Quality Control

(Chem4258)
 Unit 3

Total Quality Management (TQM)

Tools
 3.1 Benchmarking:

 According to Mr David Kearns,

Benchmarking is the process of measuring
products, services, and processes against
those of organizations known to be industry
leaders in one or more aspects of their
operations.
 3.1 Benchmarking:
• The new definition was published by the American
Productivity and Quality Center in 1992 and is the
following:
• Benchmarking is a systematic and continuous
measurement process;
a process of continuously measuring and comparing an
organization’s business processes against business process leaders
anywhere in the world to gain information which will help the
organization take action to improve its performance.
 benchmarking is not the same as copying but, it is necessary to
understand the theory of what one wishes to do.’
 According to Bowers concept, benchmarking termed as a
company’s attempt to model the human process of learning.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 Based on the object of analysis, benchmarking is normally
divided into the following three types:
1. Internal benchmarking
2. Competitor benchmarking
3. Functional/generic benchmarking.
1. Internal benchmarking
 The objects of analysis of internal benchmarking are
departments, divisions, or sister companies of the same concern
in order to identify the best performance of a given activity
within the company.
 In many companies, the same activity is displayed in many
different places, e.g. order booking, stocking, distribution and
product development.
 In this case, it would be natural to start seeking the ‘best practice’
internally in the company.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 The advantages are:
 Firstly, to ease the admittance to information and data.
 Secondly, this form of benchmarking opens up the possibility
of a deep understanding of how benchmarking can be
implemented.
 Thirdly, it improves the internal level of performance and
the internal customer satisfaction through reduction of the
variations of quality and productivity and it improves at the
same time the ability to communicate and co-operate in the
company.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 The disadvantages are:
 It must be that only very rarely are ‘world class
performances’ found internally in the company.
 The consequences thereof are that internal benchmarking
cannot stand alone, but is the first step on the road towards
the final goal of benchmarking: to be the ‘best in class’.
2. Competitor benchmarking:
 In competitor benchmarking, the company compares
itself directly to present and potential competitors within
the same range of products (e.g. competitors at foreign
markets).
 Types of Benchmarking:
 This type of benchmarking is important:
 In order to gather information on the competitors’ products,
processes and results to be able to compare this information
with the company’s own results and to learn from the
differences.
 Gathering information about the behaviour of competitors is
naturally always of supreme interest for a company.
 The advantages are:
 Firstly, beside the fact that the company puts itself in a
certain position in comparison with its competitors, is that at
a very early stage, the company’s attention is drawn to the
expectations which the customers may rightly have from it.
 Secondly, the results have a high degree of comparability as
the products and thus the basic production structures are
identical.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 The disadvantages are:
 The gathering of data is difficult.
3. Functional/Generic Benchmarking:
In many this benchmarking, the potential
comparative partner is any company which has
obtained a reputation of being excellent within
the area which is benchmarked.
 In this case, it means that the company does not necessarily have to
limit itself to its own trade but keep its eyes open to ‘best practice’
everywhere.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 If, for instance, you want to study the dispatch of orders, it may
be natural to compare with a mail order company or other
companies which handle a great number of orders every day.
 If instead you want to study information systems, it could be a
computer company with which you should compare yourself.
 The advantages are:
 The probability of finding world class practice grows as the
number of potential benchmarking partners is expanded.
 On the other hand, it is obvious that the possibility of
transferring the found practice directly to one’s own company
is smaller than by the other types of benchmarking.
 The collection of data in this case is considerably easier than
by competitive benchmarking as it is much easier to get a co-
operation going with companies from other lines of business
than your own line.
 Types of Benchmarking:
 The disadvantages are:
 It can be challenging to identify the best processes in an
industry that's different from your own.
 Any new methods you discover may also be challenging to
implement, as it can take some time to initiate a successful
plan.
WHAT CAN BE BENCHMARKED?
 Quality
 Productivity and
 Time
• However, it can be argued that only two main areas can be
benchmarked quality and productivity as time will always be a part
of either quality or productivity.
 Processes of Benchmarking:
 Benchmarking of process quality can be divided into a row of key
processes which in relation to a production company may consist of
the following key processes:
1. Research and development.
2. Production and distribution.
3. Administration supporting processes.
1. Research and development
 In relation to research and development it is important to look into the
following questions:
 How is research and development carried through?
 How is design review carried through?
 How are customer demands translated into construction demands?
 Does the company have a system for shortening the time for
development?
 How is the quality of the development work measured?
 Processes of Benchmarking:
2. Production and distribution
 In relation to production and distribution the following questions
may be important:
 How are the processes designed?
 How can times of delivery be minimized?
 How can process quality be measured?
 How are the measurings applied?
 How are continuous improvements ensured?
 How are defects and problems dealt with?
 How is quality audit carried through?
 How are quality plans made?
 Processes of Benchmarking:
3. Administrative supporting processes
 Finally, in relation to administrative supporting processes the
following could be important:
 How can supporting processes be identified?
 How can the quality of supporting processes be measured?
 How are measurings applied?
 How can continuous improvements of the supporting processes
be ensured?
 How are defects and problems dealt with?
 How can quality audits be carried through?
 How are quality plans of supporting processes made?
 Processes of Benchmarking:
 Generally, benchmarking can be carried out through:
Plan: what benchmarked, selection criteria, methods for data
collection, and use of resources.
Do: The concrete choice of a benchmarking partner, Data
collection.
Check: Data correction, Identification and quantification of
differences of performances (gaps), Identification of causes
for differences of performances.
Act: the results are adjusted to your own situation and
improvements are implemented.
 Tools for TQM
 Pareto Diagram
 Fishbone/Ishikawa Diagram
 Check Sheet
 Process Flow Diagram
 Scatter Diagram
 Histogram
 Control Chart
 Acceptance Sampling
 Random Sampling
 Reliability
 Design of Experiments (DOE)
 Process Analysis Tools
 Quality Function Deployment
 ISO Series
 Benchmarking
 Total Productive Maintenance
 Management and Planning Tools
 Lean/Kaizen
 Quality Issues
 Six Sigma
 Pareto Diagram
 A Pareto chart is one of the key tools used in total quality
management and six sigma methodologies.
 It is basically a bar chart showing how much each cause
contributes to an outcome or effect.
 known as the 80/20 rule.
 It states that 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes.
 In quality management, this means that 80% of the quality
problems are generated by 20% of the factors in your
processes.
 It is a graphical tool used to display the relative proportions of
occurrence of different values.
 The y-axis of a Pareto chart represents the frequency or
percentage of occurrence of the values, while the x-axis
represents the rank order of the values.
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
 Also called fishbone or Ishikawa diagram
 It is a tool that identifies, sorts, and displays the possible
causes of a specific problem or quality characteristics.
 It graphically illustrates the relationship between a given
outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome.
 The diagram's purpose is to relate causes and effects.
Three basic types:
 Dispersion analysis,
 Process classification and
 cause enumeration.
 Effect = problem to be resolved, opportunity to be grasped,
result to be achieved.
 The effect can be positive or negative
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Personnel
Facility

