HUMAN REPRODUCTION
HUMAN LIFE CYCLE
the human life cycle consists of different processes i.e. of meiosis, mitosis and fertilisation
A schematic diagram of the human life cycle (Must be copied into books)
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Consists of different organs and the accessory glands.
The accessory glands are the prostate gland, the Cowper’s gland and the seminal gland.
Prostate gland, seminal
gland and Cowper’s gland
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
PUBERTY
-refers to the stage in humans when the reproductive organs reach maturity/ when sexual
maturity is reached
-puberty is controlled by hormones
-in males is controlled by the hormone testosterone produced by the testes and in females by
the hormone oestrogen by ovaries.
GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the process responsible for producing gametes.
SPERMATOGENESIS
Spermatogenesis is the process responsible for producing sperm cells.
The testes contain seminiferous tubules in which spermatogenesis occurs
Under the influence of testosterone, diploid cells in the seminiferous tubules in the testes
undergo meiosis to form haploid sperm cells/ spermatozoa
STRUCTURE AND ADAPTATIONS OF SPERM CELL
Tail Middle piece Head
The nucleus carries genetic material of the male/haploid number of chromosomes (23)
required for fertilisation
Many mitochondria in the middle piece carry out cellular respiration to release energy so
that sperms can swim towards the ovum
The presence of a long flexible narrow tail which makes wave-like/ whip-like movements
that enable thesperm cell to swim towards the ovum
The contents of the sperm cell such as the cytoplasm is reduced/condensed making the
sperm light for efficient movement
Sperm cell is streamlined to allow for more efficient swimming and easier movement
OOGENESIS
Oogenesis is the production of ova in the ovaries of a female.
diploid cells in the ovaries undergo mitosis to produce numerous follicles
At the onset of puberty, under the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), one cell
inside a follicle enlarges and undergoes meiosis
Of the four cells that are produced, only one survives to form a mature haploid ovum
This occurs in a monthly cycle.
STRUCTURE AND ADAPTATIONS OF THE OVUM
The nucleus carries genetic material of the female/haploid number of chromosomes (23)
required for fertilisation
A large amount of cytoplasm to support and nourish the development of the embryo
Surrounded by a jelly coat for protection of the ovum and early developmental stages of the
fertilised ovum
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OOGENESIS AND SPERMATOGENESIS
SPERMATOGENESIS OOGENESIS
Stimulated by testosterone Stimulated by FSH
Occurs in the testes/ seminiferous tubules of Occurs in the ovaries
testis
Results in formation of 4 sperm cells Results in formation of one ovum
The process starts at puberty The process starts before puberty/ birth
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF OVARY
When a female is born, her ovaries already contain numerous follicles which
develop into primary follicles
A primary follicle develops into develops into a Graafian follicle which produces
oestrogen
A mature ovum is formed inside the Graafian follicle
During ovulation the follicle ruptures and theovum inside is released
The empty Graafian follicle is now known as the corpus luteum
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
if the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus disintegrates becoming smaller and smaller
in size
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The menstrual cycle refers to the changes that occur monthly in the ovary and
uterus
It is divided into the ovarian cycle and uterine cycle
The ovarian cycle consists of changes in the ovary including the production and
release of an ovum
The uterine cycle consists of changes in the uterus which includes thickening and
breaking down of the endometrium.
There are four hormones (FOLP) involved in the menstrual cycle: Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH), oestrogen, Luteininsing Hormone (LH) and
progesterone .
FSH and LH are secreted by the pituitary gland.
Oestrogen and Progesterone are secreted by the ovary
Days Hormone involved Events in ovarian Events in uterine
cycle cycle
1-7 FSH New follicles develop Endometrium sheds
under influence of during menstruation
FSH
8-13 Oestrogen A mature Graafian Oestrogen stimulates
follicle develops and the endometrium to
secretes oestrogen thicken and become
more vascular in
preparation for
implantation
14 LH The Graafian follicle
ruptures releasing the
mature ovum. This is
called ovulation
15-22 Progesterone The empty Graafian Progesterone causes
follicle becomes a the endometrium to
corpus luteum which thicken further and
secretes become more
progesterone vascular
23-28 Progesterone If fertilisation did not Menstruation occurs
occur the corpus after day 28 if
luteum disintegrates fertilisation did not
(shrinks) causing a occur
decrease in
progesterone. A new
follicle will develop in
ovary
If fertilisation occurred
the corpus luteum is If fertilisation occurs
maintained and no menstruation
continues secreting occurs
progesterone. A new
follicle does not
develop
HORMONAL CONTROL OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
The pituitary gland secretes FSH which stimulates the development of a new
primary follicle into a Graafian follicle in the ovary inside which an ovum develops
The Graafian follicle secretes oestrogen which stimulates the endometrium to
thicken and become more vascular.
