UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Chapter Five

CANADA IN THE WORLD

Figure 5–1 Members of the Royal Canadian Legion (bottom), firefighters, and other Canadians gather along Highway 401
to honour Canadian soldiers Mario Mercier and Christian Duchesne, who were killed in Afghanistan in August 2007. During
the NATO mission in Afghanistan, planes carrying bodies home from Afghanistan landed at the military airfield in Trenton,
Ontario. Hearses then carried the bodies to Toronto. From there, the bodies were brought home to the soldiers’ families.

138 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

CHAPTER ISSUE
How is international involvement shaping Canada?

Canadian Forces joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

(NATO)–led mission in Afghanistan in 2002. Soon after the Key Terms
first Canadian soldiers died in the conflict, Canadians at home Cold War
spontaneously started a new tradition. As the cortège carrying the civil society
soldiers’ bodies travelled from Trenton to Toronto on Highway 401, genocide
people gathered along the roadside and on overpasses to pay their responsibility to
respects. protect
In response to a petition carrying more than 62 000 signatures, middle power
Ontario premier Dalton McGuinty renamed the section of road economic sanctions
travelled by the fallen soldiers the Highway of Heroes. McGuinty weapons of mass
said this change would remind Canadians “that our freedom, safety, destruction
and prosperity is often purchased by the sacrifices of others.” peacemaking
Consider the photograph on the preceding page. Then discuss tribunals
and respond to the following questions:
• What message are the people standing along the highway sending?
For whom is the message intended?
• Are the people paying tribute to the fallen soldiers glorifying war
or protesting war?
• Is it possible to mourn soldiers’ deaths without supporting war?
• Is it possible to mourn soldiers’ deaths without condemning war?
• At the peak of the Afghan mission, a public opinion poll found
that more than half of respondents disapproved of Canada’s
participation in the mission. Is it possible to disagree with a
mission and still honour Canadian soldiers serving their country?

LEARNING GOALS

Looking Ahead In this chapter you will

da works wi th other
• explore ways that Cana
The following inquiry questions will help you explore rld a better place
how international involvement has shaped Canada: countries to make the wo
da has been involved in
• identify reasons Cana
s since 198 2
• How does Canada work toward peace? multiple military mission
• Why does Canada respond to major international ected Canada and the
• describe how 9/11 aff
conflicts? world
• Was 9/11 a turning point for Canada? developments have
• consider how various
onship wi th the United
affected Canada’s relati
States
dians sometimes disagree
• inves tigate why Cana
s.
on national securi ty issue

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 139

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

How does Canada work toward peace?

If Canada had no armed forces, a hostile force could enter Canada
unchallenged and terrorize the population. So Canada has a military to
keep Canadians safe.
Canada has other means to protect itself. It builds alliances with
friendly countries for mutual protection. And through military assistance,
diplomatic efforts, and humanitarian aid, Canada works to make the
world a better place.

Military Alliances
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
Canada belongs to several military defence organizations. These alliances
The Cold War began after World War II, involve mutual protection that will be backed up by military action if
The name refers to a struggle between necessary.
the United States and the Soviet Union
and their respective allies. It was called
a “cold” war because it was a war of
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
words and ideas rather than a “hot” war Canada, the United States, and many European countries formed the
that involved direct combat between
the two superpowers.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949, at the beginning
of the Cold War. Members of the pact feared aggression from the Soviet
Union, so they agreed to stand together — an attack against one would be
viewed as an attack against all.
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, NATO’s
Check Forward  focus shifted to promoting international stability. It does this by
managing minor conflicts before they become regional conflicts.
You will read more about the Cold In 2003, NATO took command of the United Nations–approved
War in Chapter 13.
International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. The goal of the
Afghan mission was to rid the country of a government (the Taliban) that
supported terrorists (al-Qaeda) and to restore democracy. It soon became
obvious that achieving this goal would include active combat.
At the peak of the war, in 2009, the NATO force in Afghanistan
 Check Back
Figure 5–2 In October 1999, a large numbered about 50 000 troops from 41 countries, including all
screen inside the NORAD command centre 26 NATO members. Canada contributed about 2500 troops.
in Colorado Springs, Colorado, shows the
location of U.S. and Canadian political and The North American Aerospace Defence Command
military leaders. To withstand the threat of (NORAD)
nuclear attack, the centre was built deep The North American Aerospace Defence Command (NORAD) is
inside a mountain. Why would NORAD track another alliance that emerged from the Cold War. This organization
the locations of important leaders? protects the airspace over North America.
When the United States was attacked by terrorists flying into
buildings on September 11, 2001, Major Pierre Bérubé of the Canadian
air force was on duty at NORAD’s main air warning centre in Colorado.
Within minutes, Bérubé ordered the launch of fighter jets to shoot down
any suspicious airplanes. Because the terrorists were hijacking airliners to
fly into buildings, he also helped co-ordinate the temporary grounding of
2400 commercial flights in American airspace.
After 9/11, NORAD began tracking every commercial flight in U.S.
airspace. If a crew member on a commercial flight reports a passenger
who might be dangerous, NORAD monitors the plane until it lands.

140 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Working Together for a More Peaceful World
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
Another strategy for protecting Canada is to make non-military alliances for
creating a more peaceful world. Issues such as poverty, hunger, and disease The following are some terms of the
can threaten international peace and security because desperate populations Convention on the Rights of the Child:
can make governments unstable. Undemocratic governments lead to abuse • Governments must take all possible
measures to make sure children’s
of human rights and further instability. So Canada works alongside other rights are respected, protected,
countries to address these problems and promote democracy. and fulfilled.
• When adults are making decisions
Canada in the United Nations that affect children, children have
the right to say what they think
Canada is a founding member of the single most important international should happen and have their
organization: the United Nations (UN). The UN is the closest thing we opinions taken into account.
have to a world government. All countries of the world can be members. • In addition to the rights set out in
The UN leads international efforts to create a better world. For example, the convention, refugee children
have the right to special protection
the World Health Organization (WHO) is the arm of the UN responsible
and help.
for providing global leadership on world health issues. • Governments must protect and
In 1990, Canada was a driving force behind the first World Summit care for children affected by war.
for Children, which was held after the UN General Assembly adopted the Children younger than 15 should
Convention on the Rights of the Child. Canadian Prime Minister Brian not be forced or recruited to take
part in a war or to join the armed
Mulroney and Mali President Moussa Traoré jointly chaired the summit, forces.
which was the largest gathering of world leaders ever held at the UN.
In a related effort, the UN created the Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples in 2007. It commits members to stop the persistent
violation of the rights of Indigenous peoples around the world. The
Canadian government overcame initial doubts, and endorsed the
declaration in 2010.

Canada in the Commonwealth Figure 5–3 Canada’s Marie-Jose

Ares-Pilon, from Sherbrooke, Québec,
Canada has been a member of the Commonwealth since 1931, when the
strains to lift 115 kilograms in the
organization was founded. Most of the Commonwealth’s 52 member women’s 69-kilogram event at the 2010
countries are former British colonies. Commonwealth Games in New Delhi, India.
Member countries work together to promote trade, as well as Ares-Pilon came in fourth place. How do
economic and social development. They stage cultural exchanges and international sporting events like this
major sports competitions, such as the Commonwealth Youth Games. strengthen bonds among the participating
They have one powerful tool for keeping countries?
each other in line: the threat of exclusion.
Commonwealth countries have committed
themselves to promoting peace, equal rights,
and the rule of law. Countries that do not
abide by these values may be suspended. In
2007, for example, Pakistan was suspended
for declaring a state of emergency and firing
the country’s top judges. This suspension was
lifted after the Pakistan government took
steps to restore democracy in 2008.
Cause and Consequence: W hat makes the
threat of exclusion work? When might it have
no influence? How would events such as the
Commonwealth Games increase its influence?

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 141

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

La Francophonie
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . . L’Organisation internationale de la Francophonie — la Francophonie for
Land Mines by the Numbers short — is an alliance of countries or regions where French is spoken.
Number of people killed by land mines
Members co-operate to promote the French language, peace, and
every day: 72 sustainable development. Canada has been involved in la Francophonie
Percentage of victims who are since it was founded in 1970. The provincial governments of Québec and
civilians: 90% New Brunswick also take part in meetings, which are held every two
Percentage of victims who are years. Together, Canada and Québec hosted the la Francophonie summit
children: 40%
in 2008.
Cost of making a land mine: $3+ (U.S.)
Cost of removing a land mine: $1000 (U.S.) The Land Mine Agreement
Number of land mines in place in the
world (2009): 110 million
Countries sometime sign treaties to co-ordinate their efforts to resolve a
particular world problem, such as ridding the world of land mines.
Planting land mines is a common tactic in military conflicts around
the world. Land mines are cheap and effective. You just put them in the
ground where an enemy might walk. When someone steps on one, the
mine blows up. Soldiers plant them around bases for protection and in
Up for Discussion areas where the enemy is likely to travel.
Might Canada be helping other counties not
But unexploded land mines remain in the ground long after a war
only because it’s the humane thing to do but has ended — and they remain just as deadly. Unexploded mines threaten
also out of self-interest? civilians, and are costly and dangerous to remove.
In 1992, American activist Jody Williams and a group of non-
governmental organizations worked together to found the International
Campaign to Ban Landmines. This organization is supported by more
than 1000 organizations in 72 countries.
In 1997, Williams and Lloyd Axworthy, who was Canadian foreign
affairs minister at the time, organized an international meeting in
Ottawa. This led to an agreement that is often called the Ottawa Treaty.
It banned the use of land mines and required countries that signed the
treaty to help remove existing mines.
By 2014, 161 countries, including Canada, had signed. But the United
States, China, Russia, and India have refused to do so. They say that land
mines are necessary for defence.
In 1999, Axworthy said that Canada’s
“engagement in the world is bred in the bone.
Canadians consistently rate our activities and
success abroad as an important indicator of how we
define ourselves.”
Cause and Consequence: W hy is co-operation
among countries so vital for solving problems
such as the use of land mines? What other global
problems could be tackled in the same way?

