Water and Energy Balance

The hydrologic cycle, driven by solar energy,

is the master cycle that drives all other
A Focal Issue
biogeochemical cycles. This chapter describes
Human activities have substantially altered
ecosystem energy budgets and other controls
Earth’s hydrologic cycle at regional to global
over the hydrologic cycle.
scales. People now use about 50% of Earth’s
available renewable fresh water, but this propor-
tion exceeds 100% in some dry regions (Oki and
Introduction Kanae 2006; Carpenter and Biggs 2009). This
human use of fresh water affects land and water
Water and solar energy are essential for life. management, the movement of pollutants among
Their uneven distribution across Earth’s surface ecosystems, and, indirectly, ecosystem processes
largely account for the large-scale patterns of eco- in unmanaged ecosystems. Land-use changes
system structure and functioning and are therefore have altered terrestrial water and energy budgets
central to an understanding of ecosystem dynam- enough to change regional and global climate
ics. Water and energy cycles are so tightly inter- (Fig. 4.1; Chase et al. 2000; Foley et al. 2005). In
twined that they cannot be treated separately. Solar Australia, for example, a decade-long drought at
energy drives the hydrologic cycle through the the end of the twentieth century reduced water
vertical transfer of water from Earth to the atmo- availability below levels required for agriculture,
sphere via evapotranspiration, the sum of sur- and in dry portions of the midwestern U.S.,
face evaporation and the loss of water from plant irrigated farming is drawing on “fossil ground-
leaves (transpiration). Conversely, evapotranspi- water” that is depleted much more rapidly than it
ration accounts for 80% of the turbulent energy can be replenished by rainfall in the current cli-
transfer (i.e., latent plus sensible heat flux) from mate. How much precipitation is needed to meet
Earth to the atmosphere and is therefore a key pro- the water needs of different crops or other eco-
cess in Earth’s energy budget (see Fig. 2.3). The system types, and how is this influenced by plant
hydrologic cycle also controls Earth’s biogeo- and soil properties? What determines the propor-
chemical cycles by dissolving nutrients and trans- tion of incoming precipitation that enters water
ferring them within and among ecosystems. Water supplies and is potentially available to support
and nutrients, in turn, provide the soil resources societal needs? Evaporation of water is also one
that support the growth of organisms. The move- of the primary fates of energy from incoming
ment of materials that are dissolved and suspended solar radiation, which affects both air and water
in water links ecosystems within a landscape. circulation (Fig. 4.1). What happens to the energy

F.S. Chapin, III et al., Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology, 93

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9504-9_4, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
94 4 Water and Energy Balance

Fig. 4.1 Land-use change in southwestern Australia moisture-laden air from the wheatland and forming clouds
from a dark native heath vegetation to a wheatland that that increase precipitation over the heath. The 30%
reflects more incoming radiation causes greater surface reduction in precipitation over the wheatland reduces the
heating over the heath. This causes air to rise, drawing viability of agriculture in this dry region (see Chap. 13)

that is absorbed by an ecosystem, if there is insuf- the coastal zone or city near you is likely to be
ficient water to cool the canopy by evaporation? flooded with projected levels of sea level rise
Finally, human activities alter the capacity of (e.g., [Link] Given the key
the atmosphere to hold water vapor. Water vapor role of water and energy in ecosystem and global
is the major greenhouse gas. It is transparent to processes, it is critical that we understand the
shortwave radiation from the sun but absorbs controls over water and energy exchange and the
longwave radiation from Earth (see Fig. 2.2) and extent to which they have been modified by
thus provides an insulative thermal blanket. human actions.
Climate warming caused by emissions CO2 and
other greenhouse gases increases the quantity of
water vapor in the atmosphere and therefore the Surface Energy Balance
efficiency with which the atmosphere traps long-
wave radiation. This water vapor feedback Radiation Budget
explains why climate responds so sensitively to
emissions of other greenhouse gases (see The radiative energy absorbed by a surface is
Chap. 2). Warming accelerates the hydrologic the balance between incoming and outgoing
cycle, increasing evaporation and rainfall at the radiation. Here we focus on ecosystem-scale
global scale (see Chap. 14). Warming also causes radiation budgets, although the same general
sea level to rise, mainly (so far) due to the ther- principles apply at any scale, ranging from the
mal expansion of the ocean and secondarily to surface of a leaf to the surface of the globe (see
melting of glaciers and ice caps. Rising sea level Fig. 2.3). The two major components of the radia-
endangers the coastal zone, where most of the tion budget are shortwave radiation (K), the high-
world’s major cities are located. How much of energy radiation emitted by the sun, and longwave
Surface Energy Balance 95

