Cells

By: Kiarra, Namra, Ridhvika, Adweta

0
Cell Wall
1
Introduction to Cell Walls
- The cell wall is a thick, hard
covering found only in plant
cells.

- It is present outside the cell

membrane.

- The cell wall gives the plant

cell a fixed shape and strong
support.

- It is a non-living structure and

substances can pass through it
easily.
 Structure & Function
The cell wall performs many important functions:

- Protects the cell from injury

- Gives the cell a definite shape
- Provides strength to the plant body
- Prevents the cell from bursting when water
enters
- Allows water, gases, and minerals to move
freely
- Helps in communication between cells
Why Animal Cells Don’t Have Cell Walls?

Animal cells do not have cell walls because:

● Animals need to move freely

● Cell walls make cells rigid
● Animal cells change shape during
movement
● Support in animals comes from bones
and muscles
● Flexible cells help in digestion,
movement, and circulation
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Chloroplast
2
Introduction to Chloroplast
- Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in plant cells and
some algae, responsible for photosynthesis, the process by which
light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of
glucose.
- They are green in color due to the presence of chlorophyll, the
pigment that captures sunlight.
- Chloroplasts have a double membrane structure and contain their
own DNA and ribosomes, which allows them to produce some of
their own proteins.
- Inside, they have thylakoids arranged in stacks called grana, and a
fluid-filled space called the stroma,
- These organelles are vital for energy production and growth in
plants, as well as for maintaining life on Earth by releasing oxygen
into the atmosphere.
 Characteristics of Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are essential organelles in plant cells and some algae, responsible for photosynthesis. Here are the
main characteristics of chloroplasts:
Double Membrane Structure
- They have an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
- The space between them is called a intermembrane space.
Thylakoids
- Inside chloroplasts, is a system of flattened membrane sacs called thylakoids.
- Thylakoids are stacked into grana.
- They contain chlorophyll, the pigment that captures light energy.
Stroma
- A fluid - filled space around the thylakoids is called stroma.
Size & Shape
- They are usually 5 - 10 micron (μm) long, and 2 - 4 micron (μm) wide.
- They are normally oval or disc shaped.
Function
- Primary function is photosynthesis, converting light energy to chemical energy
(glucose).
 Structure
Double Membrane:
- Outer membrane: smooth and permeable to small
molecules
- Inner membrane: regulates the passage of materials in and
out.
Thylakoids
- Flattened sac-like membranes inside the chloroplast.
- Contain chlorophyll and other pigments.
- Stacked into grana (singular: granum).
Stroma
- Fluid-filled space surrounding thylakoids.
- Contains enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and starch grains.
- Place of the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions).
Chloroplast DNA & Ribosomes
- Circular DNA allows chloroplasts to produce some of their
own proteins.
- 70S ribosomes help in protein synthesis.
 Function
Photosynthesis
- Converts light energy to chemical energy
(glucose).
- Releases oxygen as a byproduct.
Energy Storage
- Stores energy in the form of starch.
Supports Plant Growth
- Provides energy and raw materials for cell
growth and development.
Semi-Autonomous Activity
- Can grow, divide, and make some proteins
independently.
Building of Biomolecules
- Produces lipid acids (oils, fats, steroids), and
amino acids (Serine, Tyrosine, Glutamine,
Glycine), (Meat, Fish, Eggs, Dairy, Soy products)
 Role in Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are the places of photosynthesis in plant cells. They capture sunlight and convert it into chemical
energy in the form of glucose. Photosynthesis occurs in two main stages within the chloroplast:

(a) Light-dependent Reactions (in Thylakoids/Grana)

○ Location: Thylakoid membranes stacked as
grana.
○ Function:
■ Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight.
■ Water (H₂O) is split into oxygen (O₂),
electrons, and protons.
■ Energy from light is used to produce
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and
NADPH (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Phosphate), which are
energy carriers.
○ Outcome: Oxygen is released as a byproduct.
 Continuation…

(b) Light-independent Reactions / Calvin Cycle

○ Location: Stroma, the fluid-filled space surrounding

thylakoids.
○ Function:
■ Uses ATP and NADPH from the light reactions.
■ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is fixed into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)
through a series of biocatalyst driven steps.
○ Outcome: Production of sugar for the plant to use as
energy.
 0
3
Vacuoles
 Introduction to Vacuole
- The term “Vacuole" refers to "empty - Over 90% of a plant cell's volume
space." They help in the removal and is made up of vacuoles, there
storage of a variety of materials. could be one or several vacuoles
in a cell. Animal cell:
- They can hold food or other nutrients
that a cell needs to live. They also
prevent contamination of the entire cell
by storing waste products. Plant cell: Vacuole

- Compared to animal cells, plant cells

have larger vacuoles.