The pituitary gland (hypophysis) secretes LH which peaks around day 14 causing
the mature Graafian follicle to burst releasing the mature ovum. This is called
ovulation.
The empty Graafian follicle develops into the corpus luteum under the influence of
LH
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone which stimulates further thickening of the
endometrium and development of more blood vessels in preparation for
implantation.
If fertilisation occurs,the corpus luteum does not disintegrate,it is maintained and
continues to secrete progesterone. A new follicle does not develop in the ovary and
a new ovum is not formed.
If fertilisation does not occur, the corpus luteum disintegrates and levels of
progesterone drop. The endometrium sheds, this is called menstruation. A new
Graafian follicle develops where a new ovum is formed
Negative feedback mechanism involving progesterone and FSH
High levels of hormone progesterone inhibit the secretion of FSH from the pituitary
gland. This means that a new Graafian follicle will not be produced in the ovary and
therefore a new ovum is not produced
When levels of progesterone decreases, the pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete
FSH . A new Graafian follicle will develop in the ovary and a new ovum is produced.
COPULATION AND FERTILISATION
Copulation refers to the process during which the penis is inserted in the vagina
Sperm cells (contained in semen) are deposited in the vagina during copulation
PROCESS OF FERTILISATION
Sperm cell moves up vagina, past the cervix and into uterus. From the uterus the
sperm cell move into the Fallopian tube where it reaches ovum.
The hydrolytic enzymes in the acrosome are released to break down the membrane
of the ovum.
Only the head of the sperm enters the ovum and the tail is lost
The haploid nucleus from the sperm cell fuses with the haploid nucleus of the ovum
to produce a diploid zygote. This is called fertilisation
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE UNTIL IMPLANTATION
The period from fertilisation to birth is called the gestation period
A diploid zygote is formed during fertilisation.
The zygote undergoes mitosis, and forms a round mass of cells called a morula.
The morula undergoes further mitosis to form a hollow ball of cells called a
blastocyst or blastula.
The outer layer of cells on the blastocyst is known as the trophoblast.
The inner layer of cells in the blastocyst develops into an embryo
About 5 days after fertilisation, the blastocyst reaches the uterus
Trophoblast cells produce enzymes that break down the endometrium
The blastocyst attaches itself to the endometrium. This process is called
implantation.
GESTATION AND THE ROLE OF THE PLACENTA
After implantation the cells of the blastocyst differentiate
The outermost extra-embryonic layer of cells surrounding the embryo is called the
chorion . It forms the chorionic villi which form part of the placenta
Chorionic villi are finger-like projections which form part of the placenta and
ensure that there is maximum contact between the foetus and the mother’s blood
The placenta (an oval vascular structure) is formed by both the chorionic villi and
the endometrium
The umbilical cord forms between the foetus and the placenta
The umbilical cord consists of two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein
The amnion is the inner- most extra- embyronic membrane inside the chorion, the
amnion produces amniotic fluid and protects the foetus
The amniotic cavity (space inside amnion) forms a bag-like structure in which the
embryo develops.
Amniotic fluid fills the amniotic cavity
During pregnancy, oestrogen and progesterone maintain pregnancy by maintaining
the thickening of the endometrium
after 8 weeks of pregnancy, organs start developing, the developing unborn human
is now called a foetus
Functions of the placenta
Allows the embryo and later the foetus to receive nutrients and oxygen and remove
carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes.
Secretes progesterone and oestrogen to maintain the thickness of the endometrium
during pregnancy
Acts as a protective barrier between the embryo/ foetus and the mother, which
prevents mixing of the mother’s blood with the blood of the embryo/ foetus, acts as
a micro- filter preventing entry of pathogens and produces antibodies for the foetus
Functions of amniotic fluid
Acts as a cushion to protect the embryo against mechanical shock.
Allows free movement of the foetus
Prevents dehydration of the foetus
prevents temperature fluctuations around the foetus
The functions of the umbilical cord
Umbilical artery removes deoxygenated blood and nitrogenous wastes from foetus’s
blood to the mother’s blood
Umbilical vein transports nutrients and oxygenated blood to the foetus from the
mother’s
blood