Fig. 4.2 Radiation budget 1000

of a Douglas fir forest Sin
during the summer.
Redrawn from Oke (1987) 800
Rnet

600

400 Lin

200

Sout

Lout

00 04 08 12 16 20 24
Time (h)

radiation (L), the thermal energy emitted by all surfaces such as fresh snow to surfaces with a low
bodies (see Chap. 2). Net radiation (Rnet) is the reflectance such as wet soils or the water in lakes
balance between the inputs and outputs of short- and the ocean (Table 4.1). Conifer canopies, for
wave and longwave radiation, measured in W m−2 example, have a lower albedo (i.e., absorb a larger
(Fig. 4.2). proportion of incoming radiation) than deciduous
forests, and grasslands with standing dead leaves
Rnet = ( K in - K out ) + ( Lin - Lout ) (4.1) have relatively high albedo. Albedo depends not
only on the reflectance of individual leaves,
At noon on a clear day, direct radiation from stems, and soil but also on ecosystem structure.
the sun accounts for 90% of the shortwave input A complex canopy has a lower albedo (less
to an ecosystem (see Fig. 2.3). Additional input reflectance) than do individual leaves because
of shortwave radiation comes as diffuse radia- much of the light reflected or transmitted by one
tion that is scattered by particles and gases in the leaf is absorbed by other leaves and stems, result-
atmosphere and reflected radiation from clouds ing in efficient light capture by the canopy as a
and surrounding landscape units such as lakes, whole. For this reason, deep, uneven canopies of
dunes, or snowfields. Diffuse radiation becomes conifer forests have a low albedo. In contrast, a
a larger proportion of incoming shortwave radia- relatively smooth canopy, such as a crop or grass-
tion on cloudy or polluted days or near dawn or land, reflects more of the incoming shortwave
dusk when sun angles are lower. radiation from upper leaves directly back to space
The proportion of the incoming shortwave (Baldocchi et al. 2004).
radiation that is absorbed depends on the albedo Changes in ecosystem albedo explain in part
(a) or shortwave reflectance of the ecosystem why high-latitude regions are warming more rap-
surface. Albedo varies at least 10-fold among idly than low latitudes. As climate warms, snow,
ecosystems, ranging from highly reflective lake ice, and sea ice melt earlier in the spring,
96 4 Water and Energy Balance

