TITLE

Experiment PM 1: Determination of Modulus of Rigidity

Student Name: Ben Kubwa

1. AIM (OBJECTIVES)

To determine the modulus of rigidity of various metallic rods by observing the resonance frequencies
of forced torsional oscillations.

2. INTRODUCTION

Torsional oscillations occur when a body suspended by a wire or rod is twisted and released. The
restoring torque produced due to the elastic nature of the material causes the system to oscillate
about its equilibrium position. The period and frequency of such oscillations depend on the elastic
properties of the material and the moment of inertia of the oscillating system.

In this experiment, forced torsional oscillations are produced using a sine-wave signal generator and
Helmholtz coils. When the frequency of the external driving force matches the natural frequency of
the system, resonance occurs, resulting in a maximum oscillation amplitude. By determining this
resonance frequency and using known physical dimensions of the rod, the modulus of rigidity of the
material can be calculated.

3. THEORY

For a torsional oscillator, the period of oscillation ( T ) is given by:

[
T = 2\pi \sqrt{\frac{I}{C}}
]

where
( I ) = moment of inertia of the system
( C ) = torsion constant of the rod

The angular frequency ( \omega ) is related to the period by:

[
\omega = \frac{2\pi}{T}
]

For a cylindrical rod of length ( l ) and radius ( r ), twisted through an angle ( \phi ), the modulus of
rigidity ( G ) is given by:
[
G = \frac{2Il\omega^2}{\pi r^4}
]

where
( G ) = modulus of rigidity of the material
( \omega ) = angular resonance frequency

At resonance, the angular frequency of forced oscillation approximates the natural angular frequency
of the system.

4. APPARATUS / MATERIALS

 Signal generator

 Helmholtz coils

 Connecting leads

 Retort stand

 Auxiliary body with mirror and magnet

 12 V lamp with power supply

 Indicator scale

 Metallic rods of different materials

 Meter rule

 Weighing balance

 Micrometer screw gauge

5. PROCEDURE (Past Continuous Tense)

1. The length, radius, and mass of the sample rod were provided, and its moment of inertia was
being estimated using the given relation.

2. The mass of the auxiliary body and magnet was provided, and their dimensions and
symmetrical distances from the axis of rotation were being checked to ensure balanced
oscillations.

3. The moment of inertia of the auxiliary body was being calculated and denoted as ( I_a ).

4. The total moment of inertia of the system was being determined using the relation
[
I = I_r + I_a
]

5. The torsion oscillator was being clamped firmly to the stand, and the auxiliary body with
mirror and magnet was being attached such that the magnet lay along the symmetry axis of
the Helmholtz coils.
 6. The lamp was being switched on, and the reflected image was being observed. The lamp and
scale were being adjusted until the image appeared at the centre of the scale.

7. The Helmholtz coils were being connected in series and powered using the sine-wave output
of the signal generator.

8. The frequency was initially set to a low value (about 1–2 Hz), and the generator amplitude
was being adjusted to maximum. The total displacement of the light spot on the scale was
being measured.

9. The frequency was being increased gradually in steps of 0.1–0.2 Hz, allowing time for
oscillations to stabilize after each change.

10. Measurements were being continued until a maximum displacement was observed,
indicating resonance, and then extended beyond resonance to clearly obtain the resonance
peak.

11. The same procedure was being repeated for different sample rods provided.

6. RESULTS

(To be completed after raw data is provided)

This section will include:

 Raw data table (frequency vs displacement)

 Reduced data

 Proper units and table titles

7. CALCULATIONS

(To be completed after raw data is provided)

Sample calculations will include:

 Moment of inertia of the rod

 Total moment of inertia of the system

 Resonance angular frequency

 Modulus of rigidity for each sample

8. DISCUSSION

The resonance graphs obtained showed a clear peak at the resonance frequency for each metallic
rod. The resonance frequency corresponded to the maximum amplitude of oscillation, indicating that
the driving frequency matched the natural frequency of the torsional system.
Different samples exhibited different resonance amplitudes due to variations in material properties
such as rigidity, internal damping, and mass distribution. Stiffer materials generally showed higher
resonance frequencies and lower amplitudes, while less rigid materials exhibited larger oscillation
amplitudes.

Any deviations from expected values may be attributed to experimental errors such as imperfect
alignment, air damping, friction at the clamp, or inaccuracies in measuring dimensions and
frequencies.

9. POSSIBLE ERRORS AND THEIR REMEDIES

Possible Error Remedy

Misalignment of rod or magnet Ensure proper alignment before measurements

Inaccurate frequency readings Use small frequency increments and allow stabilization

Parallax error in reading scale Read scale at eye level

Damping due to air resistance Perform experiment in a calm environment

Errors in measuring radius Use micrometer screw gauge carefully

10. CONCLUSION

The modulus of rigidity of the given metallic rods was successfully determined using the resonance
method of forced torsional oscillations. The results obtained were consistent with theoretical
expectations within experimental limits, confirming the dependence of torsional oscillations on
elastic properties of materials.

11. REFERENCES

1. Physics Practical Manual – Torsional Oscillations

2. Young, H. D., & Freedman, R. A. University Physics with Modern Physics

3. Laboratory Notes on Elasticity and Oscillations