Figure 5–4 Canadian Foreign Minister Lloyd Axworthy (left) spoke

with land mine survivor Tun Channareth of Cambodia after the Ottawa
Treaty was signed. No land mines are buried in Canada. Why, then, would
Canadians become involved in the battle to ban land mines?

142 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Humanitarian Assistance
When crises happen, Canadians help. Both natural disasters and wartime . . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
conflicts put thousands of people in jeopardy. In these situations, donor
countries send emergency food, clean water, money, and supplies. Crisis AIDS — acquired immune deficiency
syndrome — was identified in the early
experts save lives, relieve suffering, and maintain and protect human 1980s. By 1991, an estimated 10 million
dignity. In 2011, for example, Canadian governments, groups, and people around the world had contracted
individuals together provided $501 million (U.S.) in humanitarian aid. either AIDS or HIV, the virus that causes
the disease. By 1997, this number had
The Canadian Forces Disaster Assistance Response Team risen to 22 million. By 2011, 34 million
people were living with HIV-AIDS.
(DART) Nearly 3.3 million of them were children.
In late 1996, a cholera epidemic devastated 500 000 refugees who had
flooded into Rwanda to escape civil conflict in neighbouring Zaire.
Canada and other countries sent medical relief to the refugees, but the
help arrived too late to save many people.
So the Canadian government decided to create a rapid-response
Voices
military team that could move quickly into crisis areas. The Disaster Our mandate is to listen to African
Assistance Response Team (DART) consists of Canadian Forces disaster grandmothers, respect their
specialists who can be flown quickly to disaster areas to provide medical expertise, and amplify their voices
treatment and emergency supplies. in order to promote authentic
In 2013, Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines with devastating effect. and substantive responses to the
pandemic in Africa.
The federal government charged DART with providing emergency
assistance and Operation Renaissance 13-1 was born. Within weeks, — Hannah Diamond, member of
the Coquitlam Gogos ( Gogo means
315 DART personnel had purified 493 346 litres of water, treated 6525 “grandmother” in Zulu.)
medical patients, cleared more than 131 kilometres of roads, and delivered
230 485 pounds of food and other aid provided by donor organizations,
all in little more than four weeks. Figure 5–5 Stephen Lewis, UN AIDS
envoy (left), and singer Alicia Keys (right)
People to People sing with grandmothers from around the
Canadians make a difference in the world not just through their world at the International AIDS conference
government’s efforts but also through civil society: people connected by held in Toronto in 2006. Lewis started
their common interest in a cause. These are human rights organizations, the Grandmothers to Grandmothers
faith groups, union groups, and student groups, among others. In 2008, Campaign in the same year. Grandmothers
students at Bishop Macdonell Catholic High School in Guelph, Ontario, in Canada use their collective voice to help
presented Stephen Lewis with a social justice award. From 2001 to 2006, grandmothers in Africa care for the millions
Lewis, a former leader of the Ontario NDP and a former Canadian of AIDS orphans. Why would Lewis turn to
grandmothers to lead this effort?
ambassador to the UN, served as the UN secretary-
general’s special envoy for HIV-AIDS in Africa.
The students told Lewis that he was a role model for
changing the world.
In turn, Lewis praised the students for raising more
than $21 000 to support an AIDS clinic in Lesotho,
Africa. Lewis said, “Recognize that it’s a notable effort
to show basic human generosity and compassion for
other people. We are our brothers’ and sisters’ keepers.”
Historical Perspective: I nfer from Lewis’s actions and
statement what he might think about whether or not
individuals have the power to effect change. Support
your inference with the evidence.

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 143

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Voices The Responsibility to Protect

Before the 1990s, the UN had a longstanding policy of taking action in
The issue is not one of a right
only two situations: a conflict between countries or a conflict within a
to intervention, but rather of a
country when a government invited the UN to help. If an invitation was
responsibility — in the first instance,
a responsibility of all states to protect not issued, the UN viewed the conflict as an internal matter and refused
their own populations, but ultimately to intervene.
a responsibility of the whole human During the 1990s and into the 21st century, brutal civil conflicts
race to protect our fellow human within countries such as Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Somalia, Sudan, and Burma
beings from extreme abuse wherever led to atrocities and sometimes genocide — deliberate efforts to destroy
and whenever it occurs. a national, ethnic, racial or religious group. Sometimes the atrocities were
— Kofi Annan, UN secretary-general, being perpetrated by a people’s own government.
at the Stockholm International Forum on As the world learned of these horrors, civil society groups, politicians,
Preventing Genocide, 2004 and diplomats began to call on the United Nations to take action to
protect victims of this kind of violence, even without an invitation. They
argued that national borders should not matter when human rights
are being violated. This idea came to be called the responsibility to
protect. It means that the UN may step in when a government is unable
or unwilling to protect its citizens from genocide, war crimes, ethnic
cleansing, or crimes against humanity.
Lloyd Axworthy and the Canadian government played a leading
role in overcoming opposition — and in 2005, the UN adopted the
idea. It was first used as justification for action in February 2011. The
UN Security Council demanded that the government of Libya cease its
ongoing attacks against civilians, which it called crimes against humanity.
It authorized member states to protect Libyan civilians under attack.
NATO soon began air strikes, a mission in which Canada took part.

Figure 5–6 In March 2011, a Libyan rebel on top of a moving

truck urges people to leave the area as government forces start
shelling the outskirts of Bin Jawaad in central Libya. Why might
it sometimes be difficult to tell when an abuse of human rights is
happening? How would you go about getting confirmation?

Recall . . . Reflect . . . Respond

1. Develop two criteria you would use to decide 2. Choose one organization mentioned in this chapter
whether or not the world community should and list the pros and cons of membership. When
intervene to stop violence within a country, even making your list, consider the potential effect on
without an invitation. What ethical considerations international security. Write a concluding statement
influenced the criteria you developed? that explains if Canada should be a member or not.

144 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Why does Canada respond to major Voices
international conflicts? [Middle powers] are those who are
willing to assume responsibilities;
The world has experienced many conflicts since 1982, some within seek practical, doable solutions to
countries and some between countries. Every time, Canada had to decide problems; and who have a voice and
influence in global affairs because
whether or not to get involved.
they lead, not by lecturing, but by
Canada is a middle power — a country that is not a superpower but example.
is still strong enough to influence world affairs. As such, it doesn’t ever try
— Stephen Harper, Canada’s prime
to resolve conflicts on its own. It virtually always consults with its allies minister, at the Council of Foreign
and the UN, and then decides how much support to offer a multilateral Relations, 2007
effort to resolve the situation.
Canada has faced many such situations since the late 1980s and
early 1990s, when the Soviet Union broke up into a number of smaller,
independent countries. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union had
suppressed internal conflicts in the countries under its control. After that
control evaporated, conflicts erupted in Eastern Europe, parts of Africa,
the Middle East, and elsewhere.
Some say that it all began with a single event: the fall of the Berlin Wall.

The Fall of the Berlin Wall

After World War II, the victorious Allies had divided Germany in two.
At first, West Germany was controlled by Britain, France, and the
United States, but it eventually became an independent democracy. East
Germany became a communist state controlled by the Soviet Union.
Throughout the Cold War, NATO forces, including Canadians, kept
military bases in West Germany to defend Western Europe from possible
Soviet attack.
Berlin, which had been Germany’s capital, was divided in two. East
Berlin was part of East Germany, and West Berlin was part of West Figure 5–7 To celebrate the reunification
Germany. The Soviets decided to put up a wall to divide the two halves of their city in 1989, Berliners climbed
of the city because hundreds of thousands of East Germans were fleeing onto the wall that had divided East and
through Berlin to the West. It was embarrassing. On August 13, 1961, West Berlin for decades. In the background
the wall began to go up. Orders were given that anyone caught trying to is the Brandenburg Gate. Compare the
climb the wall would be shot. perspectives East and West Berliners might
In the West, the wall was not just reinforced have had of this event.
concrete and barbed wire. Every time an East German
was shot while trying to escape to the West, the wall
became an ever more powerful symbol of the tyranny
of the Soviet Union.
Twenty-eight years after the wall first went up,
on November 4, 1989, half a million East Germans
protested in East Berlin. It was part of a rising storm
that the Communist leaders were helpless to slow
down or stop. Then, on the night of November 9,
more than two million East Berliners flooded though
the checkpoints to join what one journalist called “the
greatest street party in the history of the world.”