Table 4.1 Typical values of albedo for the major surface feedback to regional warming (Foley et al. 1994;
types on Earth Chapin et al. 2005). Albedo also changes in
Surface type Albedo response to short-term changes in solar input.
Ocean and lakes 0.03–0.10 a Canopies absorb a larger proportion of incoming
Bare soil radiation (lower albedo) at midday than at dawn
Wet, dark 0.05 or dusk and during cloudy (more diffuse radia-
Dry, dark 0.13
tion) than during clear conditions (Hollinger
Dry, light 0.40
et al. 2010).
Evergreen conifer 0.08–0.11
Deciduous conifer 0.13–0.15
Across all vegetation types, albedo increases
Evergreen broadleaf 0.11–0.13 with increasing leaf nitrogen up to about 2.5%
Deciduous broadleaf 0.14–0.15 nitrogen and is relatively insensitive to further
Arctic tundra 0.15–0.20 increases in leaf nitrogen (Hollinger et al. 2010).
Grassland 0.18–0.21 The increase in albedo with increasing nitrogen
Savanna 0.18–0.21 may result from the large surface area for gas
Agricultural crops 0.18–0.19 exchange between photosynthetic cells and inter-
Desert 0.20–0.45 nal air spaces in high-nitrogen leaves (see
Sea ice 0.30–0.45 Chap. 5; Hollinger et al. 2010). Each time radia-
Snow tion passes between water and air, a large propor-
Old 0.40–0.70
tion of the near infrared portion of the spectrum
Fresh 0.75–0.95
is reflected, so high-nitrogen leaves reflect more
Data from Oke (1987), Sturman and Tapper (1996),
shortwave radiation than do low-nitrogen leaves.
Eugster et al. (2000), Hollinger et al. (2010)
a
Albedo of water increases greatly (0.1–1.0) at solar Regardless of the mechanism, this relationship
angles less than 30° suggests that, despite their low photosynthetic
rates (see Chap. 5), low-nitrogen canopies absorb
replacing a reflective snow-covered surface with a larger proportion of total incoming radiation
a dark absorptive surface (Euskirchen et al. than do canopies on high-fertility sites.
2007). This process, together with the resulting The amount of longwave (thermal) radiation
change in surface temperature, is referred to as emitted by an object depends on its temperature
the snow (or ice) albedo feedback. Over longer and emissivity, a coefficient that describes the
time scales, the northward movement of trees capacity of a body to emit radiation. Most
into tundra causes an additional reduction in absorbed radiation is emitted (emissivity of about
regional albedo because the dark forest canopy 0.98 in vegetated ecosystems), so longwave radi-
masks the underlying snow-covered surface. As ation balance depends primarily on the tempera-
tree line moves north, the land surface absorbs ture of the sky, which determines Lin, and the
more energy, which is then transferred to the temperature of the ecosystem surface, which
atmosphere, causing an amplifying (positive) determines Lout (4.2).

Rnet = ( K in - K out ) + ( Lin - Lout ) = (1 - a ) K in + s ( esky Tsky

4
- esurf Tsurf
4
) (4.2)

where a is the surface albedo, s is the Stefan– cloudy nights are warmer than clear ones and
Boltzman constant (5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4), T is why cloudless dry conditions make deserts cold
absolute temperature (°K), and e is emissivity. at night, despite the high inputs of solar energy
Clouds and water vapor are warmer than the during the day.
upper atmosphere and trap longwave emissions Longwave radiation emitted by the ecosys-
from the surface, so ecosystems receive more tem (Lout) depends on surface temperature,
longwave radiation under cloudy than clear skies which, in turn, depends on the quantity of radia-
and under humid conditions. This explains why tion received by the surface and the efficiency
Surface Energy Balance 97

Fig. 4.3 Average daily 15

3 Decidous forest
sensible and latent heat
Conifer forest
fluxes during summer for 2 Mediterranean
different ecosystems Agricultural
measured by eddy 12

Sensible heat flux (MJ m−2 d−1)

Tundra
covariance. Dashed lines Grassland
M
show different Bowen ed
ite 1
ratios (b, ratio of sensible rra
ne
to latent heat flux). 9 an
Ecosystems include Boreal cli
m
Canadian at
deciduous forests, conifer es
forests, agricultural crops, 0.5
tundra and grasslands. 6 Sitka
Also shown are a variety of spruce
ecosystems from a
Mediterranean climate, Tundra
which have high fluxes due 3 0.25
to their high input of net Conifers
radiation. Redrawn from Agriculture
Wilson et al. (2002) Deciduous
0
0 3 6 9 12 15
−2 −1
Latent heat flux (MJ m d )

