MODULE 2

MICROWAVE NETWORK THEORY:

INTRODUCTION
Microwave network: Several microwave devices and components such as sources, attenuators,
resonators, filters, amplifiers, etc., are coupled by transmission lines or waveguides for the
desired transmission of a microwave signal. To configure microwave network.

Junction: The point of interconnection of two or more devices is called a junction.

Microwave networks deal with sources with very high frequency (GHz), microwave-suitable
transmission lines (waveguides, coaxial cables) microwave devices like attenuators, resonators,
filters, amplifiers, etc.

At low frequencies, the measurable input and output variables are voltage and current which
can be related in terms of the impedance Z-parameters, admittance Y-parameters, hybrid h-
parameters, or ABCD parameters.

For a two-port network as shown schematically in Fig. 6.1, these relationships are given by

In Eq. (6.4a), +I2 for current at Port 2 is outward and –I2 taken for current at Port 2 is inward.
Here, Zij, Yij, and A, B, C and D are suitable constants that characterize the junction. A, B, C and
D parameters are convenient to represent each junction when a number of circuits are
connected together in cascade. Here the resultant matrix, which describes the complete
cascade connection, can be obtained by multiplying the matrices describing each junction as
follows:
These parameters can be measured under short- or open-circuit conditions for use in the
analysis of the circuit.

Measurement of Z, Y, h, and ABCD parameters is difficult at microwave frequencies due to the

following reasons:

• Voltage and current measuring equipment are not available

• Short-circuit, and especially open-circuit, are not easily achieved for a wide range of
frequencies

• The presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for short or open circuit

So microwave networks are analyzed using S-parameters which give the relationship between
amplitude of incident waves and reflected waves. Thus, for circuit analysis, S-parameters can be
related to the Z or Y, or ABCD parameters.
Difference between a general two port network and a Microwave two port network

Two-port network of an electrical circuit Microwave two-port network

a low-frequency network a high-frequency network

A port is a reference plane transverse to the

A port is a pair of terminals length of the microwave transmission line or
waveguide.

The physical length of the network is The physical length of the component or line
much smaller than the wavelength of the is comparable to or much larger than the
signal transmitted wavelength

Therefore, the measurable input and

The voltage and current cannot be uniquely
output variables are voltage and current
defined at a given point in a single conductor
which can be related in terms of the
waveguide. Furthermore, measurement of Z,
impedance Z-parameters, or admittance
Y, h and ABCD parameters is difficult at
Y-parameters, or hybrid h-parameters, or
microwave frequencies
ABCD parameters

S MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF MULTI-PORT NETWORKS

The concept of scattering(s) parameters comes from the fact that rf and microwave circuits may
contain some discontinuity or discontinuities in the signal propagation path. At a discontinuity,
the wave is scattered in different directions as evanescent waves containing an infinite number
of higher-order modes. These modes attenuated very fast after a short distance from the point
of discontinuity within about a quarter wavelength.

The incident and reflected wave amplitudes of microwaves at any port are used to characterize
a microwave circuit. The amplitudes are normalized in such a way that the square of any of
these variables gives the average power in that wave in the following manner:
Input power at the nth port,

Reflected power at the nth port,

Where an and bn represent the normalized incident wave peak amplitude and normalized
reflected wave peak amplitude at the nth port. In a two-port network, we can express the
normalized waves in terms of normalized voltages

Where a’s represents normalized incident wave amplitude and b’s represents normalized
reflected wave amplitude at the corresponding ports. Here, the total voltage wave is the sum of
incident and emergent voltage waves V + and V – respectively:

The numeric suffixes represent the port number. The total or net power flow into any port is
given by r.m.s. value

Therefore, in this normalization process, the characteristic impedance is normalized to unity.

For a two port network (Fig. 6.1), the relation between incident and reflected waves are
expressed in terms of scattering parameters Sij’s:

Sij =
bi
|a =0
aj j

wave coming out of port i

Sij = ¿
wave going∈at port j Input at all other port is zero
In matrix notation

[][
bi
bj
S S ij ai
= ii
][ ]
S ji S jj a j

The normalization process leads to a symmetrical scattering matrix for reciprocal structures.
The physical significance of S-parameters can be described as follows:

In general, since the incident and reflected waves have both amplitude and phase, the S-
parameters are complex numbers. For multiport (N) networks or components, the S-parameter
equations are expressed by

Figure 6.2 shows a linear multiport network having N

ports. We can write for any arbitrary n-th port of this
junction the following:

Net input power at port n

Power dissipated in a termination at port n is

Is the magnitude of the load reflection coefficient at port n. above relations hold for all the
ports with proper suffices? The total voltage and current at port n are

Solving the above equations for an and bn in terms of the terminal voltage and current yields

In microwave devices or circuits, it is important to express several losses in terms of S-

parameters when the ports are match terminated. In a two-port network, if power fed at Port 1
is Pi, power reflected at the same port is Pr and the output power at Port 2 is Po then the
following losses are defined in terms of S-parameters:
PROPERTIES OF S-PARAMETERS FOR A JUNCTION OF PORTS HAVING COMMON
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
1. S-matrix is always a square matrix of order N X N for an N-port network and its elements are
complex quantities (real and imaginary parts).
2. Phase-shift property of S-Matrix

At any given frequency and for a given position of the reference planes, the elements of S-
matrix, Sij, have definite values.

(i) If the frequency is changed, these elements change values also.

(ii) At a given frequency, the complex S-parameters of a network are defined to the positions of
the reference plan (ports). If these positions change, the S-parameters of the network also
change.

For an outward shift of the reference plane (Fig. 6.4) by a distance lj, the phase shift occurs is
φ j=β j l j and correspondingly new elements of the S-matrix become

Power of exponent will double for i = j, since reflected wave travels 2lj distance.