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 145

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT
Thinking Historically: Continuity and Change

A Turning Point, but Why?

When East and West Berliners pulled down the Berlin Wall in the days following November 9,
1989, the event seemed to mark the end of a political era. The end of tyranny. The end of the Cold
War. A new beginning. Many viewed this event as a turning point.
A turning point is a singular moment in time when the process of change shifts. It can change in
direction, in speed, or both.
After 1989, people’s dreams of a new world order Figure 5–8 Visualizing Turning Points
did not materialize. War and nuclear arms did not
A turning point is a moment when the course of history changes.
suddenly evaporate from the world. Yet the fall may
What do these diagrams suggest about turning points?
have been a turning point for people in other ways.
Let’s look at various ways that change may have
shifted in direction or speed after the fall of the Berlin
Wall.
• The wall had physically divided Berlin families for
nearly three decades. After the wall came down,
they could travel freely.
• With the fall, German reunification suddenly became Could the turning point have been much earlier?
possible — within a year, East and West Germany Consider one possibility: the leader of the Soviet
became a single country once again. Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, took explicit actions in
1985 to deal with Russia’s economic and political
• The fall of the Berlin Wall signalled the peaceful
deterioration. He launched two sweeping reforms.
defeat of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold
Perestroika (restructuring) ended price controls
War. In a sense, it was the waving of the white flag.
and government monopolies, encouraged a
• The fall marked the beginning of the end of the free market economy, and promised democratic
communist political system in the Soviet Union. elections. Unfortunately, it takes a long time for such
Indeed, it marked the beginning of the breakup changes to improve a society.
of the Soviet Union itself, as various states soon Through glasnost (openness), Gorbachev allowed
gained independence from the Soviet Union. freedom of speech, which meant the press began
• The Soviet planned economy had been slowly pointing out the corruption and flaws in the Soviet
deteriorating for decades. The Soviet Union could system. It also meant that Soviet police would not
not keep up in the arms race. For decades, the use violence to suppress protests. These changes
peoples of Eastern Europe had been craving the encouraged fed-up citizens to demonstrate without
democracy, lifestyle, and freedoms enjoyed in the fear for their safety, which in turn put pressure on
West. The fall of the wall was the final expression the East German government to accede to their
of those cravings. demand to open the wall.

Explorations
1. One person spray painted on the wall, “Only today is 3. Some turning points are specific to particular societies.
the war really over.” To what war would he or she have The fall of the Berlin Wall could be viewed by German
been referring? Does this make the fall of the wall a citizens as a turning point for their country. Some
turning point? turning points mark monumental change for many
countries, or even the world. Was the fall of the Berlin
2. Did the fall of the Berlin Wall actually mark a change
Wall a turning point for the world — and Canada too?
in the direction or pace of historical change? Support
your answer by noting specific trends that changed.

146 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Canada and the 1991 Gulf War
.....
CONNECTIONS .....
In 1990, oil-rich Iraq was controlled by President Saddam Hussein, a
dictator who ruled the country with an iron fist. That August, Saddam Some firsts were recorded during the
Gulf War.
claimed that neighbouring Kuwait was stealing Iraqi oil. It was the excuse
• This war marked the first time
he wanted for invading Kuwait, and Iraqi troops entered the country. Canadian forces had taken part in
In response, the United Nations Security Council imposed economic active combat since the Korean War
sanctions (trade restrictions) on Iraq and ordered Saddam to remove his (1950–53).
forces from Kuwait. Canada complied with the UN sanctions and sent • It was the first time that TV news
forces to join an international military coalition that was gathering in case provided 24-hour coverage of a
conflict, on channels such as CNN.
Saddam ignored the UN’s order.
The UN set a deadline: Iraqi forces
had to leave Kuwait by January 15,
1991, or face military consequences. Figure 5–9 The Middle East
Saddam ignored the deadline. So the
U.S. Congress authorized the use of Find Canada, the United States, and Britain on the locator map. Why would Western powers
have started gathering forces to oppose Saddam five months before declaring war? Would
force against Iraq, and the Canadian
this preparation have increased or decreased the likelihood of war?
Parliament followed suit. Nearly three
dozen other countries did the same —
and the Gulf War began. Turkey China
Caspian Turkmenistan
Troops from the United States and Sea
Britain spearheaded the operation. Syria Tehran Kabul
Canadian forces escorted hospital ships, Afghanistan
provided medical help, transported Iraq Baghdad
Iran
personnel and cargo, and helped refuel
fighter planes in the air. The Canadian Pakistan
air force also flew combat patrols and Kuwait rsia
Pe

nG
took part in bombing missions. ulf India
Saudi Riyadh
Qatar
The End of the Gulf War Arabia United Arab
Emirates
Red

Iraq’s armed forces were quickly

Oman Arabian
overwhelmed by the much larger and
Se

Sea
a

better-equipped coalition force, and

on February 26, Iraqi troops started Legend 0 400 800
Capital City Yemen kilometres
withdrawing from Kuwait. Coalition
soldiers pursued Saddam’s troops into
Iraq but stopped short of attacking
Baghdad, the Iraqi capital. As a
result, Saddam remained in power Voices
when the war ended. It was absolutely thrilling when we
Afterward, the UN set up the knew that we put the last [well] out.
Iraq–Kuwait Observation Mission to It was like a big celebration to us. I’d
monitor the situation between Iraq do it again. I’d do it again in a New
and Kuwait. Canadian forces played York minute. If it all started again,
an important role in this mission. A and even with my age, I’d be the
field engineer unit, for example, helped clear land mines planted by Iraqi first volunteer to go there and start
working.
forces. Because of their experience with oil wells, Canadian companies
were hired to put out the many oil well fires that the Iraqi forces had set — George Connon, a Canadian crew
chief who put out oil well fires in Kuwait
before they left Kuwait.

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 147

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Consequences of the Gulf War

The victory of coalition forces in the Gulf War did not resolve tensions
between Iraq and the United States and its allies. Some people argued
that the war actually made the situation worse because Saddam was
humiliated by the crushing defeat. Others argued that the coalition forces
should have continued to Baghdad and driven Saddam from power.
Some observers did not believe that the Gulf War was really fought
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . . because of concern for the citizens of Kuwait. These commentators
believed that coalition allies were more concerned about ensuring their
Gulf War syndrome is a group of continued access to oil. Do the motives of governments that joined the
ailments reported by veterans of the
Gulf War. They experience nausea,
coalition matter?
rashes, irritable bowel syndrome, and After the Gulf War, many people believed that Saddam was amassing
fatigue. Many researchers believe that weapons of mass destruction (WMD), including chemical and nuclear
one cause of the syndrome is exposure
to toxic chemicals and depleted
weapons. So Canada, the United States, and many other UN members
uranium, which is used in weapons. continued the sanctions against Iraq.
But the sanctions were controversial. Some people argued that the
sanctions did not harm Saddam; rather, they hurt the Iraqi people
by limiting their access to food, medicine, and other supplies. Other
people supported the sanctions. For example, Canadian Defence
Figure 5–10 After serving in the 1991 Gulf Minister Art Eggleton said that the sanctions would “further strengthen
War, Canadian Louise Richard experienced Canada’s military relationship with the United States and reaffirm our
serious health problems including asthma, commitment to peace and stability in [the Middle East].”
hair loss, and excessive bleeding. Here, she
speaks with the media on Parliament Hill in Continued Tensions in the Middle East
Ottawa, in 2011. She notes that soldiers are The governments of several Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia and
exposed to a wide variety of harmful toxins, Qatar, had joined the coalition that fought Saddam. They believed that
many of which have long-term health the Iraqi dictator endangered security in the Middle East.
consequences. The government denies
But many people in Arab countries and elsewhere condemned the
responsibility. Should the government
continued sanctions against Iraq. Iraq’s infrastructure had been severely
assist veterans in the absence of proof?
Should it compensate them for their health
damaged by the bombing that had taken place during the war, and the
problems? sanctions prevented rebuilding.
Further, UNICEF reported that at least
300 000 Iraqi children died because of the
shortage of food and medical supplies. Some
people said that the sanctions were deadlier
than the war.
Another point that angered many Muslims
was the presence of American troops in Saudi
Arabia after the war. Osama bin Laden, the
Saudi leader of an extremist group called
al-Qaeda, was particularly upset. In the view
of bin Laden and his followers, the American
presence desecrated the country that was home
to Islam’s holiest sites.
Historical Perspective: I f we do not try to
understand the motivations of everyone
involved in an historical event, how would our
understanding of the event be limited?

