Module 2

Gauss’s Law and Divergence

1. Gauss’s law
The generalizations of Faraday’s experiment led to the following statement, called Gauss’s law.

“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface.”

Steps involved in obtaining the mathematical form of Gauss’s law include:

a. Visualize a cloud of point charges as shown in Figure 3.2, surrounded by a closed surface of
any shape.

b. If the total charge is Q, then Q coulombs of electric flux will pass through the
enclosing surface.
c. At every point on the surface, the electric-flux-density vector ⃗
D will have some value Ds . The

In general, ⃗
subscript ‘S’ indicates that the value Ds is evaluated at the surface ‘S’.
D vary in magnitude and direction from one point on the surface to another.
d. Consider an incremental element of area Δ ⃗S, which is a vector quantity. The direction
associated with Δ ⃗S is normal to the plane, and the plane is tangent to the surface at
the point. There are two such normals, and the ambiguity is removed by specifying
the outward normal whenever the surface is closed.
e. At any point P, consider an incremental element of surface Δ ⃗S and let ⃗ D S make an
angle θ with Δ ⃗S, as shown in Figure 3.2. The flux crossing ΔS is given by:
Δψ = flux crossing ΔS = DS,norm ΔS = DS cos θ ΔS = ⃗D S . Δ ⃗S
 The total flux passing through the closed surface is obtained by adding the differential
contributions crossing each surface element Δ ⃗S,

The resultant integral is a closed surface integral. Surface element dS always involves the
differentials of two coordinates, such as dxdy, ρ dφdρ, or r2 sin θ dθdφ; thus, the surface integral
involves a double integral.

Two conventions:
 Only one integral sign is used for brevity, and we will always place an S below the integral
sign to indicate a surface integral.
 The last convention is to place a small circle on the integral sign, to indicate that the

. 𝑑 ⃗S = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 𝑄
Integration is performed over a closed surface. The mathematical form of Gauss’s law is

𝚿 = ∮𝑆 ⃗
D𝑺

The charge enclosed might be

a. Several point charges

b. A line charge

c. A surface charge

d. A volume charge distribution

In general, Gauss’s law may be written in terms of the volume charge distribution as

∮S ⃗
D S . d ⃗S = ʃvol ρ v dv
=

A mathematical statement: meaning that the total electric flux through any closed surface is
equal to the charge enclosed.
 A closed surface can be a Gaussian surface only if it satisfies the following
conditions:

D is either normal or tangential to the closed surface so that ⃗

1. Everywhere,⃗ D S . d ⃗S becomes either
[Link] or zero, respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which ⃗
DS . d ⃗S is not zero, DS = constant.

Conditions to apply Gauss’s law:

First, know the symmetry of the field by answering the following questions:
 With which coordinates does the field vary (or of what variables is D a function)?
 Which components of ⃗ D Are present?

2. Application of gauss’s law: some symmetrical charge

distributions

1. Point Charge:

Consider a point charge Q at the origin of a spherical coordinate system, and choose a point to
find ⃗
D on a suitable closed surface (Gaussian surface). From the given data, the closed surface
is spherical, centered at the origin, and of any radius r. Everywhere DS is normal to the surface,
and DS has the same value at all points on the surface.

Therefore,

⃗
D= ⃗
DS

Then

Q=∮ S ⃗
DS . d ⃗S

Where,

⃗
DS = DS a^ r

d ⃗S=r sinθdθdφ a^ r
2

π 2π 2
Q= ∫ θ=0 ∫ φ=0 DS a^ r .r sinθdθdφ a^ r
Q = 4𝜋𝑟2𝐷𝑠

Q
DS = 2
4πr
Because r may have any value and because DS is directed radially outward

⃗
D=D S a^ r

⃗ Q 2
D= a^ C /m
2 r
4π r

⃗ Q
E= a^ V /m
2 r
4 π ε0 r

2. Uniform line charge

−∞ to +∞. By symmetry considerations, only the radial component of 𝑫⃗⃗→ is present or

Let us consider the uniform line charge distribution ρL lying along the z axis and extending from
𝑫⃗⃗→ = 𝐷𝜌𝒂̂𝝆 This component is a function of ρ only
The chosen Gaussian surface is a cylindrical surface. And it is the only surface to which 𝐷𝜌 is
everywhere normal, and it may be closed by plane surfaces normal to the z axis. A closed right
circular cylinder of radius ρ extending from z = 0 to z = L is
shown in Figure 3.4.

