of first n natural numbers.
10. Modeling / Representing with Equations
o Translate a problem into algebraic, geometric, or statistical forms.
o Example: Represent grocery cost with an equation: Total Cost = Price ×
Quantity.
11. Look for Invariants / Conservation
o Identify quantities that remain unchanged during operations.
o Example: Puzzle involving moving pieces without changing total sum.
12. Extreme / Boundary Cases
o Test the problem using smallest, largest, or extreme values.
o Example: Verify a property for n = 1 or the largest n in a set.
13. Logical Contradiction / Proof by Contradiction
o Assume the opposite of what you want to prove and show a contradiction.
o Example: Prove that √2 is irrational.
 14. Analogy / Transfer from Similar Problems
o Solve new problems by relating them to solved problems.
o Example: Use properties of triangles to solve quadrilateral problems.
15. Systematic Listing / Exhaustive Search
o Organize all possibilities to ensure completeness.
o Example: List all possible outcomes of two dice rolls.
16. Recursive / Iterative Reasoning
o Apply a repeated process or step to solve problems.
o Example: Fibonacci sequence or iterative calculations.
17. Reduction / Transformation
o Transform a problem into a different, equivalent, but easier form.
o Example: Convert a geometry problem into algebraic form.

3. Combining Heuristics
 Real-world and complex problems often require more than one heuristic.
 Example: Solve a combinatorics problem by drawing diagrams + recognizing
patterns + logical reasoning.

Pigeonhole Principle
Concept and Explanation
The Pigeonhole Principle is one of the most fundamental ideas in combinatorics. It
states that if more objects (called pigeons) are placed into fewer categories or
containers (called pigeonholes), then at least one container must hold more than one
object. In simple terms, if you try to put 13 pigeons into 12 holes, at least one hole will
contain two pigeons.

Mathematically, if items are distributed among boxes and , then at least one
box will contain at least items, where the symbol means “round up.” This principle
is often used to prove that something must exist, rather than to find the exact answer. It
is a powerful tool for proving existence statements in counting and logic problems.

How to Apply the Pigeonhole Principle

To solve a pigeonhole problem, first identify what the “pigeons” and “holes” represent.
Then, determine how many of each there are and use the principle to show that
duplication or overlap is unavoidable. Finally, interpret what that overlap means for the
problem situation.

Examples and Solutions

Example 1:
In a group of 13 people, prove that at least two were born in the same month.
Solution: There are 12 months in a year but 13 people. If we assign each person to the
month they were born in, then there are 13 pigeons (people) and 12 holes (months).
Since 13 is greater than 12, the Pigeonhole Principle guarantees that at least two
people must share the same birth month.

Example 2:
If 11 socks are either black or white, prove that at least 6 socks are of the same color.
Solution: There are only two possible colors, so there are 11 pigeons (socks) and 2
holes (colors). Dividing 11 by 2 gives 5.5, and rounding up gives 6. Therefore, at least 6
socks must be of one color.

Example 3:
Show that in any group of 5 points placed inside a square with a side length of 2 units,
at least two of them are within a distance of √2 units from each other.
Solution: Divide the large square into 4 smaller squares, each with side 1. Placing 5
points into 4 regions ensures that at least one region has two points. The maximum
distance between two points inside a 1x1 square is √2, so at least two points are within
that distance.

Example 4:
Prove that among 367 people, at least two share the same birthday.
Solution: There are only 366 possible birthdays (including February 29). If 367 people
each have a birthday, the extra person must share a birthday with someone else.
Therefore, two people are guaranteed to share the same birthday.

Example 5:
Ten integers are chosen from the numbers 1 to 18. Prove that two of them differ by at
most 1.
Solution: Pair the numbers as (1,2), (3,4), (5,6), and so on up to (17,18). This gives 9
pairs. If you choose 10 numbers, you will have to pick both numbers from at least one
pair. Therefore, two chosen numbers differ by exactly 1.
Example 6:
Prove that in any set of 6 people, there are at least two who have the same number of
friends within the group.
Solution: Each person can have between 0 and 5 friends, but it is impossible for one to
have 0 friends while another has 5 friends (since friendships are mutual). Therefore, the
possible number of friends is either 0–4 or 1–5, which makes only 5 possibilities for 6
people. By the Pigeonhole Principle, at least two people must have the same number of
friends.

Example 7:
You have 51 points inside a square of side 1. Show that at least two points are within a
distance of 0.2.
Solution: Divide the square into 25 smaller squares each of side 0.2 (since 1 ÷ 0.2 = 5
squares along each side). There are 25 regions and 51 points. By the Pigeonhole
Principle, one of these regions must contain at least 3 points. The largest distance
between any two points inside a 0.2 x 0.2 square is √(0.2² + 0.2²) = √0.08 ≈ 0.283,
which is less than 0.3. Therefore, at least two of the points are within 0.3 distance,
certainly less than 0.2 apart.