Processes
Material

Goal = Green
Product

Energy
Tooling Product Customer
 Process Flow Diagram
 Process flows define a set of steps that employees
can follow to achieve desired business outcomes.
 The steps in the workflows visually guide and
indicate which stage of the process people are in.
 Setting up the sales process, employee onboarding,
and Capex approvals are examples of process flows.
 The quality control flowchart is an arranged set of
various parts to manage the quality of products or
services during their manufacturing.
 Process Flow Diagram
A Process Flow Diagram has multiple purposes:
 To document a process for better understanding, quality
control and training of employees.
 To standardize a process for optimal efficiency and
repeatability.
 To study a process for efficiency and improvement
 The diagram was illustrated in the following slide.
Process Flow Diagram
Process Flow Diagram
 Histogram
 Histogram is the quality control tools represents frequency
distribution of data clearly and concisely amongst different
groups of a sample, allowing you to quickly and easily identify
areas of improvement within your processes.
 It is one of the Seven Basic Quality Tools.
 It is an easy-to-use tool for visualizing the distribution of data
points in a dataset.
 It can quickly identify outliers, find patterns and spot trends.
 It is used to summarize discrete or continuous data that are
measured on an interval scale.
 It is often used to illustrate the major features of the distribution
of the data in a convenient form.
 It is also useful when dealing with large data sets (greater than
100 observations)
 It is represented in the Y- axis frequency and X- axis score
diagram bellow.
Histogram
 Control Chart
 Control charts can help you: Understand the variations that
are always present in processes.
 Variations within your control limits indicate that the process
is working.
 Variations that spike outside of your control limits indicate
problems that need to be corrected.
 Its basic role is a graphical representation of whether a firm's
products or processes are meeting their intended
specifications.
 If problems appear to arise, the quality control chart can be
used to identify the degree by which they vary from those
specifications and help in error correction.
 Control Chart
 In the manufacturing process it allows process variation to be
separated into common and special causes and the causes to
be treated separately.
 Also it uses common causes to set the control limits.
 Also it gives clear guidance to adjust a process and to leave it
alone.
 In measuring variables it is very important to identify causes
of variation to investigate,
 so that you can adjust your process without over-controlling
it.
 There are two main types of variables control charts:
 charts for data collected in subgroups and
 charts for individual measurements.
 The chart was represented below.
Control Chart
 Acceptance Sampling
A sampling procedure in which a
predetermined number (n) is selected from a
lot (N) and inspected