𝑄 = ∮𝒄𝒚𝒍𝑫⃗⃗→𝒔. 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = 𝐷𝑠∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑆 + 0∫𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑑𝑆 +

0∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑑𝑆
𝐿 2𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐷𝑠 ∫𝑧=0 ∫𝜑=0 𝜌 𝑑𝜑𝑑𝑧 = 𝐷𝑠 2𝜋𝜌𝑙

𝑄
And obtain,

𝐷𝑠 = 𝐷𝜌
2𝜋𝜌
=
𝐿
In terms of the charge density ρL , the total charge
enclosed is

Giving,
𝜌𝐿
𝑫⃗⃗� = 𝒂̂�
→� 2𝜋 �
𝜌
𝜌𝐿
Or
𝑬⃗� = 𝒂̂�
→� 2𝜋𝜀 �
𝜌

3. Coaxial cable

Suppose that we have two coaxial cylindrical conductors, the inner of radius a, and the outer of
radius b, and each infinite in extent (Figure 3.5). We will assume a charge distribution of ρ S on
the outer surface of the inner conductor.
 Symmetry considerations show us that only the Dρ
component is present and that it can be a function only of
ρ. A right circular cylinder of length L and radius ρ, where
a
<ρ< b, is necessarily chosen as the Gaussian surface, and

𝑄 = ∮𝒄𝒚𝒍𝐷⃗→𝑠. 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = 𝐷𝑠∫𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑆 + 0∫𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑑𝑆 +

we quickly have

0∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑑𝑆

The total charge on a length L of the inner conductor is

From which we have

𝑫 𝑎𝜌
→𝝆 𝑠 𝒂𝝆

= 𝜌
Since, 𝜌 = , 𝑫⃗⃗→ in terms of 𝜌 is:
𝜌𝐿

𝑠 2𝜋𝑎 𝝆 𝐿

𝑫⃗⃗� = 𝜌𝐿
→� 𝒂̂ 2𝜋 � C/m2
𝜌 �

𝑬⃗� = 𝜌𝐿
→� 𝒂̂ 2𝜋𝗌 � V/m
𝜌 �

Because every line of electric flux starting from the charge on the inner cylinder must
terminate on a negative charge on the inner surface of the outer cylinder, the total charge on
that surface must be

And the surface charge on the outer cylinder is found as

Or

Case 1:𝜌 > 𝑏, The total charge enclosed would then be zero, for there are equal and opposite
charges on each conducting cylinder. Hence
Case 2:𝜌 < 𝑎, The total charge enclosed is zero, there is no field within the center conductor.
Hence

( 𝜌 < 𝑎)

4. Differential volume element:

 Consider the problem that does not possess symmetry.

 Without symmetry, a simple Gaussian surface cannot be chosen such that the
normal component of ⃗ D is constant or zero everywhere on the surface. Thus, the
integral cannot be evaluated.
 The only way to circumvent these difficulties is to choose such a tiny, closed surface.
Such that ⃗
D is almost constant over the surface, and the small change in ⃗ D can be
represented by using the first two terms of the Taylor series expansion for ⃗D.
 The result will become more nearly correct as the volume enclosed by the
Gaussian surface decreases.

D=
 Let us consider any point P, shown in Figure 3.6, located by a rectangular coordinate

𝐷𝑥0𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦0𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐷𝑧0𝑎̂𝑧. Choose a small rectangular box as a closed surface centered
system. The value of ⃗ D at the point P may be expressed in rectangular components, ⃗

at P, having sides of lengths Δx, Δy, and Δz.