148 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Yugoslavia Figure 5–11 Yugoslavia, 1990

At the end of World War I, the Allies, who had won Not all Serbians lived in Serbia in 1990. Nor did all Croatians live in
the war, created one country — Yugoslavia — out Croatia or Slovenes live in Slovenia. How might this mixing up of
of the Balkan states of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and populations cause tensions? Why might it lead to war?
Herzegovina, Serbia, Macedonia, and Montenegro. The Austria
Hungary
Legend
Capital City
ethnic, religious, and cultural differences that divided Italy Slovenia International
Boundary
the people of these states were ignored. Republic Boundary
Croatia Provincial Boundary
For much of the second half of the 20th century, Vojvodina
this uneasy union was held together by the communist Romania
Bosnia and
dictator Josip Tito. Under Tito’s rule, people belonging Herzegovina Belgrade

to various ethnic and religious groups lived and worked Yu g o s l av i a

side by side in relative harmony. But when Tito died in Ethnic Groups Serbia
in Yugoslavia
1980, independence movements surfaced. Serbians 38% Montenegro
Croatians 20% Kosovo Bulgaria
By the early 1990s, these tensions had erupted into Muslims*
Albanians
9%
8%
fierce fighting as ethnic and religious groups clashed. Slovenes 8% Adriatic
Macedonians 6% Sea
Eventually, peace deals were brokered, and Slovenia, Montenegrins 3% Macedonia
Hungarians 2%
Macedonia, and Croatia achieved independence. Other 6% Albania Greece
* People who identified Italy
Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence in themselves only as Muslims.
Many ethnic groups included
0 100 200
1992, but Serbs who lived there wanted to unite with both Christians and Muslims. kilometres

Serbia — and the Serbian government supported them.

Bosnian Serbs and Serbian troops fought to gain control
in Bosnia, and hundreds of thousands of Bosnian
Albanians, mostly Muslims, were driven from their
homes. People on both sides found themselves attacked,
sometimes by former neighbours. Thousands of people
died.
Historical Perspective: I s it idealistic to think that people
of different heritages should be able to get along? Why
didn’t it work in the former Yugoslavia?

Canadian Peacekeepers in the Former Yugoslavia

The United Nations negotiated ceasefires so that peacekeepers could
provide humanitarian relief and set up safe areas for refugees. Canadian
Voices
peacekeepers played an important role in this mission. Countries don’t give their troops to
General Lewis MacKenzie, a Canadian who had served on previous the UN in trust to be killed trying to
UN missions, commanded the UN force. As usual, the peacekeepers were implement a really lousy ceasefire
ordered not to take sides and to use force only to defend themselves. agreement arranged by a bunch of
But the operations in the former Yugoslavia were different from diplomats and politicians. . . . That’s
what’s happening in Yugoslavia.
previous missions — the combatants wanted to keep fighting, so the
peacekeepers often found themselves in difficult situations. Some witnessed — Lewis MacKenzie, after his tour as
commander of UN forces in Bosnia, 1993
atrocities, but their orders prevented them from intervening to save people.
Many peacekeepers were attacked and forced to defend themselves.
After completing his stint as commander in Bosnia, MacKenzie
blamed the UN for sending peacekeepers on a mission that was bound to
fail. MacKenzie believed that this UN mission marked a turning point
for peacekeeping — the whole notion of peacekeeping would have to be
reconsidered.

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 149

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Canada and Kosovo

Under Josip Tito’s rule, Yugoslavia had been a federation of six republics.
Kosovo was a province in the Serbian republic. Here, Serbs and Albanians
formed the two largest ethnic groups.
When Yugoslavia started to crumble, Albanian Kosovars demanded
independence, but Serbian Kosovars wanted to keep their ties with
Figure 5–12 A protester holds up a sign at Serbia. Life for all Kosovars became dangerous as extremists on both sides
a 2008 Vancouver rally opposing Canada’s committed murders and other atrocities.
recognition of Kosovo as an independent By 1998, Serbian government forces were openly fighting the
country. How might recognizing Kosovo be supporters of independence in Kosovo and President Slobodan Milošević
interpreted as supporting social justice? had launched a brutal crackdown on Albanian Kosovars. The Serbian
How might it be interpreted as undermining
tactics included mass murder and mass expulsions.
social justice?
NATO officials tried to broker a peace but failed. To
halt the attacks, NATO then launched air strikes — it
was the first time NATO launched such a mission without
the authorization of the UN. Eighteen Canadian CF-18
fighters joined planes from countries such as the United
States, Britain, France, and Spain to take part in these
strikes.
From the end of March until the beginning of June
1999, NATO planes bombed not only military sites but
also the cities of Belgrade and Priština.
The air strikes were controversial. Mary Robinson,
the UN’s high commissioner for human rights, confirmed
that the bombings had killed “large numbers of civilians.”
Critics argued that the strikes violated international law
and humanitarian principles.
Other people supported the strikes, saying that they
were needed to keep the conflict from spreading.

Up for Discussion The Aftermath of the Bombings

The UN has a responsibility to protect, but During and after the bombings, hundreds of thousands of Albanian
does NATO? Who gets to decide when a Kosovars fled to refugee camps in neighbouring countries. Many reported
population needs protection? that the mass murders and forced expulsions had become worse during
the NATO campaign.
But in June 1999, Serbian forces left Kosovo and UN peacekeepers,
including Canadians, moved in. The UN set up a temporary government
and tried to help refugees return home.
On February 17, 2008, Kosovo declared independence. Serbia said
the declaration was illegal. By 2009, the UN had not recognized Kosovo.
Despite this, Canada, the United States, and many European countries
recognized Kosovo’s independence.
Cause and Consequence: Some Canadians predicted that recognizing
Kosovo, which did not hold a referendum before declaring independence,
will make it harder for Canada to enforce the Clarity Act (p. 78) if
Québec declares independence in the future. Others argued that the cases
of Kosovo and Québec are too different. Choose one side of this debate
and prepare arguments you could use to support your view.

150 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia
By late 1992, the government of the East African country of Somalia had
collapsed. Warlords and clans were fighting for power in a conflict made
worse by a famine that was sweeping the country. Many people were
murdered, while others starved.
To try to stabilize Somalia, 900 members of the Canadian Airborne
Regiment, an elite force, joined a UN peacekeeping mission there. The
peacekeepers’ assignment was to disarm the warring clans and provide
relief supplies to the starving people.
The mission in the lawless country was difficult. Some members of Voices
the Canadian regiment reacted badly, committing violent acts against Unfortunately some incidents put a
Somali citizens. One of the worst occurred when soldiers tortured and shadow over everything we did. A
killed Shidane Arone, a 16-year-old who had been caught trying to steal few incidents made the news, and
supplies. [not] all the rest of the work — the
Though the soldiers who committed the crimes were brought to school we built, the engineering
justice, the Somalia affair tarnished Canada’s peacekeeping record. In work. We saved dozens of people.
1996, a Canadian inquiry found that the Canadian Airborne’s leadership And we read about that nowhere.
had failed, and the regiment was disbanded in disgrace. — Captain Hercule Gosselin, Canadian
With no effective government, Somalis survived as best they could, Airborne Regiment, 1993
and some turned to piracy. Pirates seized ships in the Gulf of Aden and
the Arabian Sea, holding the crews and cargos for ransom. The waters off
the country’s coast earned the reputation of being the most dangerous in
the world. In 2014, Somalia remained chaotic.
Ethical Dimension: H
 ow does the context of the situation in Somalia
help us understand — though not condone — the unethical behaviour
of Canadian soldiers? How does the context of Canada’s
previously unmarred peacekeeping record help us Figure 5–13 Somalia and Rwanda
understand why the Canadian Airborne Regiment was How did geography contribute to the rise in piracy off the Somali
disbanded? coast?

Canadian Peacekeepers in Rwanda

In 1993, the UN sent about 2500 peacekeepers, including
400 Canadians, to Rwanda under the command of
Canadian General Roméo Dallaire. Rwanda had been in
a state of conflict because the two main ethnic groups —
Hutus and Tutsis — were struggling for power. But a peace Legend
Eritrea
Capital City Yemen
agreement had been reached, and the peacekeepers’ mission Gulf of
was to ensure that the agreement was respected. Aden
Djibouti
Then, in April 1994, an airplane carrying Rwandan Sudan
president Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, was shot down. Central Ethiopia
Though no one knew who had committed the crime, African
Republic Somalia
Tutsis were blamed. Radio broadcasts openly incited Hutus Mogadishu
to violence. Many Hutus went on a murderous rampage, Democratic
killing Tutsis, and even Hutus who had criticized the Hutu Republic Uganda Kenya Indian
of Congo Lake Ocean
government. Kigali Victoria
Over the next 100 days, up to 800 000 people were Rwanda 0 800 1600
murdered. More than 90 per cent of the dead were Tutsis. Burundi Tanzania kilometres

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 151

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

The UN Failure in Rwanda

Voices Roméo Dallaire had warned UN officials of the risk of genocide, pleaded
Rwanda will never ever leave me. . . . for reinforcements, and asked permission to seize Hutu weapons —
Fifty to sixty thousand people but his requests were ignored. When the genocide started, the UN
walking in the rain and the mud to peacekeepers tried to protect as many people as they could, but the small
escape being killed, and seeing a force was not permitted to take direct action to stem the violence. So
person there beside the road dying.
Dallaire had to endure three months of witnessing the majority Hutu
We saw lots of them dying. And lots
population slaughtering the minority Tutsi population. Approximately 10
of those eyes still haunt me, angry
eyes or innocent eyes, no laughing per cent of the country’s population was killed.
eyes. But the worst eyes that haunt Later, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was UN secretary-general at the
me are the eyes of those people time of the genocide, acknowledged that what had happened in Rwanda
who were totally bewildered. . . . was one of the greatest failures of his life. Even when the extent of the
Those eyes dominated and they’re killing became known and the UN decided to send more peacekeepers
absolutely right. How come I failed? to Rwanda, arguments over costs caused delays. In the end, troops and
How come my mission failed? supplies did not arrive in the country until well after the genocide was over.
— Roméo Dallaire, in an interview for the Ethical Dimension: I n Voices, Roméo Dallaire talks of being haunted by
documentary Ghosts of Rwanda, 2003
visions of the past and feelings of failure. What might come of his efforts
to talk about what went wrong so many years ago?