Let the original S-matrix equation for the two-port network with reference planes 1, 2 be

[b] = [S][a] (6.25 a)

Equation (6.25a) is modified to

[b] = [S’][a] (6.25 b)

Where [S] is changed to [S’] for outward shift in reference planes to 1’, 2’ but the incident and
reflected wave voltage can be still denoted by [a] and [b], respectively:

These can be proved as follows. For the above shift in reference planes, the new wave variables
becomes
Where φ = β1l1, φ2 = β2l2 and –ve sign in the power of exponent arises due to outward shift of
ports. For inward shift, this sign would be +ve. Hence, we can write

Similarly,

From (6.25a), (6.25b), (6.25d) and (6.25e), the new S-matrix becomes

This property is valid for any number of ports and is called the phase shift property.

3. Diagonal elements are zero for perfect matched network.

For an ideal N-port matched network with matched termination at all the ports, Sii = 0 since
there is no reflection from any port. Therefore, under perfect matched conditions, the diagonal
elements of [S] are zero.

4. S-matrix is symmetric for a reciprocal network

A reciprocal device has the same transmission characteristics in either direction of a pair of
ports and is characterized by a symmetric scattering matrix,

Which results in transpose of S-matrix:

Proof:

For a reciprocal network with the assumed normalization

The z-matrix equation is given by

[V] = [z] [I] (6.28b)

With the assumed normalization (6.28b) can be written using (6.28a) as

Where [U] is the unit matrix having unity diagonal elements and zero off-diagonal elements.
(6.28c) can now becomes

[b] = ([z] – z0[U]) (z0[U] + [z])–1 [a] (6.29d)

The S-matrix equation for the network is

[b] = [S] [a] (6.30)

Comparing Eqs (6.29) and (6.30), we have

[S] = ([Z] + [U])–1 ([Z] – [U]) (6.31)

For a reciprocal network, the Z-matrix is symmetric. Hence, from the symmetric of Z-matrix
([Z] – [U])t = [Z] – [U] (6.32)

([Z] + [U])t = [Z] + [U] (6.33)

Therefore, from (6.31), (6.32), and (6.33)

[S]t = ([Z] – [U])t ([Z] + [U])t –1 = ([z] – [U]) ([z] + [U])–1 = [S] (6.34)

Thus, it is proved that [S]t = [S] for a symmetrical junction.

5. S-matrix has unitary property for a lossless network

The sum of the products of each term of any one row or any column of the S-matrix multiplied
by its complex conjugate (dot product) is unity

The sum of the products of each term of any one row or any column of the S-matrix multiplied
by the complex conjugate of a different row or column, respectively, is zero (columns are ortho-
normal)

Proof:

Let us consider a 4-port lossless Network (N = 4). The S-matrix equation can be written as

[b] = [S][a]

or,

For a loss-less network, the total power leaving N-ports must be equal to the total power input
to these ports, so that
or,

or,

If only one port (ith say) is excited and all other ports are match terminated an = 0, n ≠ i.

In this case,

or,

If Sni is complex,

From Eqs (6.37) and (6.38),

Equations (6.39a)–(6.39c) prove the statement 5(i).

If two ports i and j are excited and all others are match terminated, an = 0 when n ≠i, n ≠ j.
Therefore, from Eq. (6.36), we can write

Since for any complex quantity |S|2 = S . S*, the above expression may be multiplied out to give
the following results:

Using Eq. (6.39a), the above equation reduces to

Equating LHS with RHS of Eq. (6.40b) yields

Since ai and aj are independent signals, they may be chosen in any convenient manner, let ai =
aj. Then from (6.40c)

Let ai = jaj where multiplier j = √ −1, then

Since ai* = (jaj ) * = –jaj*

Combining Eqs (6.40d) and (6.40e) results in

In general, for an N-port network, above equations yield

Equation (6.40g) proves the statement 5(ii). Equations (6.39a) and (6.40g) can be written in a
single form:

Therefore, (6.39a) and (6.40g) or (6.41) is the necessary condition for the network to be lossless
and is called the unitary property of S-matrix. [S] is called a unitary matrix.

S-PARAMETERS TO A TWO-PORT NETWORK WITH MISMATCHED LOAD

A two-port network or junction is formed when there is a discontinuity between the input and
output ports of a transmission line. Many configurations of such junctions practically exist,
some of which are shown in Fig. 6.5.

Consider a two-port network of Fig. 6.5(c) terminated by normalized load and generator
Zl Zg
impedances and . Then the load reflection coefficient
Z0 Z0

Now,
Solving for the input reflection coefficient,

Therefore, for a mismatch load, input reflection coefficient G1 ≠ S11. For a reciprocal network,
S12 = S21 so that

Further, if the junction is lossless, from Eqs (6.39) and (6.40),

Therefore, for a lossless, reciprocal two-port network, terminated by a mismatch load, Eqs 6.47)
and (6.48) give

From Eqs (6.49) and (6.50),

And the input reflection coefficient

The last equation is the working equation for the computation of the S-parameters. By
measuring G1 for known values of G2 (0, –1, and 1) a set of simultaneous equations is obtained
which will give the S-parameters of a reciprocal junction.
MICROWAVE PASSIVE DEVICES:

COAXIAL CONNECTORS AND ADAPTERS

Attenuators

Phase shifters

Waveguide Tees

Magic Tee

Circulator

Isolator

COAXIAL CONNECTORS AND ADAPTERS

 Coaxial cables are terminated or connected to other cables and components by means
of shielded standard connectors.
 The outer shield makes a 360 degree, extremely low-impedance joint to maintain
shielding integrity.
  These connectors are of various types depending on the frequency range and the cable
diameter.
 Commonly used microwave connectors are type N (male/female), BNC (male/female),
TNC (male/female), APC (genderless), etc.
 Adapters, having different connectors at the two ends, are also made for
interconnection between two different ports in a microwave system.
 The type N (Navy) connector is a 50 and 75-ohm connector which was designed for
military system applications during World War II. This is suitable for flexible or rigid
cables in the frequency range of 1–18 GHz.
 The BNC (Bayonet Navy Connector) is suitable for 0.25 inch, 50-ohm or 75-ohm flexible
cables used up to 1 GHz.
 The TNC (Threaded Navy Connector) is like BNC, except that, the outer conductor has a
thread to make firm contact in the mating surface to minimize radiation leakage at
higher frequencies. These connectors are used up to 12 GHz.
 The SMA (Sub-Miniature A) connectors are used for thin flexible or semi-rigid cables.
The higher frequency is limited to 24 GHz because of generation of higher-order modes
beyond this limit.
 All the above connectors can be of male or female configurations except the APC-
7(Amphenol Precision Connector-7 mm) which provides coupling without male or
female configurations. The APC-7 is a very accurate 50-ohm, low VSWR connector which
can operate up to 18 GHz.
 APC-3.5 connector is a high-precision 50-ohm, low VSWR connector which can be either
the male or female and can operate up to 34 GHz. It can mate with the oppositely
gendered SM connector.

Table 1: Mating connectors

Type Gender Dielectric in Impedance

mating space
N M/F Air 50/75
BNC M/F Solid 50/75
TNC M/F Solid 50/75
SMA M/F Solid 50
APC - 7 genderless Air 50
APC – 3.5 gendered Air 50
Table 1 shows the type, dielectric in mating space and impedance of some of the above
standard connectors.
ATTENUATORS

Attenuators are passive devices used to control power levels in a microwave system by partially
absorbing the transmitted signal wave. Both fixed and variable attenuators are designed using
resistive films (aquadag-coated dielectric sheet).

COAXIAL FIXED ATTENUATOR

A coaxial fixed attenuator uses a fi lm with losses on the centre conductor to absorb some of
the power as shown in Fig. 6.39(a). The fixed waveguide type [Fig. 6.39(b)] consists of a thin
dielectric strip coated with resistive fi lm and placed at the centre of the waveguide parallel to
the maximum E field. Induced current on the resistive fi lm due to the incident wave results in
power dissipation, leading to attenuation of microwave energy. The dielectric strip is tapered at
both ends up to a length of more than half wavelength to reduce reflections. The resistive vane
is supported by two dielectric rods separated by an odd multiple of quarter wavelength and
perpendicular to the electric field [Fig. 6.39(b)].

VARIABLE TYPE ATTENUATOR

A variable-type attenuator can be constructed by moving the resistive vane by means of
micrometer screw from one side of the narrow wall to the centre where the E field is maximum
[Fig. 6.39(b)] or by changing the depth of insertion of a resistive vane at an E field maximum
through a longitudinal slot at the middle of the broad wall as shown in Fig. 6.39(c). A maximum
of 90 dB attenuation is possible with VSWR of 1.05. The resistance card can be shaped to give a
linear variation of attenuation with the depth of insertion.
Precision-type variable attenuator

A precision-type variable attenuator makes use of a circular waveguide section (C) containing a
very thin tapered resistive card (R2), to both sides of which are connected axisymmetric
sections of circular-to-rectangular waveguide tapered transitions (RC1 and RC2) as shown in Fig.
6.40(a). The centre circular section with the resistive card can be precisely rotated by 360° with
respect to the two fixed sections of circular to rectangular waveguide transitions. The induced
current on the resistive card R2 due to the incident signal is dissipated as heat and produces
attenuation of the transmitted signal. The incident TE10 dominant wave in the rectangular
waveguide is converted into a dominant TE11 mode in the circular waveguide.

A very thin tapered resistive card is placed perpendicular to the E field at the circular end of
each transition section so that it has a negligible effect on the field perpendicular to it but
absorbs any component parallel to it. Therefore, a pure TE11 mode is excited in the middle
section.
With reference to Fig. 6.40(b), if the resistive card in the centre section is kept at an angle q
relative to the E field direction of the TE11 mode, the component E cos q parallel to the card
gets absorbed while the component E sin q is transmitted without attenuation. This later
component finally appears as electric field component E sin2 q in the rectangular output guide.
Therefore, the attenuation of the incident wave is
Therefore, the precision rotary attenuator produces attenuation which depends only on the
angle of rotation q of the resistive card with respect to the incident wave polarization.
Attenuators are normally matched reciprocal devices, so that

and

Where the VSWR is measured at the input or output port concerned. The S-matrix of an ideal
precision rotary attenuator is

PHASE SHIFTERS

A phase shifter is a device which provides variable insertion phase in a microwave signal path
without altering the physical path length.

Most phase shifters are two-port devices characterized by low insertion loss and low VSWR.

The phase of a microwave signal can be changed, by inserting a low loss dielectric material in
the wave propagation path. Then it’s called dielectric phase shifter.

In case if the phase of a microwave signal is changed by inserting a low loss ferrite material in
the wave propagation path. Then it’s called ferrite phase shifter.

DIELECTRIC PHASE SHIFTER

Dielectric phase shifters are reciprocal phase shifters.

A dielectric phase shifter can be realized by placing a lossless dielectric slab within a waveguide
parallel to and at the position of maximum E field.

A differential phase change is produced due to the change of wave velocity V p through the
dielectric slab compared to that through an empty waveguide.

Vp =
Where,

Two ports are matched by reducing the reflections of the wave from the dielectric slab tapered
at both ends as shown in Fig. 6.41.

The propagation constant through a length l of a dielectric slab and of an empty guide excited
in dominant mode TE10 are, respectively

Thus, the differential phase shift produced by the phase shifter is ∆ф = (β1 ~ β0)l. By adjusting
the length l, different phase shifts can be produced.

The S-matrix of an ideal phase shifter can be expressed by

PRECISION DIELECTRIC ROTARY PHASE SHIFTER

A precision phase shifter can be designed as a rotary type as shown in Fig. 6.42.