 Apply Gauss’s law.

∮𝑆 ⃗D . d ⃗S = 𝑄
(1)
To evaluate the integral over the closed surface, the integral must be broken up into six
integrals, one over each face

∮𝑆 ⃗
D . d ⃗S = ∫𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + ∫𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 + ∫𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + ∫𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + ∫𝑡𝑜𝑝 + ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚-------------------------(2)

Because the surface element is very small, ⃗

D is essentially constant (over this portion of the
entire closed surface) and

∫𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 ≐ ⃗
D 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡. ∆ ⃗S𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 (3)

∫𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 ≐ ⃗
D 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡. ∆𝑦∆𝑧𝒂̂𝒙
≐ 𝐷𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝒂̂𝒙 . ∆𝑦∆𝑧𝒂̂𝒙
≐ 𝐷𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡∆𝑦∆𝑧

To approximate the value of Dx at this front face. The front face is at a distance ∆
𝑥
from P,
and hence
2

(4)

We now have,

(5)

Consider now the integral over the back surface,

∫𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 ≐ ⃗
D 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘. ∆ ⃗S𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘

≐ ⃗
D 𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘. ∆𝑦∆𝑧(−𝒂̂𝒙)

≐ − 𝐷𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝒂̂𝒙. ∆𝑦∆𝑧𝒂̂𝒙

≐ − 𝐷𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘∆𝑦∆𝑧

And (6)

Giving
Combining these two integrals, i.e. ∫𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 + ∫𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑠

By the same process, we find that

And

And these results may be collected to yield

∮S ⃗
D . 𝑑 ⃗S ≐( )
∂ D ∂ D ∂D
+ + ∆ x∆ y ∆ z
∂x ∂ y ∂z

Q = ∮S ⃗
D . 𝑑 ⃗S ≐ ( ∆ v -------------------------- (7)
)
∂ D ∂ D ∂D
+ +
∂x ∂ y ∂z

The expression is an approximation which becomes better as Δν becomes smaller.

The approximation result obtained by applying Gauss’s law to the closed surface area
surrounding the volume element Δv states that:

3. Divergence
The approximation result obtained by applying gauss’s law to the closed surface area
surrounding the volume element Δv, states that:

∮ 𝑫→ . 𝑑 𝑺→ = 𝑄 ≐ (
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑦 𝛛𝐷𝑧
+ + ) ∆𝑣-----------------------(1)
𝑆 𝛛 𝛛𝑧
𝑦
𝛛𝑥
By allowing the volume element ∆𝑣 to shrink to zero. We obtain an exact relationship from
eqn. (1)
 𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑦 𝛛𝐷𝑧 ∮𝑆 𝑫→ .𝑑𝑺→ 𝑄
( + + ) = lim = lim--------------------------- = 𝜌
𝑣
(2)
𝛛𝑥 𝛛 𝛛 ∆𝑣→ ∆ ∆𝑣→ ∆𝑣
𝑦 𝑧 0 𝑣 0

Charge density ρν , is identified in the second equality.

surrounding the volume element Δv, can be applied to any vector 𝑨⃗→ to find ∮𝑆 𝑨⃗→ . 𝑑𝑺⃗→,
The approximation result obtained by applying gauss’s law to the closed surface area

i.e.
𝛛𝐴𝑥 𝛛𝐴𝑦 𝛛𝐴𝑧 ∮𝑆 𝑨→ .𝑑𝑺→----------------------------------------------
( + + ) = lim
𝛛𝑥 𝛛 𝛛 ∆𝑣
(3)
∆𝑣→
𝑦 𝑧 0

Divergence can be defined as:

𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑨⃗→ = 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑨⃗→ .𝑑𝑺⃗→-----------------------------------------

𝑨⃗→ = lim
𝑆
∮ ∆𝑣 (4)
∆𝑣→0

The divergence of the vector flux density A is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface per
unit volume as the volume shrinks to zero.