Picturing International Security Issues

Figure 5–14 An Iraqi child is vaccinated against polio in 2000. Before the UN
imposed sanctions in the early 1990s, polio was extremely rare in Iraq. But medical
supplies, including essential vaccines, were on the list of sanctioned goods. As a
result, polio re-emerged as a serious childhood illness among Iraqi children. Who
should take responsibility for this situation — Saddam Hussein or the countries
that supported sanctions?

Child Soldiers

Figure 5–15 A child soldier patrols in 2003

during a rally in the Democratic Republic of
Congo. The UN Convention on the Rights of the
Child prohibits recruiting children younger than
15 to fight in the military. Should this age limit
be raised to 16? To 18?

Children’s Health

152 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

The Aftermath of the Rwandan Genocide
Figure 5–16 In 2007, an award-winning
In 2014, 20 years after the Rwandan genocide, its effects were still being Canadian movie based on Roméo Dallaire’s
felt. Local courts were set up to try to achieve reconciliation between book was released. The movie was critical
victims and some of those who had been involved in the murders. In of the UN’s failure to take action to prevent
some cases, the reconciliation efforts were successful, but in other cases, the genocide in Rwanda. What do you think
they were not. Some genocide survivors have been murdered, tortured, or the title means in relation to the Rwanda
intimidated so they would not tell their stories to the courts. mission?
The genocide in Rwanda, combined with the troubles peacekeepers
were experiencing in Yugoslavia and Somalia, raised questions about
the UN’s ability to protect threatened populations. Critics argued that
traditional ideas about peacekeeping should be abandoned in favour of
more active peacemaking — a strategy that forces an end to conflict
rather than just helping two warring parties keep the peace.
As for Dallaire, he was plagued with post-traumatic stress disorder
for decades. He worked to raise awareness about the genocide and to raise
awareness about post-traumatic stress disorder. After serving for nine
years in the Canadian Senate, Dallaire resigned so that he could dedicate
himself to combating the use of child soldiers.

Refugees of War

Figure 5–17 Syrian families wait their turn in

Lebanon to register as refugees of the Syrian civil
Aggressors
war in 2014. About 6.5 million Syrians have been
internally displaced and 2.5 million have fled Syria Figure 5–18 In March 2014, pro-Russian forces broke into the Belbek
altogether. Canada agreed to take 1300 Syrian airbase in Crimea, Ukraine. Ukraine forces could not repel the attackers.
refugees by the end of 2014. How can we balance The photograph shows a pro-Russian machine gunner controlling the
human suffering against Canada’s ability to absorb gate of the captured airbase. As of July 2014, pro-Russian forces had
new citizens? not left. What should we do when aggressors use their firepower to get
their way? Fight back and start a war? Try diplomacy? The problem is
that if countries always respond harshly to every apparent injustice, the
consequence could be war.

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 153

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

International Criminal Tribunals

During the 1990s, the UN Security Council established two international
tribunals (special courts) to investigate crimes against humanity. In 1993,
it set up the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia,
and in 1994, it established a similar tribunal to investigate the genocide in
Rwanda. Canada strongly supported these tribunals.
Neither tribunal made much
progress in bringing people to justice
until Canadian Louise Arbour was
named chief prosecutor in 1996. By the
time Arbour stepped down in 1999, the
Rwanda tribunal had achieved the first
conviction for genocide since the UN
had passed the Convention on Genocide
in 1948. Jean-Paul Akayesu was judged
guilty because of his actions while
he was mayor of the Rwandan town
of Taba. He not only refused to save
people though he was in a position to
do so, but also provided lists of people
he wanted killed, organized house-to-
house searches for them, and supervised
killings. The Yugoslavia tribunal laid
charges against former Serbian President
Figure 5–19 In July 1999, Louise Arbour Slobodan Milošević, as well as other high-ranking officials who had been
spoke with Kosovar Albanians who had responsible for many atrocities in the former Yugoslavia. Milošević died in
witnessed murders by Serbian forces in
jail of a heart attack before a verdict was reached.
the village of Vlastica, Kosovo. Why would
Arbour went on to serve as the UN’s high commissioner for human
Arbour visit the sites where the alleged
crimes took place?
rights from 2004 to 2008. Her job was to investigate human rights
violations.

Debate over the Tribunals

The criminal tribunals for both the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda
sparked controversy. People disagreed over whether the UN Security
Voices Council had the authority to set up bodies like these. Some critics
The Universal Declaration [of Human argued that tribunals can be established only by the UN General
Rights] and its core values — Assembly. The tribunals have also been costly, and these costs — several
inherent human dignity, justice, non- million dollars a year — are shared by all UN members. Other critics
discrimination, equality, fairness, and argued that the tribunals moved too slowly to be effective. In some
universality — apply to everyone, cases, trials have lasted years.
everywhere, always. But tribunal supporters, including Canada, argued that every
— Louise Arbour, UN high accused person deserves a fair trial, no matter how long it takes.
commissioner for human rights, 2007 They also say that the tribunals send an important message: that the
international community will stand behind the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights.
Cause and Consequence: W hat would the Declaration of Human Rights
be worth if those who signed it never stood up to enforce it? What is the
best way to get governments to uphold the values in the declaration?

154 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

The International Criminal Court
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
The events in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and the long delays
in bringing criminals to justice through the tribunals, convinced some Canadian international law expert
Philippe Kirsch played a leading
governments and many other organizations that the United Nations role in promoting and organizing the
should set up a permanent international court for prosecuting cases of International Criminal Court. In 2003,
genocide. The Canadian government was one of the driving forces behind Kirsch, who has been called the
the call to establish this court. “father of the ICC,” was elected as a
judge for a six-year term, and served
The International Criminal Court (ICC) began to take shape in 1998. as the court’s first president.
Representatives of Canada and other countries met in Rome to plan how
the court would work. But the ICC could not start operating until 60 of
the UN’s 192 members had agreed to support it. The minimum number
was reached in 2002. By 2014, 122 countries had signed on. Some states
were reluctant at first because a country that is a member must agree that
the ICC has the authority to put its citizens on trial.
The UN funds the ICC, though the court operates independently.
The court’s purpose is to try people accused of genocide, war crimes,
and crimes against humanity: “the most serious crimes of international
concern.” The court can rule on crimes committed only within a country
that has signed the treaty. The ICC has no police force of its own; instead,
it depends on national police forces to arrest people it wants to charge.

The Debate over the International Criminal Court

Up for Discussion
Like the criminal tribunals, the ICC is controversial. Countries that
Does the International Criminal Court support
support the court believe that it promotes international peace and security
— or undermine — social justice?
by providing a tool that can be used to bring war criminals to justice.
These countries believe that this helps ensure that everyone’s human
rights are protected.
But many powerful countries, such as China, the United States,
Russia, and India, actively oppose the court. The U.S. government, for
example, has threatened to withhold military aid from countries that
support the court.
American officials argue that countries should be left to bring war
criminals to justice in their own courts. They also say that the ICC is too
powerful because it does not answer to any national government.

Canada and International Security since 1982

Recall . . . Reflect . . . Respond Conflict How Conflict Canada’s Our
1. With a partner, create a chart like the one shown. In
Challenged Response Assessment
the final column, explain how Canada’s involvement International of Canada’s
in each conflict helped or hurt the cause of Security Response
international security.
Gulf War
2. The ICC does more than ensure that justice is
served. How can it help countries come to terms Yugoslavia
with what happened? Think about what survivors,
perpetrators, bystanders, educators, and youth
Kosovo
might each gain from a trial. Somalia
Rwanda
mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 155
UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Was 9/11 a turning point for Canada?

On September 11, 2001, four American commercial flights were hijacked
over the United States. Two of the planes were used to destroy the towers
of the World Trade Center in New York City; another crashed into
the Pentagon in Washington, D.C.; and a fourth crashed in a field in
Pennsylvania. The death toll was 2752, including 24 Canadians.
Osama bin Laden, leader of al-Qaeda, claimed responsibility for the
attacks, which have become known as 9/11.