with which this energy is transferred to the air by non-radiative processes. These non-radiative
and soil by turbulent processes, as described in processes include ground heat flux (G), which
the next section. Surfaces that absorb a large conducts energy into the soil, and turbulent trans-
amount of radiation, due to high solar inputs or fer of energy from the surface to the air as evapo-
low albedo, tend to be warmer and therefore emit transpiration of water (latent heat flux, LE) or
more longwave radiation. Dry surfaces and heat (sensible heat flux, H). A small amount of
leaves with low transpiration rates tend to be energy (generally less than 10% of daily net radi-
particularly warm because they are not cooled by ation) may be stored (DS) in the ecosystem as
the evaporation of water. Desert sands, recent chemical energy through photosynthesis and as a
burn scars, and city pavement, for example, are temperature increase of the plant biomass.
generally hot (Bonan 2008). Conversely, a At other times, stored energy is released by
well-watered lawn is much cooler than an eco- respiration and declines in biomass temperature.
system that is dry or dominated by plants with Although the energy trapped by photosynthesis is
low transpiration rates. In general, shortwave the major energetic engine that drives the carbon
radiation input, albedo, surface roughness (see cycle of ecosystems, it is only a tiny part (<5%)
next section), and surface temperature are the of the total energy budget of ecosystems. Because
parameters that most strongly influence radia- ecosystem energy storage is usually small, energy
tion balance and therefore net radiation (4.2). absorbed by the surface as net radiation approxi-
mately equals energy loss by non-radiative pro-
cesses over a day (4.3).
Partitioning of Absorbed Radiation
Rnet = H + LE + G + DS (4.3)
Net radiation, the radiative energy absorbed
by an ecosystem, is approximately balanced by where L is the latent heat of vaporization
energy that is transferred out of the ecosystem (2.45 MJ kg−1 at 20°C), and E is the rate of
98 4 Water and Energy Balance

evapotranspiration. As presented in this equation, Two processes generate this turbulence.

Rnet is positive when directed toward the surface; Convective turbulence results from conduction
H, LE, G, and DS are positive when directed away (diffusion) of sensible heat over 1–2 mm from the
from the surface. Ecosystems with high net radia- surface to the near-surface air. The warm air
tion, such as those in Mediterranean climates, have expands, and the resulting increase in buoyancy
higher sensible and/or latent fluxes than do ecosys- causes this low-density warm air to rise, creating
tems with low net radiation, such as arctic tundra convective turbulence. A second more efficient
or temperate rainforests (Fig. 4.3; Wilson et al. process of energy transfer involves mechanical
2002). turbulence, when horizontally moving air slows
Ground heat flux (G) is negligible over a day down unevenly as it moves across an irregular
in most ecosystems because the heat conducted surface. Tall uneven canopies such as conifer for-
down into the soil during the day is balanced by ests are aerodynamically rough compared to
heat conducted back up to the surface at night. short smooth crop canopies. The mechanical tur-
The magnitude of ground heat flux depends on bulence generated by airflow across uneven topo-
the thermal gradient between the soil surface and graphic and vegetation surfaces creates eddies of
deep soils and the thermal conductivity of soils, air that sweep down into the canopy, transporting
which is greatest in soils that are wet and have a bulk air inward and canopy air out. These eddies
high bulk density (fewer insulating air pockets). transfer energy away from the surface and mix it
The steepest thermal gradients and greatest with the atmosphere (Jarvis and McNaughton
ground heat flux occur in regions with perma- 1986; Bonan 2008). Conversely, air flowing
frost. In the arctic, for example, approximately across short, smooth canopies such as grasslands
10–20% of the energy absorbed during summer or crops tends to be less turbulent, so these cano-
is consumed by thawing of frozen soil. This pies are less efficient in shedding the energy that
energy is released back to the atmosphere the they absorb, i.e., they are less tightly coupled to
next winter, when the soil refreezes (Chapin the bulk atmosphere. Because smooth canopies
et al. 2000a). are less efficient in shedding heat, they tend to
Lakes and the ocean also have substantial have higher surface temperatures during the day
summer “ground heat flux” because solar inputs and greater longwave emissions than do forest
penetrate beneath the surface, and the high heat canopies.
capacity and turbulent mixing of water efficiently Turbulence transfers not only sensible heat but
move heat away from the surface. In clear lakes, also the latent heat contained in water vapor that
about half of the incoming shortwave radiation is is transpired by plants or evaporates from leaf or
absorbed and converted to heat in the top 10 cm, soil surfaces. This energy is released when water
with the remaining heat conversion occurring at vapor condenses to form cloud droplets. Dewfall
greater depths (Kalff 2002). Less transparent represents a small latent heat flux from the atmo-
lakes convert shortwave radiation to heat closer sphere to the ecosystem at night under conditions
to the surface, causing these lakes to stratify ear- of high relative humidity and cold leaf or soil
lier in the spring and to have a colder hypolim- surfaces.
nion than in more transparent lakes. The longer Latent and sensible heat fluxes from ecosys-
period of stratification increases the likelihood of tems interact in ways that depend on surface
anoxia in the hypolimnion, thereby altering all moisture. The consumption of heat by evapora-
aspects of the biotic environment (Kalff 2002). tion cools the surface, thereby reducing the tem-
In contrast to soil heat flux, heat transfer to the perature differential between the surface and the
atmosphere occurs primarily by turbulence, the air that drives sensible heat flux. Conversely, the
irregular velocities of air movement between the warming of surface air by sensible heat flux
surface and the bulk air (i.e., air above the can- increases the quantity of water vapor that the air
opy that is not strongly influenced by the canopy). can hold and causes convective movement of
Surface Energy Balance 99