Divergence of electric flux density in different coordinate system

Div 𝑫→ = (
𝛛𝐷𝑦
+ + )
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑧
Coordinate system Equation

Cartesian 𝛛𝑥 𝛛𝑦 𝛛𝑧

Div 𝑫⃗⃗→ 𝜌= ( 𝛛𝑥 𝜌 +𝛛𝜑 𝛛𝑧+ )

1 𝛛(𝜌𝐷𝜌) 1 𝛛𝐷𝜑 𝛛𝐷𝑧
Cylindrical
2

Div 𝑫⃗⃗→ = ( + ) +
1 𝛛(𝑟 𝐷𝑟) 𝛛𝐷𝜑1 𝛛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐷𝜃 1
Spherical
𝑟2 𝛛𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛛𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝛛𝜑

Divergence merely tells us how much flux is leaving a small volume on a per-unit-volume basis;
no direction is associated with it.

4. Maxwell’s first equation

The approximation result obtained by applying gauss’s law to the closed surface area
surrounding the volume element Δv, states that:

∮ 𝑫→ . 𝑑 𝑺→ = 𝑄 ≐ (
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑦 𝛛𝐷𝑧
+ + ) ∆𝑣-----------(1)
𝑆 𝛛 𝛛𝑦
𝑥
𝛛𝑧
Let volume element ∆𝑣 to shrink to zero, then we obtain an exact relationship from eqn. (1)
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑦 𝛛𝐷𝑧
( + + )= ∮𝑆 𝑫→ .𝑑𝑺→ =
lim
𝑄

lim = 𝜌
----------------(2)

𝛛𝑥 𝑣
𝛛 𝛛 ∆𝑣→ ∆ ∆𝑣→ ∆𝑣
𝑦 𝑧 0 𝑣 0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑫⃗⃗→ =
By divergence definition we have,
∮𝑆 𝑫⃗⃗→ .𝑑𝑺⃗→
lim ∆𝑣
(3)
∆𝑣→0

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑫→ = (
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑦 𝛛𝐷𝑧
+ + )-------------------(4)
Rewriting equation 3 with reference to equation 2 yields:

𝛛𝑥 𝛛 𝛛𝑧
𝑦

By combining equation 2 and 4 yields Maxwell’s first equation:

div𝑫⃗⃗→ =
𝜌𝑣

5. The Vector operator 𝛁

Divergence is an operation performed on a vector to yield a scalar result:

div 𝑫→ =
𝛛𝐷𝑦
+ +
𝛛𝐷𝑥 𝛛𝐷𝑧--------------------------------
(1)
𝛛𝑥 𝛛𝑦 𝛛𝑧

Thus 𝑫⃗⃗→

∇ operator,
𝛻 = + +
𝛛
Let us consider 𝛛 𝛛 called del operator (vector operator)

𝒂̂ 𝒂̂ 𝒂̂
------------------------------------(2)
𝛛𝑥 𝛛𝑦 𝛛𝑧 𝑧
𝑥 𝑦

And

𝑫⃗⃗→ =𝐷𝑥 𝒂̂𝑥 + 𝐷𝑦 𝒂̂𝑦 + 𝐷𝑧𝒂̂𝑧---------------------------------------- (3)

𝛻. → 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐷
𝑫 =
𝜕𝐷𝑥 𝒂. 𝒂. 𝒂 . 𝒂𝒛
+ +
𝑦 𝑧

𝒙 𝒂𝒙 𝒚 𝒂𝒚
𝜕𝑥
𝒛

𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛻. 𝜕𝐷𝑥
𝑫→ =
𝜕𝐷𝑦 𝜕𝐷𝑧
+ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕 𝜕𝑧
𝑦

Finally,

div D = 𝛻 . 𝑫 =
𝛛Dx 𝛛D
+
y
𝛛 𝛛D
𝛛
+
z
x y 𝛛z
6. Divergence Theorem

∮𝑠𝑫⃗⃗→. 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = Q
From Gauss’s law, we have
(1)

According to volume charge distribution total charge Q enclosed by the closed surface is given

𝑄 = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣----------------(2)
by:

But Maxwell’s first equation relates the volume charge density with divergence of electric flux

𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑫⃗⃗→ = ∇. 𝑫⃗⃗→ = 𝜌𝑣-----------(3)

density,

∮𝑠𝑫⃗⃗→. 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = 𝑄 = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣 = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇. 𝑫⃗⃗→ 𝑑𝑣(4)

From equation 1, 2, and 3 we can relate

The first and last expressions of equation 4 constitute the divergence theorem,

i.e. ∮𝑠𝑫⃗⃗→. 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = ∫𝑣𝑜𝑙 ∇. 𝑫⃗⃗→

𝑑𝑣
Which may be stated as follows: The integral of the normal component of any vector field over
a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout the
volume enclosed by the closed surface.
Note: It relates a triple integration throughout some volume to a double integration over the
surface of that volume.
7. Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric
field
Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E. The force on Q arising

𝑭⃗→𝐸 = 𝑄𝑬⃗→
from the electric field is
(1)

Where the subscript reminds us that this force arises from the field. The component of this

𝑭⃗→𝐸𝐿 = 𝑭⃗→. 𝒂̂𝐿 = 𝑄𝑬⃗→ . 𝒂̂𝐿

force in the direction dL which we must overcome is
(2)

Where 𝒂̂𝐿 = a unit vector in the direction of dL.

𝑭⃗→𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙 = −𝑄𝑬⃗→ . 𝒂̂𝐿

The force that we must apply is equal and opposite to the force associated with the field,
(3)

work done by an external source moving charge Q is dW = −𝑄𝑬⃗→ . 𝒂̂𝐿 dL

And the expenditure of energy is the product of the force and distance. That is, the differential

𝑑𝑊 = −𝑄𝑬⃗→ . 𝑑𝑳⃗→ (4)

Where we have replaced 𝒂̂𝐿 dL by the simpler expression dL

The charge in the electric field, the work required to move the charge a finite distance must be
determined by integrating:

𝑬⃗→ . 𝑑𝑳⃗→
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑊 = −𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑖
∫ (5)
𝑡

Note:
• The path must be specified before the integral can be evaluated.
• The charge is assumed to be at rest at both its initial and final positions.

8. The line integral

The work done in moving a point charge Q from one position to another is given by
𝑊 = −𝑄 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑬⃗⃗⃗→
⃗ . 𝑑𝑳⃗→
∫𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑳
(1)

𝑬𝑳 is component of 𝑬⃗→ along d𝑳⃗→

Where,

Equation (1) is an example for a Line Integral. Which in vector-analysis notation always takes
the form of the integral along some prescribed path of the dot product of a vector field and a
differential vector path length dL.
The Line Integral tells us to:
 • To choose a path, break it up into a large number of very small segments,
• Multiply the component of the field along each segment by the length of the segment,
• And then add the results for all the segments.
• This is a summation, of course, and the integral is obtained exactly only when
the number of segments becomes infinite.

1. Where a path has been chosen from an initial position B to a 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 A,
and a uniform electric field is selected for simplicity.
2. The path is divided into six segments, ⃗
L 1, ⃗
L2,... , ⃗
L6, and the components of E along each
⃗
E ⃗
E
segment are denoted by L , L ,... , L .⃗
E
1 2 6

3. The work involved in moving a charge Q from B to A is then

approximately

Or, using vector notation,

𝑊 = −𝑄(𝑬⃗→𝐿1 Δ𝑳⃗→1 + 𝑬⃗→𝐿2 Δ𝑳⃗→𝟐 + 𝑬⃗→𝐿3 Δ𝑳⃗→𝟑 + 𝑬⃗→𝐿4 Δ𝑳⃗→𝟒 + 𝑬⃗→𝐿5 Δ𝑳⃗→𝟓 + 𝑬⃗→𝐿6
Δ𝑳⃗→𝟔 )--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(2)