Thinking Historically: Evidence

They were just unbelievable the way

What Happened in Gander?

they treated us up there. They fed
us, and put us up and if we needed
anything, they’d get it for you.
— Dennis O’Rourke, resident of New
Imagine you were an historian in There was one after another. I’m
York City
2050, and for some reason the history looking at this and I’m saying: “Oh
of the year 2001 has been wiped off my God. Each one of those planes
I’m just going back to tell everyb
ody
the books — and the hard drives and must have anywhere from 200 to 300
there: Thank you. Everybody in
the
the Internet. people on-board. I think reality really hol d so the y
town put their lives on
kicked in at that point. som e
So you want to figure out what could take care of us. . . . At
e
happened. You track down this comment — Oz Fudge, a Gander police officer point I broke down crying becaus
made by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien finally everything hit me. I didn’t
on September 11, 2002, at the one- know where I was; I didn’t know
year anniversary of some major event when I was getting home, all this
in Gander, Newfoundland: “You did The way they rose to that occasion is stuff had happened to my countr
y.
yourselves proud, ladies and gentlemen, simply astonishing to me. They took an police
— Monica Burke, an Americ
and you did Canada proud.” What care of ever y one of those passengers dispatcher
happened in Gander? — and got their medicine for them
You do some more digging and find a and food and entertainment for
handful of quotes of people commenting them, anything that they needed. It I guess as a community, watching it
on the ten-year anniversary of the same was one of the most extraordinary at the beginning, we felt like we were
gifts by human beings to strangers helpless, there was not much we
event. Can you use this evidence to could do to help the people in New
solve the mystery? that I think I have ever seen.
York. But when the planes started to
— Louise Slaughter, U.S.
Congresswoman land, there was a way we could help.
Explorations — Claude Elliott, mayor of Gander

1. What happened in Gander? Be careful — remember

that you know nothing at all about what happened in the
year 2001 beyond what these quotes tell you.
c) Qualify each of your inferences as “definitely,”
a) List inferences you can make about what occurred
“likely,” or “possibly.”
in that year, both in Gander and elsewhere.
2. How did the events in Gander, Newfoundland, in 2001
b) For each inference, note if more than one piece of
affect the Canada–U.S. relationship? What does the
evidence supports your conclusion.
evidence tell you?

156 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Canada Goes to War
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
In response to the attacks, Canada declared a national day of mourning
and Prime Minister Jean Chrétien pledged to support the United States. Osama bid Laden had two grudges
against the United States. He believed
He said, “We will be with the United States every step of the way. As that American forces in Saudi Arabia
friends. As neighbours. As family.” were “desecrating” a Muslim country,
In October 2001, just one month after 9/11, Chrétien announced although the Saudi royal family had
that Canada would join a UN-approved NATO coalition attack force to invited the American presence.
Further, bin Laden wanted American
invade Afghanistan, stronghold of al-Qaeda. support for Israel to stop.

Background to the War in Afghanistan

It all began in the late 1970s, when Afghan government forces were
fighting a losing battle against rebel groups that supported an extreme
interpretation of Muslim scriptures and traditions. The Afghan
government appealed to the Soviet Union for help.
To stop the Soviet Union from increasing its influence, the United
States started to supply the extremist rebels with arms and money. One
rebel group was led by Osama bin Laden.
Figure 5–20 NATO Forces in Afghanistan,
After years of fighting, the Soviets finally withdrew from 2009
Afghanistan in the late 1980s. This cleared the way for the Taliban — a
fundamentalist Muslim political movement — to take over the country. Canada took responsibility for Kandahar
At about this time, bin Laden formed al-Qaeda. Using Afghanistan as Province, a Taliban stronghold. This choice
a base, he vowed to fight the West. After he did so in 9/11, Afghanistan’s meant that the Canadian mission would
be both difficult and dangerous. Compare
Taliban government refused to reveal bin Laden’s hiding place. So the
Canada’s troop contribution with that of
United Nations agreed that the United States and its allies had the right other countries. Did Canadian forces pull
— as a matter of self-defence — to invade Afghanistan to track down bin their weight in Afghanistan, do too little,
Laden and oust the Taliban. or do too much?

Legend
Uzbekistan Tajikistan
International Boundary
Regional Boundary
Provincial Boundary Turkmenistan China
Ghazni Provincial Name
Kandahar City/Military Base Germany
Capital City Germany Badakhshan
Canada Lead Country Jawzjan Sweden
Kunduz
Balkh
Takhar NATO Troops in Afghanistan,
by Country, April 2009
Faryab Sari Pul Samangan Hungary
Norway Albania 140 Italy 2350
Baghlan
Australia 1090 Jordan 7
U.S. U.S.
Badghis U.S. Panjsher Nuristan Austria 2 Latvia 160
Spain New Zealand U.S.
Parwan Azerbaijan 90 Lithuania 200
Bamyan U.S. Kunar
France Laghman Belgium 450 Luxembourg 9
Italy Turkey Kabul
Lithuania Wardak U.S. Bosnia & Netherlands 1770
He rat Ghor Czech Republic Nangarhar
Logar Herzegovina 2 New Zealand 150
Day Kundi U.S. U.S. Britain 8300 Norway 490
Paktya U.S.
Ghazni Khost Bulgaria 820 Poland 1590
Netherlands Canada 2830 Portugal 30
Uruzgan U.S. Croatia 280 Romania 860
U.S.
Iran Farah U.S.
Paktika
Pakistan Czech Singapore 20
Zabul Republic 580 Slovakia 230
Denmark 700 Slovenia 70
Britain Kandahar
Helmand Estonia 140 Spain 780
Canada
Nimroz Kandahar Finland 110 Sweden 290
Legend France 2780 Macedonia 170
Regional Command Capital - Lead Country: France Georgia 1 Turkey 660
Regional Command North - Lead Country: Germany Germany 3465 Ukraine 10
Regional Command West - Lead Country: Italy Greece 140 United Arab
Regional Command South - Lead Country: Netherlands Hungary 370 Emirates 25
0 100 200 300 (Rotates Britain, Canada) Iceland 8 United States 26 215
kilometres Regional Command East - Lead Country: United States Ireland 7

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 157

UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

A Long, Tough Slog

By the end of 2001, the Taliban had been driven from power in
Afghanistan, and in 2004 the country held democratic elections.
Nonetheless, the country remained very dangerous. Al-Qaeda and the
Taliban recruited guerrillas — independent armed forces that fight
against government forces — to terrorize the Afghan people and wage a
battle against the NATO forces.
Canada had responsibility for Kandahar Province, which was
perhaps the most dangerous location in the whole country. The guerrilla
tactics included improvised explosive devices (IEDs) such as land
mines, ambushes, and suicide attacks. Insurgents disguised themselves
as ordinary Afghans, so they were hard to identify and capture. The
constant danger made it difficult for Canada and its NATO partners to
fulfill their goals of helping Afghans build a safe and democratic society.
By 2006, more than two million Afghans had been forced from their
homes and were living as refugees.

Youth Making History

Omar Khadr — Child Soldier?

In 2002, Omar Khadr killed Sgt. 1st Class Christopher Figure 5–21 By 2014, Omar Khadr had
Speer, a U.S. army medic, with a hand grenade during been detained for about 12 years.
a firefight in Afghanistan. At the time, Omar was just 15
years old.
How did a Toronto-born Canadian teenager end up in Because of Omar’s age, organizations such as
a war zone? Omar’s father had links to Osama bin Laden, Amnesty International argued that he was a child
and he had taken his son Omar to live and work with soldier and should be set free. The United States
Taliban forces in Afghanistan. We can only speculate on disagreed. In 2010, Omar pleaded not guilty to five war
what went on before the firefight. crimes. After he was offered a transfer to a Canadian
Afterward, Omar was captured by U.S. forces, prison, he changed his mind and pleaded guilty.
classified as an enemy combatant, and shipped to At first Omar was sentenced to 40 years, but a
Guantanamo Bay detention camp, where the United pretrial deal reduced the sentence to eight years. In
States holds enemy combatants it suspects of terrorism. 2014, Omar was serving his time in a medium security
prison in Alberta. His release is set for October 30, 2018.

Explorations
1. Omar stated in 2013, “I have no memory at all of that day 3. Throughout Omar’s 10 years at Guantanamo, the federal
or anything at all about a grenade being thrown at any government did not try to bring Omar to Canada to be
U.S. soldiers.” Could this be true? Why might Omar have tried here. Other countries made such arrangements for
pleaded guilty? How would you find out the truth? their citizens. Does a government always have to do its
utmost to protect its citizens? Explain your opinion.
2. Should Omar’s age have had an influence on the
decisions made by the Canadian government?