Table 4.2 Representative Bowen ratios (ratio of sensible ratio determines the strength of the linkage
to latent heat flux) of different ecosystem types between the energy and water budgets of ecosys-
Surface type Bowen ratio tems, with wet ecosystems (low Bowen ratios)
Desert >10 having a larger proportion of turbulent energy
Semi-arid landscape 2–6 exchange occurring as evapotranspiration and
Arctic tundra 0.3–2.0 therefore a tighter linkage between water and
Temperate forest and grassland 0.4–0.8 energy budgets (Box 4.1).
Boreal forest 0.5–1.5 The spatial configuration of ecosystems on a
Forest, wet canopy −0.7–0.4
landscape influences energy partitioning because
Water-stressed crops 1.0–1.6
heating contrasts between adjacent ecosystems
Irrigated crops −0.5–0.5
create convective turbulence. This turbulence,
Tropical wet forest 0.1–0.3
Tropical ocean <0.1
and therefore sensible and latent heat fluxes, is
greater at boundaries than in the centers of eco-
Data from Jarvis (1976), Oke (1987), Eugster et al. (2000)
systems (see Chap. 13). Most evaporation from
large lakes, for example, occurs near their edges,
rather than in the center, where the overlying air
moist air away from the evaporating surfaces. is so stable that it saturates rapidly and supports a
Both of these processes increase the vapor pres- relatively low evaporation rate. For the same rea-
sure gradient that drives evaporation. Because of son, a mosaic of crops and fallow fields would
these interdependencies, surface moisture has a support greater evapotranspiration than large
strong impact on the Bowen ratio, i.e., the ratio homogeneous areas that contained the same pro-
of sensible to latent heat flux. portions of crop and fallow. When ecosystem
Bowen ratios vary by more than two orders of patches that differ strongly in albedo or energy
magnitude among ecosystems, indicating that partitioning are larger in diameter than the depth
either latent heat flux or sensible heat flux can of the planetary boundary layer (> »10 km), they
dominate the turbulent energy transfer from eco- can modify mesoscale atmospheric circulations
systems to the atmosphere (Table 4.2, Fig. 4.3; and cloud and precipitation patterns (Fig. 4.1; see
Wilson et al. 2002). In general, energy flux from Chap. 13; Pielke and Avisar 1990; Weaver and
wet ecosystems (e.g., open water and ecosystems Avissar 2001).
whose canopy is often wet) is dominated by Snow-covered surfaces experience threshold
evapotranspiration (Bowen ratio < 0.5), whereas changes in energy exchange at the time of snow-
energy flux from other ecosystems, especially melt. The high albedo of snow-covered surfaces
dry ones, is dominated by sensible heat flux minimizes energy absorption until snowmelt
(Bowen ratio > 0.5). Species characteristics also occurs, at which time there is a dramatic increase
influence Bowen ratio, with greater evapotrans- in the energy absorbed by the surface and trans-
piration (lower Bowen ratio) from ecosystems ferred to the atmosphere. This often results in
dominated by rapidly growing plants with high abrupt increases in regional air temperature
rates of photosynthesis and transpiration after snowmelt. Leaf-out also alters energy
(Table 4.2; see Chap. 5). Deciduous forests, for exchange by both changing albedo and increas-
example, have higher transpiration rates and ing evapotranspiration at the expense of sensible
lower Bowen ratios than do conifer forests heat flux. Because of the dramatic difference in
(Fig. 4.3). Strong winds or rough canopies, energy budget between snow-covered and snow-
which generate atmospheric turbulence, reduce free seasons, recent advances in the date that
surface temperature, thereby reducing sensible snow melts on land or ice melts on lakes or the
heat flux and Bowen ratio. For these reasons, ocean create a strong amplifying (positive) feed-
energy partitioning varies substantially both back to high-latitude warming (Euskirchen et al.
seasonally and among ecosystems. The Bowen 2007).
100 4 Water and Energy Balance