λg
This uses a section of circular waveguide c containing a lossless dielectric plate of length 2 l=
2
called half-wave (180°) section.

This section can be rotated over 360° precisely between two sections of circular to rectangular
λ
waveguide transitions A and B, each containing lossless dielectric plates of length l= g called
4
quarter-wave (90°) sections oriented at an angle of 45° with respect to the broad wall of the
rectangular waveguide ports at the input and output.
The incident TE10 wave in the rectangular guide becomes a TE11 wave in the circular guide A.
The half-wave section C produces a phase shift equal to twice its rotation angle q with respect
to the quarter-wave section.

The dielectric plates are tapered through a length of quarter wavelength at both ends for
reducing reflection due to discontinuity

The principle of operation of the rotary phase shifter can be explained as follows.

The TE11 mode incident field Ei in the input quarter-wave section can be decomposed into two
transverse components, one E1, polarized parallel and other, E2 perpendicular to quarter-wave
plate.

After propagation through the quarter wave plate, these components becomes

Where, E0 =Ei / √ 2. The length l is adjusted such that these two components will have equal
magnitude but a differential phase change of (β1 – β2) l = 90°. Therefore, after propagation
through the quarter-wave plate, these field components become

Thus, the quarter-wave sections convert a linearly polarized TE11 wave to a circularly polarized
wave and vice versa. Equations (6.88) and (6.89) are input components to half-wave section C.
After emergence from the half-wave section, the field components parallel and perpendicular
to the half-wave plate can be represented as

Since,

After emergence from the half-wave section, the field components E3 and E4 may again be
decomposed into two TE11 modes, polarized parallel and perpendicular to the output quarter-
wave plate B.
At the output end of this quarter-wave plate, the field components parallel and perpendicular
to the quarter-wave plate can be written as

Therefore, the parallel component E5 and perpendicular component E6 at the output end of
the quarterwave plate are equal in magnitude and in phase to produce a resultant field which is
a linearly polarized TE11 wave.

having the same direction of polarization as the incident field Ei with a phase change of
2 θ+4 β1 l .

Since θ can be varied and 4β1l is fixed at a given frequency and structure, a phase shift of 2θ can
be obtained by rotating the half-wave plate precisely through an angle of θ with respect to the
quarter-wave plates.

The rotation angle can be calibrated to obtain phase shift.

FERRITE PHASE SHIFTERS

It is known that most of the ferrite materials have relative dielectric constants in the range 9 to
16, and dielectric loss tangents are normally small (< 0.001).

Unlike a dielectric substrate, the permeability of the ferrite depends on the RF magnetic field
configuration in the medium relative to the static magnetization state.

Consequently, the propagation constant in the ferrite media changes with permeability since
Phase shift in a ferrite device is generated by magnetizing the ferrite inside the wave guide by
RF current such that the phase constant in the propagating line alters due to change in
permeability with magnetization.

Ferrite phase shifters may be latching or non-latching, depending upon whether continuous
holding current must be supplied to sustain the magnetic bias field.

Figure 6.43 shows a schematic diagram of a twin-toroid phase shifter.

The twin toroid is a latching, nonreciprocal device.

It uses either a closed magnetic circuit or a magnetic circuit with very small air gaps.

The relative permeability of the ferrite is controlled by adjusting the magnetic flux level existing
in the closed magnetic circuit.

The dielectric spacer is used to concentrate the rf energy in the center of the waveguide.

The walls of the ferrite toroids, which contact the dielectric spacer, are located in those regions
of the waveguide which support a circularly polarized magnetic field.

If β+ is the propagation constant when a positive bias field saturates the ferrite and β- be the
same for negative bias field, the maximum amount of phase shift per unit length is (β+ – β–).

The variable phase shift less than this can be achieved by reducing the bias field level.
When the direction of propagation changes, the values of β- and β+ interchange.

The device geometry and the saturation magnetization of the ferrite influence the frequencies
for practical realization of these phase shifters.

The conductive and dielectric losses are directly proportional to the length or inversely
proportional to the saturation magnetization while the magnetic loss varies approximately
directly with the saturation magnetization.

The sum of these losses shows a minimum value in the frequency range given by

Where ωm = 2pg (4pMs), ɤ = 2.8 MHz/Oe, 4pMs is the saturation magnetization and ω is the
microwave radian frequency.

The latching phase shifters have been realized from about 2 GHz to 94 GHz.

MIC FERRITE PHASE SHIFTER

Passive MIC phase shifters are constructed with ferrite substrate using the property that the
propagation constant of microwaves along the microstrip line on ferrite substrate can be
changed by varying the magnitude and/or the direction of the static magnetic field H 0.

Thus, the phase shift, for a fixed length of the microstrip line can be controlled electrically
leading to low cost, small and highly reliable components.

The following tree shows the versions of ferrite MIC phase-shifters—analog and digital.

Analog Control In analog phase shifter, the phase is controlled by varying either the magnitude
or the direction of the magnetization vector M using applied static magnetic field H0.
Digital Control In digital phase shifter, the phase is controlled by using high remanence ferrite
materials and latching the substrate by a current pulse to change direction (±) of dc magnetic
field digitally.

The remanence of magnetic materials is defined in terms of its residual magnetic induction
when an externally applied magnetizing current is reduced to zero as explained in the B–H
curve in Fig. 6.44.

A pulse current of sufficient amplitude, through a single turn wire threading the ferrite, is used
to magnetize the ferrite substrate.

If n is the number of bits, then the least significant bit will have a φ-shift of 360°/2n.

A digital phase shifter of n-bits will consist of n separately actuated sections giving

of φ-shift.

A series of different ∆φ = 180°, 90° and 45° can be cascaded in a single housing to form a 3-bit
digital f-shifter.