Example 8:
From 100 integers, prove that two have a difference divisible by 99.
Solution: Divide each number by 99 and record its remainder. The possible remainders
are 0 to 98, a total of 99 possibilities. With 100 numbers, two must have the same
remainder. Therefore, their difference is divisible by 99.

Example 9:
Show that in any group of 27 English words, at least two of them begin with the same
letter.
Solution: The English alphabet has 26 letters. If 27 words are placed into these 26
categories, one letter must be the starting letter of at least two words.

Example 10:
Among 10 randomly chosen numbers from 1 to 100, prove that there exist two numbers
whose difference is at most 11.
Solution: Divide the range 1–100 into 9 intervals: 1–11, 12–22, 23–33, and so on up to
90–100. There are 9 intervals but 10 numbers, so two numbers must fall in the same
interval. Hence, their difference is at most 11.
♾️Invariant Principle
Concept and Explanation
The Invariant Principle is another powerful reasoning tool in mathematics, often used
to prove that a process will stop, repeat, or can never reach a certain state. An
invariant is a quantity, property, or condition that remains unchanged even though
other aspects of the situation may change.
In other words, while numbers, positions, or colors might keep changing through a
series of moves or transformations, there is something that always stays constant.
Recognizing what remains constant can help you conclude that certain situations are
impossible or that a process must end in a particular state.
Sometimes, a related idea called a monovariant is used. A monovariant is a quantity
that always changes in one direction (for example, always increases or always
decreases) after each move. It helps show that a process will eventually stop.

How to Apply the Invariant Principle

To use this principle effectively, first identify all the operations or moves that are allowed
in the problem. Then, look for something (like a sum, color pattern, or parity) that does
not change no matter what moves are made. Once you find that invariant, use it to
prove that reaching a certain configuration is either impossible or inevitable.

Examples and Solutions

Example 1:
A chessboard has 64 squares. If one black square and one white square are removed,
can you cover the remaining board with 31 dominoes (each domino covering two
adjacent squares)?
Solution: Each domino always covers one white and one black square. Removing one
square of each color keeps an equal number of black and white squares. However,
removing one black and one white from opposite corners breaks the color balance
across the board pattern. This invariant — the pairing of black and white squares —
makes it impossible to fully cover the board with dominoes.

Example 2:
There are 100 light bulbs all turned off. You toggle every bulb on the 1st round, then
every 2nd bulb on the next, every 3rd on the next, and so on until the 100th round.
Which bulbs remain on?
Solution: A bulb changes state each time its position number has a divisor. Bulb
number 9, for example, is toggled on rounds 1, 3, and 9. A bulb ends up on only if it is
toggled an odd number of times, which happens only for perfect squares. Therefore,
the bulbs in positions 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, and so on remain on. The invariant here is the
parity (odd/even) of the number of divisors.
Example 3:
You have a pile of 15 stones. You may replace any two stones with one stone whose
number equals their sum plus one. What will be the final number when only one stone
remains?
Solution: Let the sum of all numbers on the stones be . Initially, . Every
operation replaces two numbers and with , which increases the total sum by
1 each time. There are 14 operations to reduce 15 stones to 1. Thus, the final number is
. The invariant here is the total sum increasing by 1 each move.

Example 4:
A group of people sits in a circle. Every minute, each person gives one coin to their right
neighbor. Prove that the total number of coins remains constant.
Solution: Each person loses one coin but gains one from the person on their left. This
means the total number of coins never changes. The invariant is the total amount of
coins.

Example 5:
In a game, you can add 1 to one number and subtract 1 from another. If you start with
numbers (4, 8, 12), can you make them all equal?
Solution: The sum of all numbers remains the same after each move (since +1 and -1
cancel out). The sum is initially 24. If all numbers were to be equal, each would be 8,
giving a sum of 24 — possible so far. However, the parity (odd or even) of each number
changes in every move. Initially, all numbers are even, and after any move, one
becomes odd and another stays even, breaking the evenness. Therefore, the invariant
is the parity pattern, showing that all numbers can never be made equal.

Example 6:
You have a pile of 100 coins. You may take away 2 coins and replace them with 1 new
coin. Is it possible to end with exactly one coin?
Solution: Each move reduces the number of coins by 1, so after 99 moves, only one
coin remains. The invariant here is the relationship between the number of moves
and the remaining coins — the total count decreases predictably until only one coin is
left.

Example 7:
On a 3×3 grid, you can flip all coins in any row or column at once. Show that you cannot
flip all coins to heads if you start with exactly one tail.
Solution: Every flip changes an odd number of coins (3 or 5). The parity (odd/even
count) of tails changes with each move, but it can never become zero since it alternates
between odd and even. The invariant here is the parity of tails, which shows that it’s
impossible to get all heads.

