Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Within a given climatic regime, soil properties resources to primary producers only indirectly
are the major factor governing ecosystem pro- through mixing of the water column.
cesses. This chapter provides background on Soils are also a critical component of the total
the factors regulating those soil and sediment Earth System. They mediate many of the key
properties that most strongly influence ecosys- reactions in the giant global reduction–oxidation
tems as well as the transport of materials from cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur and provide
land to rivers, lakes, and the ocean. essential resources to biological processes that
drive these cycles. Soils represent the intersection
of the “bio,” “geo,” and chemistry in biogeo-
Introduction chemistry. Many of the later chapters in this book
address the short-term dynamics of soil pro-
Soils form a thin film over Earth’s surface in cesses, particularly those processes that occur on
which geological and biological processes timescales of hours to centuries. This chapter
intersect. The soil consists of solids, liquids, emphasizes soil processes that occur over longer
and gases, with solids typically occupying about timescales or that are strongly influenced by
half the soil volume, and liquids and gases each physical and chemical interactions with the envi-
occupying 15–35% of the volume (Ugolini and ronment. This is essential background for under-
Spaltenstein 1992). The physical soil matrix standing the dynamics of ecosystems.
provides a source of water and nutrients to plants
and microbes and is the physical support system
in which terrestrial vegetation is rooted. It is the A Focal Issue
medium in which most decomposer organisms
and many animals live. For these reasons, the Human activities have massively increased
physical and chemical properties of soils nutrient and sediment inputs from terrestrial
strongly influence all aspects of ecosystem func- to aquatic ecosystems. Soils that developed over
tioning, which, in turn, feed back to influence thousands of years can be eroded away in years to
the physical, structural, and chemical properties decades, causing loss of productive capacity in
of soils (see Fig. 1.5; Amundson et al. 2007). upland ecosystems and accumulation in reser-
Soils play such an integral role in ecosystem voirs, lowland floodplains, estuaries, and coastal
processes that it is difficult to separate the study waters. On human timescales, this is an essentially
of soils from that of ecosystem processes. In permanent restructuring of regional landscapes.
open-water (pelagic) ecosystems, phytoplank- The extensive cultivation of drought-sensitive
ton cannot directly tap resources from sedi- crops on marginal lands in the U.S. in the 1920s,
ments, so sediment processes provide nutrient for example, created a landscape vulnerable to

F.S. Chapin, III et al., Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology, 63

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-9504-9_3, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011
64 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Fig. 3.1 Extensive cultivation replaced drought-resistant massive dust storms, such as this one approaching
native vegetation with drought-sensitive crops in the Stratford Texas in 1935. Photograph courtesy of NOAA,
midwestern U.S. in the 1920s. In the “Dustbowl” era, a [Link]
drought in the 1930s killed these crops and generated

drought. Hot, dry weather combined with strong

winds in the 1930s caused extensive wind erosion
Controls Over Soil Formation
that reduced the productive potential of soils,
The soil properties of an ecosystem result from
modified regional climate, and triggered land
the dynamic balance of two opposing forces:
abandonment and human migration (Fig. 3.1; see
soil formation and soil loss. State factors differ
Chap. 12; Peters et al. 2004; Schubert et al. 2004).
in their effects on these opposing processes and
Erosion of the loess plateau in China and drylands
therefore on soil and ecosystem properties (Jenny
in sub-Saharan Africa are current issues that
1941; Amundson and Jenny 1997).
threaten livelihoods of millions of people over
extensive regions. What properties of vegetation
and soils cause some soils to be more susceptible Parent Material
to erosion than others? Why are topsoils, which
are the first layers to be eroded, so much more The physical and chemical properties of rocks
fertile than deeper soils? What are the conse- and the rates at which they are uplifted and
quences of wind and water erosion for those eco- weathered strongly influence soil properties.
systems where soil particles are deposited? What The dynamics of the rock cycle, operating over
management practices sustain the productivity billions of years, govern the variation and distri-
soils and reduce erosion rates? This chapter bution of geological materials on Earth’s surface.
addresses these questions and other issues that are The rock cycle describes the cyclic process by
important for sustainability of ecosystems and which rocks are formed and weathered, i.e.,
managed landscapes. chemically and physically altered near Earth’s
Controls Over Soil Formation 65

Weathering
and erosion

Precipitation in oceans

Uplift
Sediments

Burial and
lithification

Uplift

Sedimentary
Igneous Uplift
rocks
rocks

Heat and Heat and

pressure pressure

Metamorphic
rocks
Cooling

Magma Melting

Fig. 3.2 The rock cycles as proposed by Hutton in 1785. or melting, or both. Later, they are deformed and uplifted
Rocks are weathered to form sediment, which is then bur- into mountain chains, only to be weathered again and
ied. After deep burial, the rocks undergo metamorphosis recycled. Redrawn from Press and Siever (1986)

surface (Fig. 3.2). The rock cycle produces these rock types can be raised to the surface via
minerals that buffer the biological acidity that uplift, after which the material is again subjected
accounts for much of rock weathering but also to weathering and erosion (Fig. 3.2). Earth’s crust
provides many of the nutrients that allow biology cycles through the rock cycle every 100–200 mil-
to produce this acidity. The compounds produced lion years, i.e., two to four times since plants first
by weathering move via rivers to lakes, reser- colonized the land (see Fig. 2.15). The timing
voirs, and the ocean where they are deposited to and locations of uplift and the type of rock
form sediments, which are then buried to form uplifted ultimately determine the distribution of
sedimentary rocks. Igneous rocks form when different types of bedrock across Earth’s surface.
magma from deep within Earth moves upward Plate tectonics are the driving force behind
toward the surface in cracks or volcanoes. Either the rock cycle. The lithosphere or crust, the
sedimentary or igneous rocks can be modified strong outermost shell of Earth that rides on par-
under heat or pressure to form metamorphic tially molten material beneath, is broken into
rocks. With additional heat and pressure, meta- large rigid plates, each of which moves indepen-
morphic rocks melt and become magma. Any of dently. Where the plates converge and collide,
66 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Mountain ranges Crumpled sedimentary

and volcanoes and metamorphic rocks

Granite Trench

Lithosphere

Fig. 3.3 Cross section of a zone of plate collision, in and mountains and volcanoes in the zone of uplift.
which the oceanic plate is subducted beneath a continental Redrawn from Press and Siever (1986)
plate, forming an ocean trench in the zone of subduction