158 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

The Mission Wraps Up
Figure 5–22 Master Corporal Anthony
Although Canada’s role in combat ended in 2011, some Canadian forces Alliot of the Grenadier Guards infantry
stayed for three more years to train Afghan National Security Forces. regiment was one of the last Canadian
By the time Canada’s mission finally ended in 2014, more than 40 000 soldiers to return home on March 18, 2014.
Canadian soldiers had served their country. Of these, 158 had been killed Here, he embraces his girlfriend, Sarah
and more than 1800 were wounded. To put this mission in perspective, Tooth. Although soldiers know what is
more Canadians died in Afghanistan than in any other military mission expected of them when they join up, the
since the Korean War in the 1950s. long separations are still very hard for both
The financial costs were also high. Security analyst David Perry soldiers and their loved ones. He said, “It’s
estimates that the final bill will reach $22 billion. This includes the costs been an honour to serve. It was a great
of the missions, the long-term care for wounded veterans, and payments experience; something I will remember for
the rest of my life.” Would you be prepared
to rebuild and replace military equipment.
to embrace army life?
Was It Worth It?
Afghanistan is one of the 15 least developed countries in
the world. In 2002, levels of education, infrastructure,
and respect for human rights are all extremely low. To
accomplish their goal of building Afghanistan into a
stable, secure, and democratic country, Canadian forces
were involved in diplomacy, community development,
securing women’s rights, ensuring education for girls,
and building infrastructure. They not only fought the
insurgents but also trained Afghan security forces so they
could do the job themselves after Canada left.
Were the accomplishments worth all the sacrifices?
Some argue that the costs, both human and monetary,
were too great. In the Ottawa Sun, a survey posted in
August 2011 showed that 30 per cent of respondents thought the mission
was worth it, while 58 per cent did not.
As the mission came to an end, Stephen Harper praised the valiant . . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
efforts of the 40 000 Canadian soldiers who served in this mission by
According to the Costs of War Project,
stating that they “have fought to defeat the threat of terrorism, and to at least 21 000 Afghan civilians have
ensure the freedom of others to build a stronger, safer world.” died as a result of the war in their
country. Some were victims of violence
while others died from the war-induced
Figure 5–23 Changes in Afghanistan, 2001–2014 breakdown of public health and
infrastructure.
Canada contributed extensively in achieving these changes. Which do you predict will be permanent?

2001 2014

Children in school 1 million 7.7 million

Percentage of students who are girls 0% 39%

Constitution no yes
Up for Discussion
Elections 0 since 1982 5 since 2004
What makes the question “Was the mission
Percentage of voters who were women 0% 36% worth it?” a difficult one to answer? How
would you go about answering it?
Base of terrorism yes no

Size of Afghan security forces 0 300 000

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UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT
Viewpoints on History

Women’s Rights in Afghanistan

In 2009, the Afghan parliament passed a law that was in keeping with the beliefs of Shia Muslims
— about 10 per cent of Afghanistan’s population. The law enabled Shia men to strictly control
their wives. Wives were, for example, required to ask permission to go out.
Humanitarian groups and many Western leaders question whether or not the NATO mission was
condemned the law as a setback in Afghan women’s making any progress toward promoting human
battle for equal rights. In Canada, it led people to rights in Afghanistan.

Farah Mohamed, whose family

arrived in Canada as refugees, is I grew up in Canada in a Muslim home where respect and the
active in various community and advancement of women are normal, and I was horrified by this
humanitarian groups. law. How can you think in this day and age that a man can have
that kind of control over a woman and her body? This is not a
woman’s issue. To me, this is about human rights. My male Muslim
friends are equally outraged and horrified.

A former chair of the National

Action Committee on the Status of How has the war helped women in Afghanistan? It hasn’t. . . .
Women, Judy Rebick opposed the Never have women achieved equality by somebody coming in and
War in Afghanistan. giving it to them. We can’t bomb our way into equality. . . . We
should never have gone into Afghanistan in the first place, and we
should leave.

Historian Margaret MacMillan,

who wrote the award-winning This is a moment for women on the left, who support women’s rights
Paris 1919: Six Months That at home, to ask themselves, “What do we do about Afghanistan?” . . .
Changed the World, believes This is a regime that depends very heavily on Western backing and
that the mission was essential to the Canadian government and others should . . . use their influence
protect women’s rights. over President [Hamid] Karzai [to make him end this law].

Malala Yousafzai was just 15

years old when a Taliban fighter shot When women say they want independence, people think this
her in the head because she was means we don’t want to obey our fathers, brothers, or husbands.
outspoken about girls’ and women’s But it does not mean that. It means we want to make decisions
right to education. She responded for ourselves. We want to be free to go to school or to go to
by recovering and bringing her work. Nowhere is it written in the Quran that a woman should be
message to the world. dependent on a man.

Explorations
1. Compare the positions of the four speakers. How are 3. Do Canadians have a right — or even a responsibility —
they the same? How are they different? to press the Afghan government to change a law that
2. Whose view do you agree with most closely? Explain. seems to undermine human rights? Or should Afghans
figure it out on their own? Explain your response.

160 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

The Invasion of Iraq Figure 5–24 In February 2003, U.S.
Shortly after the NATO Afghanistan mission had begun, American Secretary of State Colin Powell tried
President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair had unsuccessfully to convince the UN Security
switched their focus to Iraq, where Saddam Hussein remained in power. Council that Iraq had WMDs that must be
Both Bush and Blair accused Saddam of amassing weapons of mass destroyed. Powell later said that he had
destruction (WMDs). These are chemical or biological weapons that can been misinformed and that the speech was
a painful blot on his career.
kill whole populations.
So in March 2003, 300 000 soldiers from the United States, Britain,
and a coalition of other countries invaded Iraq. They said the purpose of
the mission was to safeguard international security by deposing Saddam
and destroying Iraq’s WMDs.
But United Nations inspectors had conducted inspections in Iraq and
found no WMDs. Consequently, the UN did not support the invasion.
Without UN approval, Canada refused to join the mission.
Many Canadians agreed with the government’s decision, saying that
the real purpose of the invasion had been to gain control of Iraq’s huge
oil reserves. Others expressed concerns that Canada’s refusal to take part
would harm the country’s relations with its closest allies.
When the invasion started, the United States pulled some of its
forces out of Afghanistan and sent them to Iraq instead. To make up the
. . . . . CONNECTIONS . . . . .
shortfall in Afghanistan, Canada and other NATO countries increased
the size of their forces. In the view of some Canadians, this action The United States used the alleged
amounted to approving the invasion of Iraq. proof of WMDs in Iraq as an excuse to
launch the war. When it became clear
Saddam was captured in late 2003 and executed three years later. No that reports of WMDs had been false,
WMDs were found in Iraq. Nonetheless U.S. forces remained in Iraq until some media outlets apologized for their
2011. And though Iraq had made some progress toward democracy, it all failure to monitor the situation more
closely and to report more objectively.
seemed to fall apart in 2014 when an Islamist militant group took over The editors of the influential New York
much of the country and the Iraqi government could not regain control. Times, for example, confessed that the
Canada’s refusal to be involved in the Iraqi mission was Canada’s right paper’s coverage “was not as rigorous
as a sovereign nation. Why might the Americans be unhappy with this as it should have been.”
decision? How might it damage the Canada–U.S. relationship? Was this
decision a wise move or a mistake?

Figure 5–25 During the invasion of

Iraq, journalists were selected to team
up with coalition troops and travel with
them exclusively. How might this affect
a journalist’s ability to be unbiased?
Afterward, American artist Glenn Foden
created this cartoon as a comment on the
American media’s coverage of the war.
What message is Foden sending?

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UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Voices A Culture of Fear

Terrorism seeks to instill fear in a civilian population. The 9/11 attacks
On the one hand, we’re fighting
on the United States created a lot of fear. Many Canadians worried that
against terrorism, but we are also
Canada might experience similar attacks.
fighting for human rights. And it
would be the ultimate irony that So, how should a government respond to terrorism? Canada went to
once we win the battle against war to catch the terrorists. And it started beefing up security at home.
terrorism . . . that we are going to Screening of passengers at airports, for example, increased substantially.
be doing it at the expense of civil On the one hand, Canadians welcomed these measures because they
liberties. wanted to be safe. On the other hand, they worried because increasing
— Andrew Telegdi, Liberal member of surveillance reduces individual civil rights.
Parliament, 2001 On December 18, 2001, Parliament passed the Anti-Terrorism Act,
which defined terrorism as an action taken “for a political, religious, or
ideological purpose, objective, or cause.” In addition to making terrorism
a crime, the act
• allowed police to detain suspected terrorists without charge for three
days
Figure 5–26 For seven years, Mohamed
• made it easier to conduct electronic surveillance of suspected terrorists
Harkat lived under strict house arrest and
had to wear an electronic tracking device
and to make preventive arrests
such as the one shown in this photograph. • allowed judges to force witnesses to provide evidence during
Harkat was suspected of being a sleeper investigations
agent — a person who blends into a target • allowed the government to designate groups as terrorist organizations
society for years before being directed to
commit an act of terrorism. He denies the In addition, the Anti-Terrorism Act makes it illegal to contribute
accusations. The house arrest rules were money to groups that support terrorism. As of June 2014, a government
relaxed in 2013. How far should Canada
list identified 51 such banned groups. The World Tamil Movement, for
go to protect its citizens from potential
example, was added to the list in 2008.
terrorism?
Deporting Non-Citizens with Security Certificates
One of the most controversial anti-terrorism tools is the
security certificate. The government issues these to detain,
try, and deport noncitizens whom it believes threaten national
security. The proceedings are kept secret because the evidence
may threaten national security. The evidence is never revealed
either to the accused or to the public.
But Canada has signed an international convention that
prohibits deporting people to countries where they face torture.
In 2009, five people — all of Middle Eastern origin — were
in this position. On the basis of secret evidence, they had been
declared security threats and ordered deported. But they could
not be deported because they faced torture in their homeland.
So they stayed in Canada and spent years in detention or under
house arrest. The Supreme Court ruled in 2014 that the security
certificate system was constitutional.
Ethical Dimension: S ecurity certificates can be used to deport only
noncitizens. Citizens were protected by the Charter of Rights and
Freedoms and other laws. Should Canadian law protect everyone equally?