Example 8:
A robot starts at point (0,0) and can move either (1,2) or (2,1) each step. Show that it
can never land on (3,3).
Solution: The sum of coordinates after each move increases by 3 (either from 0+0 to
1+2 or 2+1). Since 0 is divisible by 3, after each move the sum remains divisible by 3.
The point (3,3) has a sum of 6, which is divisible by 3, so actually, this position is
reachable. But a position like (4,4) has a sum of 8, which is not divisible by 3 and can
never be reached. The invariant here is the remainder of (x + y) mod 3.

Example 9:
There are several red and blue chips on a table. You may choose any two of different
colors and replace both with one red chip. Prove that no matter how you play, you will
end up with one red chip.
Solution: Each operation removes one blue chip but keeps the total number of red
chips the same or increases by one. Eventually, all blue chips are gone, leaving only red
ones. The invariant is the difference between the number of red and blue chips,
which always increases until only red remains.

Example 10:
You have a number written on the board. In each move, you can add 3 or subtract 5. If
you start at 7, can you reach 1?
Solution: Notice that every operation changes the number by multiples of 1, but modulo
2 (checking odd/even), adding 3 or subtracting 5 always changes parity: both are odd,
so adding or subtracting them keeps the number odd. Since 7 is odd and 1 is also odd,
it is possible to reach 1. The invariant here is the parity of the number, which remains
unchanged after each move.

Summary
The Pigeonhole Principle proves that duplication or overlap is unavoidable when items
outnumber categories. It is used to show existence.
The Invariant Principle, on the other hand, focuses on something that never changes
even as a process evolves. It is used to show impossibility, predictability, or termination.
🧩 Normal Problem-Solving Process in Mathematics
Concept and Importance
Mathematical problem solving is not just about getting the right answer — it’s a
systematic process of understanding, planning, executing, and reflecting. Following a
structured process helps you approach unfamiliar or complex problems with confidence
and logical reasoning.
This process was popularized by George Pólya, a Hungarian mathematician, in his
famous book “How to Solve It.” He proposed four main steps in problem solving, which
are still widely taught today.

The Four Steps of the Problem-Solving Process

Step 1: Understand the Problem
This is the most important step. Before you can solve a problem, you must first
understand what it is asking. Carefully read the problem and identify what is given (the
data or facts) and what is unknown (the question to be answered). Rephrase the
problem in your own words and make sure you know what you need to find.
At this stage, it helps to:
 Draw diagrams, graphs, or tables.
 Label quantities clearly.
 Identify relationships among given data.
 Clarify any unclear terms.
Example:
If the problem says, “Find two numbers whose sum is 10 and product is 21,” make sure
you understand that you’re looking for two numbers (the unknowns), that their sum is
10, and their product is 21.

Step 2: Devise a Plan

Once you fully understand the problem, think about how to solve it. This step involves
choosing a strategy or method that fits the situation. Common strategies include:
 Working backward from the desired result.
 Looking for patterns.
 Making an organized list or table.
 Drawing a diagram.
 Using algebraic equations.
 Guessing and checking logically.
 Simplifying or restating the problem.
Example:
In the same problem above, you might let the two numbers be and . Since
and , you can use substitution or quadratic methods to find and .

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan

Now, execute your chosen strategy carefully and systematically. Perform the necessary
computations, substitutions, or logical reasoning. Be patient and check each step for
accuracy.
If your plan doesn’t seem to work, don’t give up — go back and try a different method.
Mathematics rewards persistence and flexibility.
Example:
From the equations and , we can express . Substituting
this into , we get , which simplifies to . Solving
gives or . Therefore, the numbers are 3 and 7.

Step 4: Look Back (Check and Reflect)

After finding your answer, take time to verify and reflect. Check if your solution satisfies
the conditions of the problem. Think about whether there is a simpler or alternative
solution and what you learned from solving it. This reflection helps improve your
mathematical intuition and prepares you for similar problems.
Example:
Check that and . Both conditions hold, so the solution is correct.

Extended Version: The 6-Step Problem-Solving Cycle

Some educators expand Polya’s model into six detailed stages for classroom use:
1. Identify the Problem – Recognize there’s a question or challenge to solve.
2. Understand the Problem – Determine what’s known and unknown.
3. Formulate a Strategy – Decide which method or formula applies.
4. Execute the Plan – Carry out the computations or reasoning.
5. Verify the Results – Check for mathematical and logical correctness.
6. Extend or Generalize – See how your approach could apply to similar or harder
problems.
This expanded form is very useful in formal research, math contests, or feasibility
studies involving mathematical analysis.

Summary of Key Points

 Always read carefully and define what is being asked.
 Plan logically by choosing a suitable method before solving.
 Work systematically and avoid skipping steps.
 Check and reflect after solving to ensure accuracy and learning.
 Combine this structure with deeper techniques like the Pigeonhole or Invariant
Principle when facing complex logical or combinatorial problems.