portions of the lithosphere buckle downward and well as biological activity, and therefore the
are subducted, leading to the formation of ocean development of soils from rocks. Temperature,
trenches, while the overriding plate is uplifted, moisture, and oxygen also influence biological pro-
causing the formation of mountain ranges cesses such as the production of organic matter by
(Fig. 3.3). Regions of plate collision and active plants and its decomposition by microbes and
mountain building coincide with Earth’s major therefore the amount and quality of organic matter
earthquake belts. The Himalayan Mountains, for in the soil (see Chaps. 5–7). Soil carbon, for exam-
example, are still rising due to the collision of the ple, increases with decreasing temperature and with
Indian subcontinent with Asia 40 million years increasing precipitation along global and regional
ago. If plates converge in one place, they must climate gradients (Post et al. 1982; Burke et al.
diverge or separate elsewhere. Throughout Earth 1989; Jobbágy and Jackson 2000). Precipitation is
history, massive super-continents have formed one pathway by which materials enter ecosystems.
and broken apart, with continents rafting to new Oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) bogs are isolated
locations and forming new super-continents. This from mineral soils and depend entirely on precipi-
occurred most recently when the super-continent tation to supply new minerals. The movement of
of Pangaea broke up 50–200 million years ago to water is also crucial in determining whether the
form Eurasia, Africa, Antarctica, and the products of weathering accumulate or are lost from
Americas. Australia, for example, is moving from a soil and transported to other places. In summary,
its point of origin in Antarctica toward Southeast climate affects virtually all soil properties at scales
Asia at 5–6 cm year−1. The mid-Atlantic and mid- ranging from local to global.
Pacific ridges are zones of active divergence of
today’s ocean plates. Continental drift has rafted
the world’s biota and soils through multiple cli- Topography
mate zones during their evolutionary history.
Topography influences soils through its effect
on climate, moisture availability, and differen-
Climate tial transport of fine soil particles. Topographic
gradients form a hillslope complex or catena
Temperature, moisture, carbon dioxide, and from ridge top to valley bottom. These gradients
oxygen influence rates of chemical reactions that and the aspect (compass direction) of the slope
govern the rate and products of weathering, as strongly influence soil properties (Amundson and
Controls Over Soil Formation 67

Fig. 3.4 Relationship Erosion

between hillslope position, likely
likelihood of erosion or
deposition, and soil organic
Deposition
carbon concentration.
likely
Redrawn from Birkeland
Organic
(1999) carbon (%) >4
3-4
2-3
<1 1-2

Jenny 1997). Erosion, for example, preferentially Time

moves fine-grained materials downslope and
deposits them at lower slope positions, where Many soil-forming processes occur slowly, so
they tend to form deep fine-textured soils with a the time over which soils develop influences
high soil organic content (Fig. 3.4) and high their properties. Rocks and minerals are weath-
water-holding capacity. These valley-bottom ered over time, and important nutrient elements
soils supply more resources to plants and are transferred among soil layers or transported
microbes and provide greater physical stability, out of the ecosystem. Hillslopes erode, and valley
typically leading to higher rates of most ecosys- bottoms accumulate materials, and biological
tem processes than on ridges or shoulders of processes add organic matter and critical nutrient
slopes. Soils in lower slope positions in sage- elements like carbon and nitrogen. Phosphorus
brush ecosystems, for example, have greater soil availability is high early in soil development and
moisture, higher soil organic matter content, and declines in availability over time due to losses
higher rates of nitrogen mineralization and gas- from the system and phosphorus fixation in min-
eous losses than do upslope soils (Burke et al. eral forms that are unavailable to plants (Fig. 3.5;
1990; Matson et al. 1991). Walker and Syers 1976). This process plays out
The aspect of a slope influences solar input over millions of years of soil development in
(see Chap. 2) and therefore soil temperature, rates Hawai’i, despite a warm moist climate, changing
of evapotranspiration, and soil moisture. At high the system from nitrogen limitation on young
latitudes and in wet climates, the cool wet envi- soils to phosphorus limitation on older soils
ronment of poleward-facing slopes reduces rates (Hobbie and Vitousek 2000; Vitousek 2004).
of decomposition and mineralization (Van Cleve Some changes in soil properties happen rela-
et al. 1991). At low latitudes and in dry climates, tively quickly. Retreating glaciers and river flood-
the greater retention of soil moisture on these plains often deposit phosphorus-rich till. If seed
slopes allows a longer growing season and sup- sources are available, these soils are colonized by
ports forests, whereas slopes facing the equator plants with symbiotic nitrogen-fixing microbes,
are more likely to support desert or shrub vegeta- allowing these ecosystems to accumulate their
tion (Whittaker and Niering 1965). maximum pool sizes of carbon and nitrogen
Finally, slope position determines patterns of within 50–100 years (Crocker and Major 1955;
snow redistribution in cold climates, with deepest Van Cleve et al. 1991). Other soil-forming pro-
accumulations beneath ridges and in the protected cesses occur slowly. Young marine terraces in
lower slopes. These differential accumulations coastal California have relatively high phospho-
alter effective precipitation and length of growing rus availability but low carbon and nitrogen con-
season enough to influence plant and microbial tent. Over at least tens of thousands of years,
processes well into the summer. these terraces accumulate organic matter and
68 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Jackson 2000). Carbon-containing soil organic

matter, in turn, influences most functional prop-
erties of soils, as described later.
Phosphorus content