If the number of non-conforming units exceed

a certain number, the lot is rejected
 Acceptance Sampling
Expressed as: N = 1000; n = 300; c = 3

– N = Lot size
– n = Sample inspected
– c = acceptable defective units
 Analyze
Failure Modes Effect Analysis
Opportunity Part 1 (FMEA)
 Learning Objectives
 To understand the use of Failure Modes Effect
Analysis (FMEA)
 To learn the steps to developing FMEAs
 To summarize the different types of FMEAs
 To learn how to link the FMEA to other Process tools
 History of FMEA
 First used in the 1960’s in the Aerospace industry
during the Apollo missions
 In 1974, the Navy developed MIL-STD-1629
regarding the use of FMEA
 In the late 1970’s, the automotive industry was
driven by liability costs to use FMEA
 Later, the automotive industry saw the
advantages of using this tool to reduce risks
related to poor quality
 Benefits
 Allows us to identify areas of our process that
most impact our customers
 Helps us identify how our process is most
likely to fail
 Points to process failures that are most
difficult to detect
 Application Examples
 Manufacturing: A manager is responsible for moving a
manufacturing operation to a new facility. He/she wants to be
sure the move goes as smoothly as possible and that there are
no surprises.
 Design: A design engineer wants to think of all the possible
ways a product being designed could fail so that robustness
can be built into the product.
 Software: A software engineer wants to think of possible
problems a software product could fail when scaled up to
large databases. This is a core issue for the Internet.
 What Is A Failure Mode?
 A Failure Mode is:
 The way in which the component, subassembly,
product, input, or process could fail to perform its
intended function
 Failure modes may be the result of upstream
operations or may cause downstream operations to fail
 Things that could go wrong
 FMEA
 Why
 Methodology that facilitates process improvement
 Identifies and eliminates concerns early in the
development of a process or design
 Improve internal and external customer satisfaction
 Focuses on prevention
 FMEA may be a customer requirement (likely
contractual)
 FMEA may be required by an applicable
Quality Management System Standard (possibly ISO)
 FMEA
 A structured approach to:
 Identifying the ways in which a product or process
can fail
 Estimating risk associated with specific causes
 Prioritizing the actions that should be taken to
reduce risk
 Evaluating design validation plan (design FMEA) or
current control plan (process FMEA)
 When to Conduct an FMEA
 Early in the process improvement investigation

 When new systems, products, and processes are being

designed
 When existing designs or processes are being changed

 When carry-over designs are used in new applications

 After system, product, or process functions are defined,
but before specific hardware is selected or released to
manufacturing
 Types of FMEAs
 Design
 Analyzes product design before release to
production, with a focus on product function
 Analyzes systems and subsystems in early
concept and design stages
 Process
 Used to analyze manufacturing and assembly
processes after they are implemented
 FMEA: A Team Tool
 A team approach is necessary.
 Team should be led by the Process Owner who is
the responsible manufacturing engineer or
technical person, or other similar individual
familiar with FMEA.
 The following should be considered for team
members:
– Design Engineers – Operators
– Process Engineers – Reliability
– Materials Suppliers – Suppliers
– Customers
 FMEA Procedure
1. For each process input (start with high value inputs),
determine the ways in which the input can go wrong (failure
mode)
2. For each failure mode, determine effects
 Select a severity level for each effect

3. Identify potential causes of each failure mode

 Select an occurrence level for each cause

4. List current controls for each cause

 Select a detection level for each cause
 FMEA Procedure (Cont.)
5. Calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN)
6. Develop recommended actions, assign responsible persons,
and take actions
 Give priority to high RPNs
 MUST look at severities rated a 10

7. Assign the predicted severity, occurrence, and detection levels

and compare RPNs
FMEA Inputs and Outputs

Inputs Outputs

C&E Matrix List of actions to prevent

Process Map causes or detect failure
Process History modes
Procedures
Knowledge FMEA History of actions taken
Experience
 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

• Helps transform customer needs into

engineering characteristics
• A system that identifies and sets priorities
for product, service and process
improvement opportunities
• Leads to customer satisfaction
 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)

Utilizing the entire workforce to obtain the

optimum use of equipment through continuous
search to improve maintenance
 Management and Planning Tools
• Affinity Diagram
• Interrelationship Diagraph
• Tree Diagram
• Prioritization Matrix
• Matrix Diagram
• Process Decision Program Chart (PDPC)
• Activity Network Diagram
END