Box 4.1 The Energetics of Water Movement

Water and energy participate in two of the temperature by 1°C. Evapotranspiration there-
most dynamic cycles on the planet in terms of fore has a powerful cooling effect on transpir-
both quantities moved and their rapidity of ing leaves or other evaporating surfaces.
turnover. The energetics of water movement Conversely, condensation of water vapor to
are critical to understanding both the linkage form clouds has a powerful warming effect on
between these cycles and their underlying the atmosphere, providing the added buoyancy
controls. Evapotranspiration is one of the larg- that forms tall thunderheads (see Chap. 2).
est terms in both the water and energy budgets Vapor pressure is the partial pressure
of ecosystems, so factors governing the mag- exerted by water molecules in the air. The air
nitude of evapotranspiration determine the immediately adjacent to an evaporating sur-
tightness of the linkage between the water and face is approximately saturated at the temper-
energy cycles. ature of the surface, for example the cell walls
Due to its high specific heat – the energy of a photosynthetic cell inside a leaf. The
required to warm 1 g of a substance by 1°C – vapor pressure deficit (VPD) is the differ-
water changes temperature relatively slowly ence between the actual vapor pressure of air
for a given energy input. It takes four times and the vapor pressure of saturated air at the
more energy to raise the temperature of water same temperature. VPD is the driving force
by 1°C than an equivalent mass of air. for evapotranspiration and indeed for the
Consequently, the summer temperature near movement of water from soil through plants to
large water bodies fluctuates less and is gener- the atmosphere. It is loosely used to describe
ally cooler than in inland areas. A wet surface the difference in vapor pressure between the
also heats more slowly but evaporates more air immediately adjacent to an evaporating
water than a dry surface. surface and the bulk atmosphere, although,
Massive amounts of energy are absorbed or strictly speaking, the air masses are at differ-
released when water changes state. It takes ent temperatures. Conductance of water
580 times more energy (2.45 MJ kg−1) to vapor (the inverse of resistance) is the flux of
vaporize 1 g of water at 20°C than to increase its water vapor per unit driving force (VPD).

understand water budgets to wisely manage the

Overview of Ecosystem Water movement of water into, through, and out of eco-
Budgets systems to meet the needs of both nature and
society.
The water available to support the productiv- An ecosystem behaves like a bucket that is
ity of ecosystems depends on the balance filled by precipitation and emptied by evapo-
between inputs and outputs. Water is the transpiration and runoff. Lakes, for example,
resource that most strongly constrains the pro- are filled by precipitation and by inflow from
ductivity of the biosphere and therefore plays a streams and adjacent ecosystems; water leaves by
central role in the dynamics of ecosystems. In surface evaporation. When water inputs from
addition, water increasingly constrains the oppor- precipitation and inflow exceed evaporation, the
tunities for sustainable development of human excess “overflows the bucket” and leaves as out-
societies in many parts of the world (Rockström flow. In many temperate lakes, evaporation is
et al. 1999; Vörösmarty et al. 2005; Carpenter similar to precipitation, so the outflow from lakes
and Biggs 2009). It is therefore important to is similar to the inflow. In warm, dry climates,