Total phosphorus
Plants also strongly influence mineral proper-
ties of soils. They are geochemical pumps that
Primary P remove bio-essential elements from soils, store
them in tissues, and return them to the soil through
Occluded
litterfall and decomposition (Amundson et al.
Secondary P P
2007). In the process, soluble forms of rock-
Organic P derived minerals such as phosphorus, calcium,
Time potassium, and silicon can be moved upward in
the soil profile and are most available in the upper
Fig. 3.5 Effects of long-term weathering and soil devel- portion of the soil. This is partially offset by
opment on the distribution and availability of phosphorus
(P). Newly exposed geologic substrate is relatively rich in downward leaching. Upward movement gener-
weatherable minerals, which release phosphorus. This ally predominates unless minerals precipitate out
release leads to accumulation of both organic and readily in less available forms at depth (e.g., calcium in
soluble forms (secondary phosphorus such as calcium desert soils or iron and aluminum in wet soils), as
phosphate). As primary minerals disappear and secondary
minerals capable of sorbing phosphorus accumulate, an described later. CO2 from plant and microbial
increasing proportion of the phosphorus remaining in the respiration and the organic acids produced by
system is held in unavailable (occluded) forms. Availability many plants generate soil acidity that contrib-
of phosphorus to plants peaks relatively early in this utes to rock weathering. Vegetation differences
sequences and declines thereafter. Redrawn from Walker
and Syers (1976) in either absorption of minerals or release of
organics strongly influences soil properties (see
Chap. 7). It is often difficult, however, to separate
nitrogen, causing a change from coastal grass- the chicken from the egg. Did the vegetation
land to productive redwood forest (Jenny et al. determine soil properties or vice versa (Berner
1969). Over several 100,000 years, silicates are et al. 2004; Dietrich and Perron 2006; Amundson
leached out, leaving behind a hardpan of iron and et al. 2007)?
aluminum oxides with very low fertility and One approach to determining vegetation effects
seasonally anaerobic soils. The pygmy cypress on soils has been to plant monocultures or species
forests that develop on these old terraces have mixes into initially homogeneous sites. Rapidly
very low productivity. The phenolic compounds growing grasses in a nitrogen-poor perennial
produced by these trees as defenses against herbi- grassland enhanced the nitrogen mineralization
vores also retard decomposition, further reducing (or reduced microbial immobilization) of nitro-
soil fertility (see Chap. 7; Northup et al. 1995). gen by soils within 3 years (see Fig. 11.5; Wedin
and Tilman 1990), as did deep-rooted forbs in an
annual grassland (Hooper and Vitousek 1998).
Potential Biota Another approach is to examine the consequences
of species invasions or extinctions on soil pro-
The past and present organisms at a site cesses. The invasion of a non-native nitrogen fixer
strongly influence soil chemical and physical into Hawaiian rainforests, for example, increased
properties. Most soil development occurs in the nitrogen inputs to the system more than fivefold,
presence of living organisms. Plants are the altering the characteristics of soils and the coloni-
sources of organic carbon that enter soils, and zation and competitive balance among native
functionally different types of plants (e.g., plant species (see Fig. 11.3; Vitousek et al. 1987).
grasses, deciduous trees, evergreen shrubs) Yet another approach is to examine weathering
strongly influence the amount and especially the and erosion rates in places without biota (Mars or
depth distribution of soil carbon (Jobbágy and early Precambrian soils) or with minimal biotic
Development of Soil Profiles 73

basin than in causing loss from the land to the ADDITIONS

ocean. For example, 90% of the materials eroded Precipitation (including
from the upland Piedmont region in the south- ions and solid particles);
organic matter
eastern U.S. since 1700 is still stored on hillslopes,
valley bottoms, and reservoirs (Selby 1993). At a Ground surface
global scale, human activities have increased ero-
TRANSFORMATIONS
sion and sediment flux in rivers by 2.3 billion Organic matter humus
metric tons per year, but have reduced sediment hydrous oxides
flux to the ocean by 1.4 billion metric tons per Primary minerals clays
year because of sediment trapping in reservoirs ions, H4SiO4
(Syvitski et al. 2005). These patterns are region-
TRANSFERS Soil
ally variable, however. Indonesia, for example,
Humus TRANSFERS
has considerable land-use change and sediment compounds,
transport but very few reservoirs to prevent these clays, Ions,
H4SiO4
sediments from reaching the ocean. Much of the ions, H4SiO4
erosion on natural landscapes probably occurs
during high-rainfall events or after disturbances
have reduced vegetation cover rather than during LOSSES
average conditions.
Ions,
H4SiO4

Development of Soil Profiles

Soils develop through the additions of materi- Fig. 3.8 Processes leading to additions, transformations,
als to the system, transformations of those transfers, and losses of materials from soils. Redrawn
materials within the system, transfers down from Birkeland (1999)
and up in the soil profile, and losses of materi-
als from the system (Fig. 3.8; Richter and the soil as dead organic matter, including the
Markewitz 2001). above- and belowground portions of plants, ani-
mals, and soil microbes.

Additions to Soils
Soil Transformations
Direct inputs to the soil system come from
both outside and inside the ecosystem. Inputs Within the soil, materials are transformed
from outside the ecosystem come from precipita- through an interaction of physical, chemical,
tion and wind, which deposit ions and dust parti- and biological processes. Freshly deposited
cles, and floods and tidal exchange, which deposit dead organic matter is transformed in the soil by
sediments and solutes (see Chap. 9). The source decomposition to soil organic matter, releasing
of these materials determines their size distribu- carbon dioxide and nutrients such as nitrogen
tion and chemistry, leading to the development of and phosphorus (see Chap. 7). Recalcitrant plant
soils with specific textural and chemical charac- and microbial organic compounds undergo
teristics. Sometimes these inputs are huge, for physicochemical interactions with soil minerals
example, hundreds to thousands of g m−2 of dust that contribute to the long-term storage of soil
inputs to loess-accumulating regions of North organic matter. The quantity of soil carbon in
America and Asia during the Pleistocene (Sun deep soils, for example, correlates more closely
et al. 2000; Bettis et al. 2003). Organisms within with clay content than with climate (Jobbágy
the ecosystem add organic matter and nitrogen to and Jackson 2000).
74 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Weathering is the change of parent rocks and Chemical weathering occurs when parent
minerals to produce more stable forms. This rock materials react with acidic or oxidizing sub-
occurs when rocks and minerals become exposed stances, usually in the presence of water. During
to physical and chemical conditions different chemical weathering, primary minerals (unmod-
from those under which they formed (Ugolini ified minerals present in the rock or unconsoli-
and Spaltenstein 1992). Weathering involves both dated parent material) dissolve, releasing ions
physical and chemical processes and is influ- and forming secondary minerals (insoluble
enced by characteristics of the parent material, reaction products of weathering). Chemical
environmental conditions (temperature and mois- weathering most commonly involves the reaction
ture), and the activities of organisms. Physical of water and acid on a mineral. Carbonic acid is
weathering is the fragmentation of parent mate- the most important of these acids. It forms
rial without chemical change. This can occur through the reaction of CO2 with water and then
when rocks are fractured by expansion and con- ionizes to produce a hydrogen ion and a bicar-
traction during cycles of freeze–thaw, heating– bonate ion. The CO2 concentration in soil, which
cooling, or wetting–drying or when roots grow drives the formation of carbonic acid, is 10- to
into rock fissures. Fire, for example, is a potent 500-fold higher than in air, due to the respiration
force for physical weathering because it rapidly (CO2 production) by plants, soil animals, and
heats exposed rock surfaces while leaving the microbes and the low diffusivity of gases in soil.
deeper layers cool. In addition, soil particles and Weathering rates are particularly high adjacent to
rock fragments are abraded by wind, or ground roots because high rates of biological activity
against one another by glaciers, landslides, or produce abundant CO2 and organic acids in the
floods. Physical weathering is especially impor- rhizosphere, the zone of soil that is directly
tant in extreme and highly seasonal climates. influenced by roots. Carbonic acid, for example,
Wherever it occurs, it opens channels in rocks for attacks potassium feldspar, which is converted to
penetration by water and air and increases the a secondary mineral, kaolinite by the removal of
surface area for chemical weathering reactions. soluble silica and potassium (3.1).