RECIPROCAL PHASE SHIFTERS

When a ferrite substrate is magnetized to saturation in a direction perpendicular to the
microstrip line, as depicted by Hdc in Fig. 6.45, there is a very small interaction between the
ferrite and the RF magnetic field.

As a result, the effective RF relative permeability is approximately unity µreff ≈1.

When the ferrite sample is magnetized to saturation in its plane parallel to the strip line (i.e., ^r
to the RF magnetic field), maximum interaction is obtained between the ferrite substrate and
the RF magnetic field.

Then the RF effective permeability becomes,

Where m and K are the component of the permeability tensor (m = B/H, K = g 4pM/w, M =
magnetic dipole moment per unit volume) When the applied magnetic field is small,

Where 4pMs = ferrite magnetization, ɤ = gyromagnetic ratio (2.8 MHz/oersted).

When ω  ωm, the magnetic loss cannot be neglected and µreff expression gets modified.

The propagation constant of the TEM mode on the ferrite substrate is given by

The different values of µreff for the two mutually perpendicular directions of magnetizations
yield two different values of the phase constant for wave propagation along the microstrip line
on the ferrite substrate.

Writing in terms of a filling factor q as proposed by wheeler for dielectric substrate.

If magnetic filling factor qm = 0.5, then for parallel magnetization

and for perpendicular magnetization

When ferrite magnetization direction changed between two states, the fractional change in
phase constant is

Both analog and digital controlled reciprocal phase shifters can be constructed using a loosely
meander line microstrip conductor to minimize size as shown in Fig. 6.46.

The adjacent lines of the meander scheme are spaced by distance > 5 times substrate height to
minimize RF coupling and consequently to avoid non-reciprocal effects.

DC current through perpendicular wires penetrating holes 1–1¢ and 2–2¢ generates magnetic
fields for magnetization which can be varied, and also the direction can be changed as per
requirement of phase change.

In digital phase shifter two states of magnetization corresponding to two values of f-shifts are
obtained by sending dc currents through 1–1¢ and 2–2¢, respectively (2–2¢ for parallel and 1–
1¢ for perpendicular magnetizations).
NON-RECIPROCAL PHASE SHIFTER

 In a non-reciprocal φ-shifters, a circularly polarized magnetic field region is obtained by

using a meander microstrip configuration with light coupling between the lines as
shown in Fig. 6.47. This is achieved by closely spacing the lines of length l/4 at the centre
frequency.
 Because of tight coupling, the two magnetic field components at a centre point P
between two adjacent lines become spatially orthogonal.
 Since lines are l/4 long, the RF current flowing at the centre of line 2 is delayed by 90°
relative to the current flowing at the centre of line 1.
 Thus, the resulting RF magnetic field at P is circulary polarized.
 However, at points away from the centre of the lines, the polarization changes from
circular to elliptical and then to linear at the ends.
  By magnetizing the ferrite along the direction of the lines and reversing the direction of
the magnetization, a non-reciprocal differential interaction is obtained resulting in a
non-reciprocal differential phase shift.
 Digital/latching phase shifter can be obtained by using sufficiently thin ferrite and small
wires through holes in the substrate for dc currents I1 and I2.
 The magnitude and direction of magnetization can be altered by current pulses.
 Typical parameters for such a phase shifter are the following:
o Phase shift—1 bit (360° + 10°)
o Substrate size—1’’ x 1’’
o Substrate height = 50 mil;
o 1 mil = 0.254 mm
o Insertion loss = 2.4 dB over 10% bandwidth
o Centre frequency = 5.75 GHz

WAVEGUIDE TEES

Waveguide tees are three-port components. They are used to connect a branch or section of
the waveguide in series or parallel with the main waveguide transmission line for providing
means of splitting, and also of combining power in a waveguide system.

The two basic types, E-plane (series) T and H-plane (shunt) T, are constructed as shown in Fig.
6.48.

These are named according to the axis of the side arm which is parallel to the E field or the H
field in the collinear arms, respectively.

Because of the junction, waveguide tees are poorly matched devices.

Adjustable matching reactance can be introduced by means of a tuning
screw at the centre. Because of symmetry and absence of non-linear elements in the junction,
the S-matrix is symmetric: Sij = Sji; i = 1, 2; j = 1, 2.

The general S-matrix for a tee junction is

E-PLANE TEE
From considerations of symmetry and the phase relationship of the waves in each of the arms,
it can be seen that a wave incident at Port 3 will result in waves at Ports 1 and 2, which are
equal in magnitude but opposite in phase, i.e., S31 = S13 = – S23 = – S32, S12 = S21.

If two in-phase input waves are fed into Ports 1 and 2 of the collinear arm, the output waves at
Port 3 will be opposite in phase and subtractive.

Sometimes, this third port is called the difference arm.

By analogy with the voltage relationship in the series circuit, E-plane junction is also called a
series junction.

All diagonal elements of the S-matrix of an E-plane T-junction cannot be zero simultaneously
since the tee junction cannot be matched to all the three arms simultaneously.

Considering the Port 3 as matched, the S-matrix of a E-plane T can be derived as follows.

Denoting the incident and outgoing signal variables as the ith port by a i and bi, respectively, for
an input power at Port 3, the net input power to Port 3 is

And the output power is

|S13| 2, since |S31| = |S32| by symmetry. For lossless junction, input power must be equal to the
output power, i.e.,

1
|a |2 (1 – |S33|2) = |a3|2. |S13|2 or, (1 – |S33|2) = 2 |S13|2
2 3

By suitable matching elements, we can make S33 = 0, so that |S13| = 1/√ 2.

From the symmetry characteristics described above,

S13 = S31 = 1/√ 2, S23 = S32 = – 1/ √ 2

After matching Port 3, if one attempts to match either Port 1 or 2 by a similar method, the
matching elements, such as irises or tuning screws will interact with each other and matching at
Port 3 would be disturbed since no port is isolated.