- Animal cells rarely have vacuoles, and Vacuole

when they do, they are small and
temporary.
Structure & Function

-In a plant cell, vacuoles are filled with cell sap and cytosol
(the fluid of cytoplasm) which makes them really large.

- Plant cell vacuoles are so large that they push against the
cell wall, keeping it in shape, this is called Turgor pressure.

-In animal cells, vacuoles are smaller and temporary,

however, they do still help with the process of endocytosis
and exocytosis which is the storage and disposal of
substances.

- It’s main function is osmoregulation, which means to

control the amount of water in the cell.

-However, animal cell and plant cell vacuoles do have one

thing in common, they aid in the storage of nutrients like
salts, proteins, and minerals.
Importance of Vacuoles in Plant Growth

We now know what a vacuole does, but what would happen if they
didn’t do what they were supposed to?

- If a vacuole stopped working, the lack of food storage would

immediately affect the strength of the cell. Without it
segregating waste and disposing of it properly, other cells would
get contaminated.

- Without turgor pressure, the cell would lose its shape, and
Dead cell under a
without the cell sap, acidity levels would be unhealthily high or
microscope
low.

Meaning, vacuoles are extremely important in order to keep cells alive

and keep the plant healthy as well. While plants are multicellular,
and have millions of cells everywhere, the absence of vacuoles could
cause the plant to wilt and die.
Golgi Body 0
4
 Introduction to Golgi Body

The Golgi body, discovered in 1898 by Italian scientist

Camillo Golgi. For this and related work, he was
awarded the Nobel Prize in 1906.
 Structure & Function

The Golgi body is a part of the cell made of flat

sacs. It receives proteins and fats, changes them,
packs them, and sends them to where they are
needed in the cell or outside the cell. It also
helps the, helps build the cell membrane.
The Role of Golgi Body in Cell Transport

The Golgi body plays an important role in cell transport by acting like a
packing and delivery center of the cell. It receives proteins and fats from the
endoplasmic reticulum, changes them if needed, and packs them into small
sacs called vesicles. These vesicles then transport the materials to different
parts of the cell or send them outside the cell for use.
How Golgi Body Helps Cells Communicate?

The Golgi body helps cells communicate by preparing and sending

chemical messages. It modifies and packs proteins into small sacs called
vesicles. These vesicles carry the messages to the cell surface or outside
the cell. When released, these substances can signal other cells, helping
cells send and receive information. A day-to-day life example is sending a
parcel through a courier service.
Importance of Golgi Body in Secretion
The Golgi body is very important in secretion because it prepares and sends useful substances
out of the cell. It receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum, changes them into a usable
form, and packs them into small sacs called vesicles. These vesicles move to the cell surface and
release their contents outside the cell. In this way, the Golgi body helps in the secretion of
hormones, enzymes, and other substances needed by the body.
 0
Ribosomes
5
 Introduction to Ribosomes
- Ribosomes are small, organelles found in all living
cells.

- They are responsible for protein synthesis, which

means they help make proteins needed for growth,
repair, and proper functioning of the cell.

- Ribosomes occur both as a free particles in

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and as particles
attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic
reticulum.

- Each ribosome is composed with two subunits, a

larger one and a smaller one, each which has its
own characteristic shape.
Role of Ribosomes in Protein Synthesis

-Protein synthesis is the process by which cells make

proteins. These proteins are important for repair,
growth, and health of the cell.

-To put it simply, the DNA makes the pattern for the
protein, the mRNA (The messenger) copies the pattern,
the ribosomes implement the pattern, and the final
product is the protein.

DNA– mRNA= Transcription

mRNA–protein=Translation
Importance of Ribosomes in Growth

Ribosomes convert information in the genes into functional proteins. This function helps in cell
growth, maintenance as well as division. They regulate this entire process which in turn helps
cellular responses and adaptations to external stimuli or internal signals. It has been noticed
that ribosomes might be strategic, even selective of which proteins they produce. It was earlier
believed that there was only one kind of ribosome, however now it looks like there could be
millions of varieties performing different roles in different cells.
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