2KAlSi3 O8 + 2(H + + HCO3 - ) + H 2 O ® Al 2 Si 2 O5 (OH)4 + 4SiO2 + 2K + + 2HCO3 - (3.1)

Other sources of acidity that promote chemical direct effects on weathering reactions and their
weathering include organic acids, nitric acid, sul- effects on biological processes. Not surprisingly,
furic acid, and the hydrogen ions excreted by plant the hot, wet conditions of the humid tropics yield
roots when cations are absorbed (Richter and the highest rates of chemical weathering.
Markewitz 2001). Plant roots and microbes secrete The physical and chemical properties of rock
many organic acids into the soil, which influence minerals determine their susceptibility to weath-
chemical weathering through their contribution to ering and the chemical products that result.
soil acidity and their capacity to chelate ions. In Sedimentary rocks like shale that form by chemi-
the chelation process, organic acids combine with cal precipitation, for example, have more basic
metallic ions, such as Fe3+ and Al3+, making them cations like calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+), and
soluble and mobile. Chelation lowers the concen- potassium (K+) than do igneous rocks.
tration of unchelated inorganic ions at the mineral Sedimentary rocks tend to produce soils with a
surface, so dissolved and primary mineral forms relatively high pH and a high capacity to supply
are no longer in equilibrium with one another. mineral cations to plants. Igneous rocks form
This accelerates the rate of weathering. more acidic soils.
Warm climates promote chemical weathering Minerals weather in the same order in which
because temperature speeds chemical reactions they crystallized during formation (Schlesinger
and enhances the activities of plants and microbes. 1997; Birkeland 1999). Olivine, for example, is
Wet conditions promote weathering through their one of the first minerals to crystallize as magma
Development of Soil Profiles 75

Table 3.2 Stability of common minerals under weather- a b

ing conditions at Earth’s surface
Most stable Fe3+ oxides Secondary mineral
Al3+ oxides Secondary mineral
Quartz Primary mineral
Clay minerals Secondary mineral
K+ feldspar Primary mineral and = Oxygen
Na+ feldspar Primary mineral and = Silicon
Ca2+ feldspar Primary mineral d
c
Least stable Olivine Primary mineral
Data from Press and Siever (1986)

cools, forms relatively few bonds, and weathers

and = Hydroxyl
easily. Feldspar forms and weathers more slowly
than olivine, and quartz is one of the last minerals = Aluminum, magnesium, etc.
to crystallize, has strong bonds that create a crys- Fig. 3.9 Diagram showing the molecular structure of a
talline structure, and is highly resistant to weath- simple clay layer: (a) a tetrahedral unit, (b) a tetrahedral
ering (Table 3.2). Secondary minerals such as the sheet, (c) an octahedral unit, and (d) an octahedral sheet.
Redrawn from Grim (1968)
silicate clay minerals and iron and aluminum
oxides are among the most resistant minerals to
weathering. Differences among elements in their
sheets give rise to a wide variety of clay minerals
susceptibility to weathering and solubility in water
with different exchange properties. Montmoril-
leads to the following sequence in which elements
lonite or illite, for example, which have 2:1 ratios
are weathered from rocks and leached into rivers:
of silica- to aluminum-dominated layers, have a
Cl > SO 4 > Na > Ca > Mg > K > Si > Fe > Al higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) than
does kaolinite, which has a 1:1 ratio of silica- to
(3.2) aluminum-dominated layers (Fig. 3.10). Some
Moderately weathered soils therefore have exchange sites on soil minerals, particularly sili-
relatively high concentrations of Ca+, Mg+, and cate clays with surface oxygen layers, have a
K+ (elements essential for plant growth) and low permanently fixed charge. Other exchange sites,
concentrations of soluble Al3+ (a slowly weath- particularly iron and aluminum clays with surface
ered element often toxic to plants). In contrast, in hydroxyl layers, vary between positive and nega-
the ancient soils of the wet tropics, the relatively tive depending on pH.
mobile ions of Si and Mg2+ as well as Ca2+, K+, In tropical climates, silica is preferentially
and Na+ have leached away, leaving behind the leached from secondary clay minerals, producing
less mobile ions of Al3+ and Fe3+. red iron and aluminum oxide clays like gibbsite,
The secondary minerals formed in weather- which has only aluminum-dominated octahedral
ing reactions play critical roles in soils and sheets. Highly weathered minerals dominated by
ecosystem processes. Insoluble products of octahedral sheets strongly bind anions like phos-
chemical weathering are fine clay particles con- phate. In cold, wet climates, however, iron and alu-
sisting of hydrated silicates of aluminum, iron, minum are preferentially leached, leaving behind
and magnesium arranged in layers (sheets). Two silica-dominated quartz sand. CEC tends to decline
types of sheets make up these minerals: A tetra- with weathering, whereas anion exchange capacity
hedral sheet consists of units with one silicon increases (Fig. 3.10), as discussed later. Most soils
atom surrounded by four O− groups (Fig. 3.9a). contain mixtures of several secondary minerals.
An octahedral sheet consists of units with six O− The structure and concentration of clay minerals
or OH− groups surrounding an Al3+, Mg2+, or Fe3+ strongly influence the CEC, water-holding capacity,
ion (Fig. 3.9c). Various combinations of these and other characteristics of soils.
76 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

−40

Charges on clay colloids (cmolc /kg)

−30

−20
Anion
Cation exchange capacity
exchange capacity
−10

+10 Mostly 2:1 Mostly 1:1 Mostly Fe,

type clays type clays Al oxide clays

+20
Mild Intermediate Strong

Weathering intensity
Fig. 3.10 The effect of weathering intensity on the charges on clay minerals and in turn on their cation and anion
exchange capacities. Redrawn from Brady and Weil (2008)