Based on power consideration, it can also be shown that S11 = S22 = 1/2 and S12 = S21 = 1/2
for S33 = 0. Therefore, with matching at Port 3, the S-matrix of an E-plane T can be expressed
by real values with proper choice of reference plane:

There are three cases to describe below:

Case 1 Input at port 3 and no inputs at port 1 and 2, a3 ≠ 0, a1 = a2 = 0.

Case 2 Input at port 1 and Port 2, and no input at port 3. a3 = 0, a1 = a2 = a.

Case 3 Input at port 1 and Port 2, and no input at port 3. a1 ≠ 0, a3 = a2 = 0.

Similarly, we have all combinations of input and output.

H-PLANE TEE
In an H-plane tee, if two in-phase input waves are fed into ports 1 and 2 of the collinear arm,
the output waves at Port 3 will be in-phase and additive. Because of this, the third port is called
the sum arm. Conversely, an input wave at Port 3 will be equally divided into ports 1 and 2 in
phase. Because the magnetic field loops get divided into two arms 1 and 2 in a manner similar
to currents between branches in the parallel circuit, an H-plane junction is also called a shunt
junction. For a symmetrical and lossless junction, in absence of non-linear elements at the H-
plane junction, the S-parameters are obtained in a similar manner as in the case of E-plane
junction:

Since it is a three-port junction, the scattering matrix can be derived as follows:

Because of plane of symmetry of the junction, the Scattering coefficients are

As the waves coming out of port 1 and 2 of the collinear arm will be opposite in phase and in
same magnitude. The negative sign indicates phase difference.

If Port 3 is perfectly matched to the junction, S33 = 0

For symmetric property, Sij = Sji

With the above properties. [S] becomes,

For the symmetry and lossless properties,

Or,

From first two equations of (6.99e), we get

From third equation in (6.99c),

From last equations of (6.99e), we get

But

Substituting these values in the first equation of (6.99e),

Substituting these values in (6.99c), we get S-matrix of the H-plane Tee

When Port 3 is match terminated. Two cases can be described:

Case 1 Input is given at Port 3 and no inputs at Ports 1 and 2, a 3 ≠ 0, a1 = a2 = 0

Hence, the power coming out of ports 1 or port 2 is 3 dB down with respect to input power at
Port 3, hence the H-plane Tee is called 3 dB splitter.

Case 2 Input is gives at Port 1 and Port 2, and no input at Port 3, a 3 = 0, a1 = a2 = a.

Output at Port 3 is the addition of the two inputs at Port 1 and Port 2 and these are added in
phase.

HYBRID OR MAGIC-T
A hybrid tee is formed with the combination of the E-plane and H-plane tees and is called a
magic-T. It has four ports as shown in Fig. 6.49(a) and 6.49(b).
The magic-T has the following characteristics when all the ports are terminated with a matched
loads. Let us consider the structure (a) with the ports as indicated.

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and equal phase are fed into ports 1 and 2, the output at
Port 3 is subtractive and becomes zero and total output will appear additively at the port 4.
Hence, Port 3 is called the difference or E-arm and 4, the sum or H-arm.
2. A wave incident at Port 3 (E-arm) divides equally between ports 1 and 2 but is opposite in
phase with no coupling to Port 4 (H-arm). Thus,

3. A wave incident at Port 4 (H-arm) divides equally between ports 1 and 2 in phase with no
coupling to port 3 (E-arm). Thus,

4. A wave fed into one collinear port, 1 or 2, will not appear in the other collinear
Ports, 2 or 1, respectively. Hence, two collinear ports 1 and 2 are isolated from each
other, making

A magic-T can be matched by putting tuning screws suitably in the E and H-arms without
destroying the symmetry of the junctions.
Therefore, for an ideal lossless magic-T matched at ports 3 and 4, S33 = S44 = 0. The procedure of
derivation of the S-matrix considers the symmetry property at the junction for which S 14= S41 =
S24 = S42, S31 = S13 = –S23 = –S32, S34 = S43 = 0, S12 = S21 = 0.
Therefore, the S-matrix for a magic-T, matched at ports 3 and 4 given by
From the unitary property applied to rows 1 and 2, we get

Subtracting these two equations:

Form the unitary property applied to rows 3 and 4,

Substituting these values in Eq. (6.103),

Which is valid if S11 = S12 = 0 (6.109)

From Eqs (6.105) and (6.109), S22 = 0 (6.110)

Therefore,

Where
By proper choice of reference planes in arms 3 and 4, it is possible to make both S 13 and S14 real,
resulting in the final form of S-matrix of magic-T.

For the structure (b) where ports 3 and 4 are interchanged, the S-matrix becomes

APPLICATION OF MAGIC-T
The magic-T has a number of applications in various microwave circuits, such as the E-H tuner
for impedance matching, balanced mixer in a microwave superheterodyne to balance out the
local oscillator noise at the IF amplifier input, power combiner and duplexer.

 E-H Tuner –
o In an E-H tuner (Fig. 6.50), both the E and H-arms are terminated by movable
shorts which act as E-plane and H-plane stubs.
o The position of the shorts can be adjusted so that a wide range of load
impedance may be matched to reduce the VSWR of a waveguide system
connected through the collinear arms
  Balanced Mixer –
o In a balanced microwave mixer configuration, an incoming signal is fed to the E-
arm and a local oscillator signal is fed to the H-arm as shown in Fig. 6.51.
o When these two signals enter the collinear arms, the crystal diodes placed in
these arms produce the IF signal or difference signal in the following manner.

o The local oscillator signal from the H-arm will arrive at the diodes in collinear
arms in-phase, whereas the incoming signal from the E-arm will arrive at the
diodes out-of-phase.
o These signals are mixed in the non-linear diodes and produce IF signals in the
collinear arms which are out-of-phase by 180°.
o Since local oscillator noise will be in-phase at the diodes, this gets cancelled at
the balanced IF input to IF amplifier whereas, the IF signals are added up in
phase for amplification in IF amplifier.
o LO and RF signals are uncoupled due to magic-T properties of E and H-arms.
1
o For equal power inputs at isolated ports 3 and 4, P3= P4 = P = |a|2, where a3 =
2
a4 = a. If Port 1 is matched, a1 = 0. Therefore,