162 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

Maher Arar: Canadian Defender of Civil Rights
Figure 5–27 Maher Arar and Monia
In September 2002, Maher Arar, an engineer with dual Canadian–Syrian Mazigh consult during a news conference
citizenship, was flying home to Ottawa after a family holiday in Tunisia. in 2004. How do you think their struggle
On a stopover in New York, he was detained by American officials. After to persuade the Canadian government to
receiving misleading information from the RCMP, the Americans accused acknowledge that Arar’s rights had been
Arar of being a terrorist and deported him to Syria. Why would they send violated may have affected their view of
him to Syria, where he had not lived for nearly two decades? Could it be Canada?
that they knew the Syrian security forces would go further
than Canada would to try to get answers out of Arar?
In Syria, Arar was jailed and tortured periodically
over the course of a year. He says, “I stayed in Syria, most
of my time, in an underground cell which is the size of a
coffin, basically. It’s about three feet [1 m] wide, six feet
[2 m] high and about seven feet [2.5 m] deep. It was a
filthy place. It was dark.”
In the meantime, Arar’s wife, Monia Mazigh, brought
her husband’s treatment to the attention of the media and
human rights groups, which put pressure on the Canadian
government to seek his release. Thanks to Mazigh, Arar
was finally set free and allowed to return home.
In response to continued pressure, the Canadian
government set up an inquiry to investigate the events
that led to Arar’s deportation. The inquiry found no
evidence that he was involved in terrorism, and in 2007,
Prime Minister Stephen Harper formally apologized
and announced that Arar would receive $10.5 million in
compensation.
Cause and Consequence: A rar worked passionately to
clear his name and draw attention to national security
issues. In 2007, Time magazine named Maher Arar as
one of the 100 most influential people in the world. The
United States still had him on a watch list, however, so he
could not travel to the ceremony. As of 2014, the United
States has still not apologized. How might the whole
incident affect the Canada–U.S. relationship?

Recall . . . Reflect . . . Respond

1. Two different Canadian news sources used the The two headlines are nearly the same. Which
following headlines when reporting Maher Arar’s words are different? What biases do these words
deportation: show? How might each headline have influenced
people’s view of the fairness of the deportation?
• “U.S. deports respected Canadian to Syria”
2. The 9/11 attack hugely affected Canada and the
• “United States deports suspected terrorist to
world. Describe examples of both co-operation and
Syria”
conflict between the United States and Canada.
Overall, did it lead to more co-operation or more
conflict?

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UNIT ONE 1982– PRESENT

Chapter 5 Review
Knowledge, Understanding, and 7. Ethical Dimension: The overarching question for
this unit is “Why is Canada the nation it is today?”
Thinking a) Explain what gives a country its character.
1. Create a timeline that starts in 1982. Include at least b) Refer to the timeline you created in response to
five instances in which Canada became involved in Question 1. Choose one international event from
the international community. For each event, jot a the timeline and explain whether the Canadian
point-form note that identifies the factors that led to response did — or did not — help make Canada the
Canada’s participation. kind of country in which you would like to live.
2. Identify three examples of co-operation leading to a c) Write a brief memo to your Member of Parliament
Canadian success. Why was the spirit of co-operation explaining what lesson might be drawn from the
necessary? What would have happened without it? Canadian response to the event you selected and
What other goals could a spirit of co-operation help how the lesson might affect this country’s response
Canada achieve? to similar situations in the future.
3. Continuity and Change: Consider the challenges 8. While you are browsing online, you come across a
faced by Canadian peacekeepers during the 1990s. blog that says Canadian forces should never have
How did Canada’s role in international conflicts show gone to Afghanistan. The author of the blog argues
continuity during this time? How did it show change? that Canadian forces should be required to engage in
Be prepared to explain your judgments. active combat only to protect Canadian soil, not to help
resolve conflicts in other parts of the world.
4. Choose a government policy or political development
that divided Canadians, such as national security The blogger asks readers to post comments in
issues, involvement in the mission to Afghanistan, or response. Prepare the response you would make to
another issue of your choice. Examine it from several support or oppose the blogger’s position. Include at
perspectives, showing how and why people disagreed. least two arguments that support your position.
5. Identify five people or organizations from any chapter 9. In Kosovo, Canada was trying to force a peace
in Unit 1 that you believe have made an important by peacemaking rather than maintain a peace
contribution to Canadian society or politics. Each by peacekeeping. What’s the difference? Has
individual should represent a different form of peacemaking made the UN redundant? Is Canada a
contribution (for example, they cannot all be war peacekeeping nation or a peacemaking nation? Which
heroes). Justify your choices. should it be? Write up your opinion after discussing
these questions in a small group.
10. Ethical Dimension: Research a foreign event such
Communicating and Applying as Haiti after it was hit by Hurricane Hanna in 2008,
6. Some people argue that Canada should mind its own the crushing of the Chinese pro-democracy movement
business and focus on helping its own citizens. Others in Tienanmen Square in 1989, or the 2004 tsunami
say that helping people anywhere in the world is every crisis. Was Canada involved? Why or why not? Should
country’s responsibility. Still others take a position Canada have been involved? Explain your opinion.
somewhere between these two extremes.
On a continuum like the one shown, locate your
position on this issue. Explain the reasons for your
decision.

Countries should Countries should

mind their help people
own business everywhere

164 Unit 1 • Why is Canada the nation it is today? • mhr

11. Evidence: The Dalai Lama won the Nobel Peace Prize b) The Americans tried and convicted Omar as an adult.
in 1989. The following excerpt is from his acceptance In July 2014, after his return to Canada, the Alberta
speech. Court of Appeal ruled that Omar should be treated
as if he had been sentenced as a youth. This would
give him the right to apply for early release. In your
Peace, in the sense of the absence of war, is of little value to opinion, how should a person who committed a crime
someone who is dying of hunger or cold. It will not remove the at the age of 15 be treated by the justice system?
pain of torture inflicted on a prisoner of conscience. It does not Why?
comfort those who have lost their loved ones in floods caused c) Some members of Omar Khadr’s family, who now
by senseless deforestation in a neighbouring country. Peace live in Canada, have made no secret of their support
can only last where human rights are respected, where the for al-Qaeda and its goals. Whose views should
be considered when deciding whether or not Omar
people are fed, and where individuals and nations are free.
should be given an early release?
— Dalai Lama, 1989
d) The federal government wants to appeal the 2014
court ruling. With a partner, write an email message
a) Summarize the speech excerpt in your own words. to the justice minister. Present and support your
Indicate what you think is the Dalai Lama’s main position on whether or not Omar should be treated
point. as if he was a minor at the time of the offence, and
b) What does the speech excerpt tell you about the explain the reasons for your judgment.
Dalai Lama?
13. Cause and Consequence: The land mine treaty
c) What does his message have to do with social championed by Jody Williams and Lloyd Axworthy led
justice? directly to a similar treaty to ban cluster munitions.
d) Write the opening paragraph of the speech you might Most cluster munitions are air-dropped bombs that
give if you won the Nobel Peace Prize 40 years from release multiple bomblets. Some of these explode
now. In it, indicate what you did to win the prize, and immediately, but others do not. They can explode later
any message you would like to send to the world. to kill or maim civilians even after many years. A 2010
12. Ethical Dimension: The case of Omar Khadr raised treaty to ban them was modelled on the earlier land
complex ethical and political questions. Consider mine treaty. Describe how the example of Williams and
the following information, and then respond to the Axworthy could be used as a model to solve another
questions. global problem of your choosing.
• The UN’s Convention on the Rights of the Child (see 14. In 1989, the Canadian Human Rights Commission
p. 141) defines a child soldier as younger than 15. An removed the barriers that had prevented women from
additional but optional protocol says that children serving alongside men in combat roles in the military.
younger than 18 should not take part in armed Of the 158 Canadian soldiers who died in Afghanistan,
conflict. three were women. They were the first Canadian
• In Canada, 16-year-olds can join the armed forces women to die in active service. Describe the variety
with their parents’ permission, but they are not of perspectives on this development. Consider the
assigned to combat units until they are 18. soldiers’ families, male soldiers, female soldiers, and
girls who might become female soldiers.
• In Canada, lawbreakers younger than 18 are not
usually treated as adults. Young offenders are
subject to the Youth Criminal Justice Act, which
encourages rehabilitation.
a) Was Omar Khadr a child soldier? Should that have
affected how he was treated by the U.S. military
commission?

mhr • How is international involvement shaping Canada? • Chapter 5 165