Secondary minerals that form in soils can be to insoluble products, or until dehydration causes
either crystalline, with highly regular arrange- them to precipitate out of solution. The quantity
ments of atoms, as in the silicate clay minerals of base cations in secondary minerals therefore
described earlier, or amorphous, with no regular often increases with depth within the upper meter
arrangement of atoms. Allophane (Al2O3·2SiO2· of soil. These cations are leached from upper lay-
nH2O), for example, is an amorphous secondary ers (termed horizons) and form new minerals
mineral characteristic of volcanic ash deposits. under the new conditions of pH and ionic content
With time, allophane transforms through loss of encountered at depth. Chelated complexes of
silica to crystalline aluminum oxide minerals like organic compounds and iron or aluminum ions
gibbsite (Al(OH)3). Allophane has a high anion are also water soluble and can move in water to
exchange capacity due to a surplus of positive deeper layers of the soil profile. Slight changes in
charges. It also strongly binds phosphorus and ionic content or the microbial breakdown of the
can lead to phosphorus limitation in relatively organic matter are among the processes that can
young volcanic soils. cause the metal ions to precipitate as oxides. Clay
particles like silicates and iron and aluminum
oxides can also be transported downward in solu-
Soil Transfers tion, sometimes forming deep horizons with high
clay content in wet climates. Soil texture affects
Vertical transfers of materials through soils the rate and depth of leaching and thus the trans-
generate distinctive soil profiles, i.e., the verti- location and accumulation of materials in soil
cal layering of soils. These transfers typically profiles. Constituents released during weathering
occur by leaching (the downward movement of of coarse-textured glacial till, for example, may
dissolved materials) and particulate transport in be leached from the soil before they have a
water. Soluble ions that are added in precipitation chance to chemically react to form secondary
or released by weathering in upper layers of the minerals.
soil profile can move downward in solution until Soils of arid and semi-arid environments also
a change in chemical environment causes them to accumulate materials in specific horizons. These
become reactants in chemical processes, leading systems often have a hard calcium carbonate-rich
Development of Soil Profiles 77

calcic horizon or caliche. Downward-moving soil manganese is particularly pronounced in lake

water carries dissolved Ca2+ and bicarbonate sediments where there is a strong gradient in oxy-
(HCO3−). Precipitation as calcium carbonate gen concentration from the sediment surface. The
occurs under conditions of increasing pH, which conversion from ferric (Fe3+) to ferrous (Fe2+)
drives reaction (3.3) to the left. Precipitation can iron gives rise to the characteristic gray and blu-
also occur under saturating concentrations of car- ish colors of waterlogged gley soils.
bonate, or with evaporation of soil water. Soils that are subjected to repeated wetting
and drying and saturation during some seasons
CaCO3 + H 2 CO3 « Ca 2 + + 2HCO3 - (3.3) can also develop characteristic accumulations of
minerals. Plinthite, for example, is an iron- and
Although most of the transfers in soils occur aluminum-rich material in tropical soils that can
through the downward movement of water, mate- harden irreversibly with repeated cycles of wet-
rials can also move upward in water. The capil- ting and drying. Depending on their location
lary rise of water from a shallow water table, for within the profile, these layers can impede water
example, transfers water and ions from lower to drainage and root growth.
upper soil layers (see Chap. 4). Because capillary The actions of plant roots and soil animals
water movement depends on adhesive properties transfer materials up and down the soil profile
of soil particles, the potential distance for capil- (Paton et al. 1995). Organic matter inputs to soil
lary rise is greater in clay soils with small pore occur primarily at the surface and in upper soil
sizes than in sandy soils (Birkeland 1999), as horizons. When leaves or roots are shed or plants
explained later. Soluble ions or compounds may die, the minerals acquired by deep roots are also
accumulate in layers at the top of the capillary deposited on or near the soil surface. This con-
fringe. Salt pans, for example, form at the soil tributes, for example, to the base-rich soils and
surface in low-lying areas of deserts, forming unique ground flora beneath deep-rooted oak
extensive salt flats, where the water evaporates trees in southern Sweden (Andersson 1991) or
rather than running off. Minerals that are added dogwood trees in the eastern U.S. (Thomas 1969).
to soils in irrigation water in dry regions can also Tree windthrow, which occurs when large trees
accumulate at the soil surface, as the water evap- are toppled by strong winds, also redistributes
orates. This salinization has led to widespread roots and associated soil upward. Finally, animals
abandonment of farmland in dry regions of the such as gophers transfer materials up and down in
world, as in many parts of Australia. the soil profile as they tunnel and feed on plant
Some minerals accumulate at the interface roots. Earthworms in temperate soils and termites
between waterlogged and aerobic soils. Poor in tropical soils are particularly important in
drainage often leads to low oxygen availability transferring surface organic matter deep into
because oxygen diffuses 10,000 times more the soil profile and, at the same time, bringing
slowly in water than in air and is easily depleted mineral soil from depth to the surface. These pro-
in waterlogged soils by root and microbial respi- cesses play critical roles in the redistribution of
ration. Low oxygen concentration creates reduc- nutrients and in the control of net primary
ing conditions that convert ions with multiple productivity.
oxidation states to their reduced forms. Iron and
manganese, for example, are more soluble in
their reduced states (Fe2+ and Mn2+, respectively) Losses from Soils
than in their oxidized states (Fe3+ and Mn4+,
respectively). Fe2+ and Mn2+ diffuse through Materials are lost from soil profiles primarily
waterlogged soils to the surface of the water as solutions and gases. The quantity of minerals
table, where there is enough oxygen to convert leached from an ecosystem depends on both the
them to their oxidized forms. Here they precipi- amount of water flowing through the soil profile
tate out of solution to form a distinct iron- and and its solute concentration. Many factors influ-
manganese-rich layer. This layering of iron and ence these concentrations, including plant
78 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