1
Therefore, output power at Port 1 is P1= |b1|2 = |a|2 = 2P = sum of two equal input powers.
2
 o In a duplexer circuit of a radar system, a common antenna is connected to Port 1 while
the transmitter and receiver are connected to isolated E and H-arms and a dummy load
is connected at Port 2.
o Half of the power transmitted is coupled to the antenna and 50 % of the received power
gets into the receiver, remaining 50 % power is absorbed in dummy load

FERROMAGNETIC INSERT AND COMPONENT

Ferromagnetic materials (ferrite: Mg + Mn, Ni + Zn alloys) when placed in dc magnetic field,

electromagnetic wave propagation becomes non-reciprocal. This property is used for
construction of circulators and isolators.

CIRCULATORS
A circulator is a multiport junction in which the wave can travel from one port to the next
immediate port in one direction only as shown in Fig. 6.52(a).

Commonly used circulators are three-port or four-port passive devices although more number
of ports is possible.

Four-port Circulator

A four-port circulator can be constructed from two magic-T’s and a nonreciprocal 180° phase
shifter or a combination of two 3 dB side hole directional couplers with two non-reciprocal
phase shifters as shown in Figs 6.52 (b) and (c).
In Fig. 6.52 (b), an input signal at Port 1 is split into two in-phase and equal amplitude waves in
the collinear arms b and d of the magic-tee, T1 and added up to emerge from Port 2 in the
magic tee, T2.

On the other hand a signal at Port 2 will split into two equal amplitude and equi-phase waves in
the collinear arms of the magic-tee, T2 and appears at point b and d out of phase due to
presence of the non-reciprocal 180° phase shifter.

These out-of-phase waves add up and appear from Port 3 in the magic-tee, T1. In a similar
manner, an input signal at Port 3 will emerge from 4, an input at Port 4 will appear at Port 1.
Thus, the circulator property is exhibited.

In Fig. 6.52(c), each of the two 3 dB couplers introduces a 90° phase shift.

An input signal at Port 1 is split into two components by the coupler 1 and the coupled signals
are again split into two components by the coupler 2 with a 90° phase shift in each.
Each of the two phase shifters produces additional phase shift so that the signal components at
Port 2 are in phase, and at Port 4, they are out of phase.

Since Port 3 is the decoupled port for the directional coupler, the input signal at Port 1 appears
in Port 2. Similarly, signals from Port 2 to Port 3, from Port 3 to Port 4 and from Port 4 to Port 1.
A perfectly matched, lossless, and non-reciprocal four-port circulator has S-matrix:

Three-port Circulator –

A three-port circulator is formed by a 120° H-plane waveguide or strip line symmetrical Y-

junction with a central ferrite post or disc.

A steady magnetic field H0 is applied along the axis of the disc as shown in Fig. 6.53.

Depending on the polarization of the incident wave and the direction of H 0, the microwave
signal travels from one port to the immediate next one only.

For a perfectly matched, lossless, non-reciprocal three-port circulator, the S-matrix is

If the terminal planes are properly chosen to make the phase angles of S13, S21 and S32 zero,

S13 = S21 = S32 = 1

so that
The matching of the junction can be achieved by placing suitable tuning elements in each arm.

Since, in practice, losses are always present, the performance is limited by finite isolation and
non-zero insertion loss.

Typical characteristics can be represented by Insertion loss < 1 dB Isolation ≈ 30–40 dB

VSWR < 1.5

Microstrip Circulator

A microstrip circulator is constructed in the same form as strip line one without having the top
ground plane.

The entire circulator can be made by using the whole ferrite substrate.

The basic design criteria are

o Selection of radius R of ferrite disc

o Calculation of radius R of magnet cylinder for the whole ferrite substrate.

The value of R is given by

The insertion loss between coupled ports is determined by

1. Copper loss of the strip and ground plane

2. Dielectric loss of the input/output strips

3. Magnetic loss of the ferrite disc

The isolation between the ports is primarily dependent on the mismatching between the ports
and the junction.

Tuning screws, l/4 transformer or tapered strips can be used for matching and this can be the
parts of the mask used in photo-etching process.

The magnetic disc can be located above or below the substrate.

Using YIG substrate of thickness h = 0.055’’ one can get Isolation > 20 dB, VSWR < 1.2, insertion
loss 1 L < 0.8 dB, power handling capability of 60 W over the frequency range 8.5–9.9 GHz.

The power-handling capability of such a device can be increased by

1. Lowering the impedance or increasing intrinsic line width

2. Increasing substrate thickness h

3. Decreasing 4pMs of the material by substituting Al ions in the YIG material.

ISOLATORS
An isolator is a two-port, non-reciprocal device which produces a minimum attenuation to wave
propagation in one direction and very high attenuation in the opposite direction.

Thus, when inserted between a signal source and load, almost all the signal power can be
transmitted to the load and any reflected power from the load is not fed back to the generator
output port.

This eliminates variations of source power output and frequency pulling due to changing loads.

Isolator construction

An isolator can be constructed in a rectangular waveguide (a x b) operating in dominant mode

as shown in Fig. 6.56(a).

The non-reciprocal characteristics are obtained by establishing a steady magnetic field H 0 in the
y direction and placing a ferrite slab at any of the longitudinal planes x = x1 near and parallel to
the narrow waveguide wall, where the magnetic field exhibits circular polarization.

This occurs at x1 = a/4 or, 3a/4. For the propagation of waves in +z direction, direction of
rotation of H in the planes at x1 = a/4 and 3a/4 are opposite to each other.