demand, microbial mineralization rate, cation or cally contains substantial organic matter and is
anion exchange capacity, and previous losses via therefore dark in color. The O and A horizons are
leaching or gas fluxes. As water moves through the zones of most active plant and microbial pro-
the soil, exchange reactions with mineral and cesses and therefore have highest nutrient supply
organic surfaces replace loosely bound ions on rates (see Chap. 9). Many soils in wet climates
the exchange complex with ions that bind more have an E horizon beneath the A horizon that is
tightly, as explained later. In this way, monova- strongly leached. Most clay minerals and iron
lent (ions with a single charge) cations such as and aluminum oxides have been leached from the
Na+, NH4+, and K+ and anions such as Cl− and horizon, leaving behind resistant minerals like
NO3− are easily released from the exchange com- quartz, among other sand and silt-size particles.
plex into the soil solution and are particularly The B horizon beneath the A and E is the zone of
prone to leaching loss. The maintenance of maximum accumulation of iron and aluminum
charge balance of soil solutions requires that the oxides and clays. Salts and precipitates some-
leaching of negatively charged ions (anions) be times also accumulate here, especially in arid and
accompanied by an equal charge of positive ions semi-arid environments. The C horizon lies
(cations). Inputs of H2SO4 in acid rain therefore beneath the A and B horizons. Although it may
increase leaching losses of readily exchangeable accumulate some of the leached material from
base cations like Na+, NH4+, and K+, which leach above, it is relatively unaffected by soil-forming
downward with SO42−. processes and typically includes a significant
Materials can also be lost from soils as gases. portion of unweathered parent material. Finally,
Gas emissions depend on the rate of gas produc- at some depth, there is an unweathered layer of
tion by microbes, the diffusional paths through bedrock (R). Leaching and cation loss predomi-
soils, and the exchange at the soil–air interface nate in wet environments, producing acid soils.
(Livingston and Hutchinson 1995). The controls Salt inputs and accumulation predominate in dry
over these losses are discussed in Chap. 9. environments, producing basic soils.
Despite the large variation among the world’s
soils, they can be classified into major groups that
Soil Horizons and Soil Classification have formed in response to similar soil-forming
factors and processes and therefore share many of
Ecosystem differences in additions, transfor- the same properties. Soil classification systems
mations, transfers, accumulations, and loss rely on the diagnostic characteristics of specific
give rise to distinct soils and soil profiles. Soils horizons and on organic matter content, base satu-
include organic, mineral, gaseous, and aqueous ration, and properties that indicate wetness or dry-
constituents arranged in a relatively predictable ness. The soil taxonomy used in the U.S.
vertical structure. The number and depth of recognizes 12 major soil groups, called soil orders
horizons (layers) and the characteristics of each (Table 3.3). Most agronomic and ecosystem stud-
layer in a soil profile vary widely among soils. ies classify soils to the level of a soil series, a
Nonetheless, a series of horizons can be described group of soil profiles with similar profile charac-
that is typical of many soils (Fig. 3.11). The teristics such as type, thickness, and properties of
organic or O horizon of soil consists of organic the soil horizons. Soil series can be further subdi-
material that accumulates above the mineral soil. vided into types based on the texture of the
This organic layer is derived from the litter of A horizon, and into phases based on information
dead plants and animals and can be subdivided such as landscape position, stoniness, and salinity.
based on the degree of decomposition that most A comparison of soil profiles from the major soil
material has undergone, with the lower portion orders illustrates the impact of different climatic
of the organic horizon being more decomposed. regimes on soil development (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13).
The A horizon is the uppermost mineral soil More detailed descriptions of soil orders are
horizon. Being adjacent to the O horizon, it typi- presented by Brady and Weil (2008).
Soil Horizons and Soil Classification 79

Fig. 3.11 A generic soil Oi Organic, slightly decomposed

profile, showing the major O Oe Organic, moderately decomposed
horizons that are formed Oa Organic, highly decomposed
during soil development.
Density of dots reflects A Mineral, mixed with humus, dark colored
concentration of soil
organic matter E Horizon of maximum leaching of silicate
clays, Fe, Al oxides, etc.

Soil
B Zone of Fe and Al accumulation

Zone of least weathering and

C accumulation; contains unweathered
parent material

R Bedrock

Table 3.3 Names of the soil orders in the U.S. soil taxonomy and their characteristics and typical locations
Area (% of
Soil order ice-free land) Major characteristics Typical occurrence
Rock and sand 14.1
Entisols 16.3 No well-developed horizons Sand deposits, plowed fields
Inceptisols 9.9 Weakly developed soils Young or eroded soils
Histosols 1.2 Highly organic; low oxygen Peatland, bog
Gelisol 8.6 Presence of permafrost Tundra, boreal forest
Andisols 0.7 From volcanic ejecta; moderately Recent volcanic areas
developed horizons
Aridisols 12.1 Dry soils with little leaching Arid areas
Mollisols 6.9 Deep, dark-colored A horizon with Grasslands, some deciduous forests
>50% base saturation
Vertisols 2.4 High content (>30%) of swelling clays; Grassland with distinct wet and dry
crack deeply when dry seasons
Alfisols 9.7 Enough precipitation to leach clays into a Moist forests; shrublands
B horizon; >50% base saturation
Spodosols 2.6 Sandy leached (E) horizon; acidic B Cold, wet climates, usually beneath
horizon; surface organic accumulation conifer forests
Ultisols 8.5 Clay-rich B horizon, low base saturation Wet tropical/subtropical climate;
forest or savanna
Oxisols 7.6 Highly leached horizon on old landforms Hot, humid tropics beneath forests
Data from Miller and Donahue (1990) and Brady and Weil (2008)

Entisols are soils with minimal soil develop- the ice-free surface. Thus, including rock and
ment. They occur either because the soils are shifting sand, about 40% of the ice-free surface
recent, or processes that disrupt soil structure of Earth shows minimal soil development
dominate over soil-forming processes. This is (Table 3.3; Fig. 3.12).
the most widespread soil type in the world, Histosols are highly organic soils that develop
occupying 16% of the ice-free surface. in any climate zone under waterlogged conditions
Inceptisols, in which the soil profile has only that restrict oxygen diffusion into the soil, leading
begun to develop, occupy an additional 10% of to slow rates of decomposition and accumulation
80 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Gelisol

Aridisol
mafrost

Histosol
Mollisol

(d Arid
)
er t
ed )
nd

r Dry
gg
P er

sla

es
lo s
er a
at
W

(g
Moist Warm Leaching
Entisol Inceptisol Alfisol Ultisol (wet tropics) Oxisol
(decidous humid
Vo forest)
lca (co W
ni nif et
c er
Swe

fo
re
lling clay

st

Spodosol
)

Andisol

Vertisol

Degree of weathering and soil development

Slight Intermediate Strong
Fig. 3.12 Relationships among the major soil orders, with which they are most commonly associated. Based on
showing the conditions under which they form, relative Birkeland (1999) and Brady and Weil (2008)
time required for formation, and the types of ecosystems

Spodosol Mollisol Oxisol

Gelisol Aridisol
(Acidic conifer (Grassland, (Tropical wet
(Tundra, bog) (Desert)
forests) deciduous forest) forest)
0
A O
A
O
E
25 A
A B
B
Soil depth (cm)

50 A
Calcic
Permafrost

B
75
C

C
100

Fig. 3.13 Typical profiles of five contrasting soil orders, showing differences in the types and depths of horizons.
Symbols as in Fig. 3.11
Soil Horizons and Soil Classification 81