The non-reciprocal characteristic is achieved by placing a ferrite slab at any one of these two
planes.

The required steady state magnetic field H0 in the y-direction is established by placing
permanent magnetic poles between the two broad walls.
It is known that the attenuation in ferrite for negative/clockwise circular polarization is very
small whereas for positive/counter clockwise circular polarization is very large at and near the
resonance frequency f ≈ f0.

Therefore, the ferrite slab is placed in such a way that while transmission it encounters negative
circular polarization in the reverse direction.

The steady magnetic field is set to be equal to the resonant value.

The isolation of the order of 20 – 30 dB in the backward direction and a transmission loss of 0.5
dB in the forward direction can be achieved with a VSWR of the order of 1.1.

Since the reverse power is absorbed in the ferrite and dissipated as heat, the maximum power
handling capability of an isolator is limited.

To increase the capacity of heat dissipation, two ferrite slabs of smaller heights are used instead
of one with a larger height.

The requirement of very high steady magnetic field (10,000 oersteds at l = 1 cm) is the main
drawback of waveguide resonance isolator at higher frequencies.

FARADAY ROTATION ISOLATOR

A Faraday rotation isolator is a circular waveguide section axially loaded with a ferrite rod of
smaller diameter as shown in Fig. 6.56(b).
The ferrite rod is subjected to a steady axial magnetic field H0 of strength much smaller than
the resonant intensity so that dissipative loss in the ferrite is neglected.

The dominant TE11 mode in the circular section can be decomposed into two oppositely
rotating circularly polarized waves of equal magnitude.

These waves encounter different permeabilities µ’+ and µ’– for the clockwise and anticlockwise
directions of field rotation and exhibit changes in the phase velocities.

This will result in a change in the plane of polarization of the main mode TE11 which will
experience gradual rotation q during propagation to the other end.

The rotation angle q is proportional to the length of the ferrite rod.

In this case for the reverse wave the direction of rotation remains the same confirming the non-
reciprocal characteristics of the ferrite.

The isolator input is a 45° twist where a tapered resistive card is mounted parallel to the broad
wall of the rectangular waveguide part.

The dominant TE10 mode does not get attenuated while transmission and is rotated at 45° at
the twist output and enters the circular waveguide through rectangular to circular waveguide
transition as the TE11 mode.

The length of the ferrite rod is selected so as to obtain Faraday rotation q = 45° at the output
and regain its original polarization.

The plane of polarization of the reflected wave from the load is again rotated by the same angle
q = 45° and at the emergence through the 45° twist becomes aligned with the surface of the
absorbing plate and gets absorbed. Thus, non-reciprocal isolation action takes place.

Typical insertion loss and isolation are approximately 1dB and 20~30 dB, respectively, for these
isolators.

Isolators are also available in the coaxial and microstrip forms.

For an ideal lossless, matched isolator

Microstrip Isolator
A microstrip isolator can be formed by match terminating one port of a 3-port circulator.
Several termination methods are described with the help of Fig. 6.57(a–d)

Method 1: A chromium layer is deposited on ferrite initially in all circuits for adherence. A
tapered Cr fi lm of 0.6¢¢ long with a surface impedance of 270-ohm termination gives VSWR <
1.2 over the frequency range 5.5–11.0 GHz.

(b) Method 2 Initial Cr adherence is done as Method 1. Then the Cr fi lm acts as a lumped 50-
ohm resistor which is terminated in a quarter wavelength open circuit impedance. This
arrangement provides VSWR < 1.2 over the frequency range 4.5–6.0 GHz.

(c) Method 3 A 50-ohm lumped resistor shunt mounted across the strip line and terminated by
a short at the end.

(d) Method 4 An isolator in MIC form on ferrite substrate can be designed with a triangular
patch having a narrow transverse slot and corner cuts as shown in Fig. 6.57(d). The dc magnetic
field is applied perpendicular to the substrate plane. For X-band operation, the approximate
size of the isolator may be of the order of 10 mm × 8 mm × 1/.8” and slot size of approximately
6 mm x 0.8 mm for best matching at 11 GHz. The insertion loss of nearly 2 dB and isolation of
18 dB could be achieved. The metallization on the Ni–Zn ferrite is deposited by sputtering a
seed layer of titanium tungsten (TiW) prior to the final metallization.
YIG FILTERS AND OSCILLATORS

YIG Oscillators

o Yttrium Iron Garnet (YIG) is a complex solid having ferromagnetic properties and is
represented by Me3Fe5O12 or 5Fe2O3 3Me2O3 or Me3Fe2(FeO4)3, where Me is a rare-
earth metal.
o It has much smaller losses than ordinary ferrites. A small sphere (40 mil diameter) of YIG
usually has a very small loss and can be used as a resonator in microwave filters and
oscillators with resonant frequency at f0 = 2.8 H0, where f0 is in MHz and H0 is steady
external field in oersteds.
o Thus, the resonant frequency can be controlled electronically by changing H0. The low
frequency limit (about 3.5 GHz) of the YIG resonator is controlled by the minimum m0
applied for saturation of magnetization.
o This frequency can be brought down by doping pure YIG with gadolinium (Gd).

YIG Filters

A small YIG sphere is placed at the centre of two mutually perpendicular loops in yz and xz
planes (Fig. 6.58). A dc magnetic field H0 along z-axis is created perpendicular to the two loops.
Input RF current is fed to the input loop and the output loop is connected to the load. In the
steady H0 field, the YIG has a net magnetization in the H0 direction.

The resulting magnetic field component Hx makes the magnetization vector precess about the
z-axis resulting in a y-component of magnetization which in turn induces a voltage at the output
loop.
The off-frequency components of RF input couples a small power to the output loop. Thus, the
system acts like a tuned band-pass filter at frequency f0.

In a waveguide, the YIG sphere is placed in the coupling hole of two rectangular waveguides
having dominant mode magnetic fields perpendicular to each other for filtering action.