Fig. 3.14 Diagram Wet

showing the general soil
moisture and temperature Spodosols Oxisols
regimes that characterize
the most extensive soils of
seven soil orders. Soils of
other soil orders (Andisols, Ultisols
Entisols, Inceptisols, and
Histosols) can occur across
this entire spectrum of
environmental conditions. Moist Gelisols
Alfisols
Vertisols (not shown) occur
only where clay materials
are abundant, under
intermediate temperature, Mollisols
and moisture conditions.
Data from Brady and Weil
(2008)
Aridisols
Dry
−8 −4 0 4 8 14 16 20 24
Cold Soil temperature (oC) Hot

of organic matter. Histosols have a well-developed for 12% of the terrestrial surface (Miller and
O horizon of undecomposed organic material Donahue 1990).
where most plants are rooted. The high water Vertisols are characterized by swelling and
table prevents the vertical leaching required for shrinking clays. These clay-rich soils tend to
soil development, so these soils have weak devel- occur in warm regions with a moist to dry climate,
opment of mineral soil horizons. Gelisols are soils often on limestone or other base-rich parent mate-
that develop in climates with an average annual rials. Vertisols often have no B horizon because
temperature below 0°C that are underlain by a the swelling and shrinking leads to a vertically
layer of permanently frozen soil (permafrost). well-mixed soil. Trees are often excluded from
They typically have a surface organic horizon or vertisols due to the frequent soil disturbance.
are frost churned (Figs. 3.13 and 3.14). Mollisols are fertile soils that develop beneath
Andisols are young soils on volcanic sub- grasslands and some deciduous forests. They
strates that tend to produce amorphous clays. have a deep, organic-rich A horizon with a high
Aridisols, as the name implies, develop in arid nutrient content that grades into a B horizon. Due
climates. The low rainfall minimizes weathering to their high fertility, mollisols have been exten-
and deep leaching, causing accumulation of solu- sively cultivated and support the major grain-
ble salts. There is no surface O horizon. The shal- growing regions of the world. They account for
low A horizon has little organic matter due to low 22% of U.S. soils and 7% of soils worldwide
productivity and rapid decomposition. Low pre- (Miller and Donahue 1990).
cipitation results in a poorly developed B hori- Spodosols (or podzols by European terminol-
zon. Many of these soils form a calcic layer of ogy) are highly leached soils that develop most
calcium and magnesium carbonates that precipi- commonly in cool, wet climates, usually beneath
tate at depth because there is insufficient water to conifer stands. Beneath the A horizon is usually a
leach them out of the system. Desert calcic layers highly leached, almost white, E horizon and a
can greatly reduce root penetration, restricting dark brown or black B horizon, where leaching
the roots of many desert plants to surface soils. products accumulate. These soils are often coarse
Aridisols are a widespread soil type, accounting textured and acidic. Alfisols usually develop
82 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

beneath temperate and subtropical forests, espe- Particle size distribution (soil texture) is
cially deciduous forests that receive less precipi- important because it determines the surface area
tation. They are less strongly leached than in a given soil volume. Soil texture is defined by
spodosols and have a base-rich zone of clay accu- the relative proportion of three sizes of particles:
mulation in the B horizon. clay (<0.002 mm), silt (0.002–0.05 mm), and
Ultisols develop in warm, wet climates, where sand (0.05–2.0 mm; Fig. 3.15). Loam soils,
there is substantial leaching. The B horizon of which constitute the majority of soils, are mix-
these soils often has a high clay content and a low tures of these three size classes and exhibit some
base saturation. Oxisols are the most highly properties of each size class. Rocks and gravel
weathered and leached group of soils. They occur are larger (>2 mm) particles that also occupy a
on old landforms in the wet tropics. The A horizon substantial proportion of the volume of many
is so highly weathered that it contains iron and soils. Most gravel and sand particles are unweath-
aluminum oxides, largely as clay particles with ered primary minerals, whereas clay particles are
very little silica and extremely low fertility. This mostly secondary minerals. Silt particles are
horizon often extends several meters in depth. intermediate in composition (Fig. 3.16).
Four generalizations emerge from this broad Soil texture depends on the balance between
comparison of soil orders: soil development that occurs in place, deposition
1. Nearly half (40%) of Earth’s soils show mini- by wind or water, and erosional loss of materials.
mal soil development and therefore largely As soils weather in place, the conversion of pri-
reflect the properties of their parent material mary to secondary minerals (mostly small parti-
and current climate. cles) increases the proportion of small soil
2. Wet environments tend to produce acidic particles. For this reason, high-latitude soils, with
leached soils, whereas dry environments pro- their slow rates of chemical weathering, often
duce basic ones in which cations accumulate. have low clay content, often about 10%, com-
3. Weathering and soil formation occur most pared to temperate or tropical soils. Weathering
rapidly in warm, wet climates, where plant rate and texture also depend on parent material,
productivity is greatest. Weathering is accen- as discussed earlier. Small particles are particu-
tuated with time. larly susceptible to erosion by wind or water.
4. The quantity, quality, and turnover rate of soil Water erosion transports clay from hilltops to
organic matter are sensitive to climate and valley bottoms, producing fine-textured soils in
strongly influence soil fertility and other soil river valleys and leaving coarser-textured soils on
properties the slopes. If river valleys are poorly vegetated,
as in braided rivers that drain glaciated land-
scapes, wind can then move fine particles back to
hillslopes to form loess soils with a high silt con-
Soil Properties and Ecosystem tent. Over millions of years, minerals dissolve
Functioning and are lost from the soil.
Clay particles have about 10,000 times
Soil Physical Properties greater surface area than the same weight of
medium-sized sand particles (Brady and Weil
Spatial and temporal variations in soil devel- 2008). Organic matter also has a high surface-
opment generate large variations in soil prop- volume ratio. Surface area, in turn, determines
erties. In the following paragraphs, we discuss the amount of water that adsorbs to particle sur-
how the properties of soil particles and the faces and therefore the capacity of soils to retain
configuration of intervening spaces govern the water. Surface charge and CEC also depend on
availability of water and nutrient resources for particle surface area, as described later. Soil tex-
plant growth and therefore their cycling through ture influences these and so many other impor-
ecosystems. tant soil characteristics that it is a good general
Soil Properties and Ecosystem Functioning 83

100

10
90

20
80

30
70
Clay
y

Pe
cla

40
60

rce
nt

nt
rce

50

silt
50
Pe

Silty
clay
40 Sandy

60
clay Silty clay
Clay loam
loam

70
30
Sandy
clay loam

80
20
Sandy Loam Silt loam
Lo

90
10 am loam
ys
an Silt
Sand d

0
10
10

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10
0

Percent sand
Fig. 3.15 Percentages of sand, silt, and clay in the major soil textural classes. Redrawn from Birkeland (1999)

Fig. 3.16 General 100

relationship between Other silicate Primary silicate
particle size and kinds of minerals minerals
minerals present. Redrawn
from Brady and Weil
Quantity (% of volume)

(2008) Secondary silicate

minerals
50

Quartz

0
Clay Silt Sand

predictor of many ecosystem properties (Parton per unit volume, is an easily measured index of
et al. 1987). the relative proportion of particles and voids
The physical properties of soils depend on the (spaces) in the soil. Bulk densities of mineral soil
properties of both particles and the spaces horizons (1.0–2.0 g cm−3) are typically higher
between them. Bulk density, the mass of dry soil than those of organic horizons (0.05–0.4 g cm−3).
84 3 Geology, Soils, and Sediments

Fig. 3.17 Volume Organic matter

distribution of organic
matter, sand, silt, clay, 0
micropores, and macropores
in a representative silt loam.
Redrawn from Brady and 30
Weil (2008) Macropores

Depth (cm)
60 Sand Silt Clay Micropores

90

120
0 20 40 60 80 100
Quantity (% of soil volume)

Fine-textured soils usually have aggregated disturbances that reduce soil organic content and
groupings of particles, as described later, with its associated microbes can lead to a loss of soil
intervening spaces and therefore generally have structure, which contributes to further soil degra-
greater pore volume and lower bulk density than dation. Earthworms and other soil invertebrates
coarse-textured soils. If compacted, however, contribute to aggregate formation by ingesting
clay soils can have higher bulk density than soil and producing feces that retain a coherent
coarse-textured soils. structure. Plant species and their microbial asso-
Soil structure reflects the aggregation of soil ciates differ in the capacity of their exudates to
particles into larger units. Aggregates form when form aggregates. Some mycorrhizal fungi, for
soil particles become cemented together and then example, produce a glycoprotein glomalin that is
crack into larger units as soils dry or freeze. Soil particularly effective in cementing microaggre-
aggregates are hierarchically structured with gates to form macroaggregates (Wilson et al.
large aggregates (>3 mm diameter) consisting 2009). In summary, soil texture, mineral chemis-
of progressively smaller aggregates and sub- try, organic matter content, and species composi-
aggregates down to clusters of a few clay and tion all influence soil structure.
humus particles less than 0.001 mm in diameter. The pore structure of soils is critical to their
Aggregates form more easily in loam and clay functioning. Pores account for about half the soil
soils than in sandy soils. Materials that glue soil volume (Fig. 3.17) and range in size from microp-
particles together to form aggregates include ores that are too small for bacteria or root hairs to
organic matter, iron oxides, polyvalent cations, penetrate to macropores (>0.08 mm diameter).
and silica. Iron and aluminum oxides are particu- Micropores include both the original spaces
larly important to aggregate formation in highly between soil particles and the spaces that form as
weathered tropical soils. For example, iron clays swell and shrink due to absorption and loss
oxides can cement clay particles to produce very of water between clay platelets. This swelling
stable pseudosand aggregates that improve soil and shrinking creates a wide range of pore sizes,
drainage in some clay-rich tropical oxisols and from the smallest micropores to large macropo-
ultisols. In contrast, organic matter, such as poly- res between soil aggregate. Macropores also form
saccharide secreted by roots and bacteria, is more when roots and soil animals, especially earth-
important in aggregate formation in temperate worms, move through the soil, often along previ-
soils. Fungal hyphae also contribute strongly ously formed cracks or fractures. The resulting
to aggregation in many soils. For these reasons, cracks and channels are important pathways for
Soil Properties and Ecosystem Functioning 85

water infiltration, gas diffusion, and root growth, the influence of gravity (saturated flow), even
thus affecting water availability, soil aeration, when some of the smaller pores within aggre-
oxidation–reduction processes, and plant growth. gates have not yet filled. Water drainage contin-
The fine-scale heterogeneity in pore structure is ues until, often after several days, the adhesive
critical to the functioning of soils. Slow gas diffu- forces that hold water in films on soil particles
sion through the partially cemented pores within equals the gravitational pressure. At this point,
aggregates creates anaerobic conditions immedi- called field capacity, water no longer freely
ately adjacent to aerobic surfaces of soil pores. drains.
This allows anaerobic processes (e.g., denitrifica- At water contents below field capacity, water
tion) that require the products of aerobic pro- moves through the soil by unsaturated flow in
cesses (nitrification, in this case) to occur even in response to gradients of water potential, i.e., the
well-aerated soils (see Chap. 9). The surfaces of potential energy of water relative to pure water
macropores are hot spots of biological activity, (see Chap. 4). When plant roots absorb water from
including the secretion of exudates by roots, rapid the soil to replace water that is lost in transpira-
growth and turnover of bacterial biofilms, and tion, this reduces the thickness of water films
predation by soil animals (see Chap. 7). adjacent to roots, causing the remaining water to
Human activities substantially alter the soil adhere more tightly to soil particles. The net effect
structure of many ecosystems. Compaction by is to reduce the soil water potential at the root sur-
animals and machinery compresses many of the face. Water moves along water films through the
larger cracks and pores between aggregates, soil pores toward the root in response to this gra-
reducing oxygen diffusion into the soil. dient in water potential. As plants continue to
Compaction also reduces infiltration of rainwa- transpire, water continues moving toward the root
ter, increasing the likelihood of overland flow and until some minimal water potential is reached,
erosion. Conversely, plowing mechanically dis- when roots can no longer extract water from the
rupts aggregates, creates new macropores, and particle surfaces or the continuity of the water film
disrupts the macropores that were previously is broken (see Chap. 4). This point is called the
present. Depending on the initial condition of the permanent wilting point. Water-holding capac-
soil, plowing can either improve or degrade soil ity is the difference in water content between field
structure. In native prairie, for example, plowing capacity and permanent wilting point (see Fig.
reduces total pore volume by disrupting aggre- 4.8). Water-holding capacity is substantially
gates and initial macropores, whereas plowing of enhanced by presence of clay and soil organic
compacted soils may increase macropore volume matter because of their large surface area. The
(Brady and Weil 2008). Regardless of the effect water-holding capacity of an organic soil might,
of plowing on macropore volume, the breaking for example, be 300% (3 kg H2O per kg dry soil),
up of previously cemented aggregates increases while that of a clay soil may be 30% and that of a
oxygen diffusion and decomposition of soil sandy soil could be less than 20%. On a volumet-
organic matter that was previously “protected” ric basis, water-holding capacity is normally high-
from decomposition by anaerobic conditions, est in loam soils. One consequence of this
leading to loss of soil carbon (Fisher and Binkley difference is that, for a given amount of rainfall,
2000; Baker et al. 2007). coarse-textured soils will be wetted more deeply
Water is a critical resource for most ecosys- than soils without large pores (e.g., many clay
tem processes, and its availability depends criti- soils) but will retain less water in surface soil hori-
cally on soil structure. In soils, water is held in zons that are accessible to most plants. The water-
the pore spaces as films of water adsorbed to soil holding characteristics of soils help determine the
particles. The soil is water saturated when all amount of water available for plant absorption and
pore spaces are filled with water. When the larger growth and for microbial processes, including
pores fill with water, water begins to drain under decomposition and nutrient cycling and loss.