And because we have assumed a uniform field,

𝑬⃗→ = 𝑬⃗→𝐿1 = 𝑬⃗→𝐿2 = 𝑬⃗→𝐿3 = 𝑬⃗→𝐿4 = 𝑬⃗→𝐿5 = 𝑬⃗→𝐿6------------------------------(3)

𝑊 = −𝑄𝑬⃗→ ( Δ𝑳⃗→1 + Δ𝑳⃗→𝟐 + Δ𝑳⃗→𝟑 + Δ𝑳⃗→𝟒 + Δ𝑳⃗→𝟓 + Δ𝑳⃗→𝟔 )---------(4)

 By the parallelogram law, the sum of vector segments inside parentheses is just the vector directed
from the initial point B to the final point A, ⃗
LBA .

Therefore,

𝑊 = −𝑄𝑬⃗→. 𝑳⃗→𝐵𝐴 (Uniform𝑬⃗→) (5)

The summation interpretation of the line integral can be expressed in terms of integral
expression:

𝑊 = −𝑄 ∫� 𝑬⃗→ . 𝑑𝑳⃗→ (Uniform𝑬⃗→)

𝐴
(6)
�
𝐴
𝑊 = −𝑄 𝑬⃗→ ∫ 𝑑𝑳⃗→
𝐵
Where the last integral becomes 𝑳⃗→𝐵𝐴

𝑊 = −𝑄𝑬⃗→. 𝑳⃗→𝐵𝐴 (Uniform𝑬⃗→)

and
(7)

Note:
 Work involved in moving the charge depends only on Q, E, and𝐿𝐵𝐴, a vector
drawn from the initial to the final point of the path chosen.
 It does not depend on the particular path we have selected along which to carry
the charge.
 We may proceed from B to A on a straight line or via the Old Chisholm Trail

9. Current and current density

Current
 Electric charges in motion constitute a current.
 Defined as a rate of movement of charge passing a given reference point (or crossing a
given reference plane) of one coulomb per second.
 Current is symbolized by I, by definition:

Current density:
 The amount of electric current traveling per unit cross-section area is called as current

 Current density is a vector quantity represented by 𝑱→.

density and expressed in amperes per square meter

 The increment of current ΔI crossing an incremental surface ΔS normal to the current

density is
 Δ I = 𝐽𝑁Δ S
 in the case where the current density is not perpendicular to the
surface, Δ I = 𝑱→Δ𝑺
⃗ →
 Total current is obtained by integrating,

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑱→ 𝑑𝑺⃗→
𝑠

Relation between Current density and the velocity of volume charge density at a
point

Consider the element of charge:

ΔQ = 𝜌𝑣Δν (1)

= ρν ΔS ΔL (2)

Assume that the charge element is oriented with its edges parallel to the coordinate axes and that
it has only an x component of velocity.

In the time interval Δt, the element of charge has moved a distance Δx, as indicated in Figure 5.1b.

Therefore moved a charge ΔQ = 𝜌𝑣 ΔS Δx through a reference plane perpendicular to the

direction of motion in a time increment Δt, and the resulting current is:

∆𝐼 =
∆𝑄

= 𝜌 ∆𝑆
∆𝑥
(3)
∆𝑡 𝑣 ∆𝑡

∆𝐼 = 𝜌𝑣∆𝑆 𝑣𝑥
As we take the limit with respect to time, we have
(4)
𝑣𝑥 = x component of the velocity v, In terms of current density,
Where,

𝐽𝑥 = 𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥
We find
(5)

In general,

𝑱→ = 𝜌𝑣𝒗

We call this type of current a convection current, and J or 𝜌𝑣𝒗 is the convection current density.

10. Continuity of current

The continuity equation follows from the principle of conservation of charge. When we
consider any region bounded by a closed surface. The current through the closed surface is

𝐼 = ∮� 𝑱→ 𝑑𝑺⃗→ (1)
�

This outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by a decrease of positive charge (or
perhaps an increase of negative charge) within the closed surface.

If the charge inside the closed surface is denoted by 𝑄𝑖 , then the rate of decrease is −d Qi /dt
and the principle of conservation of charge requires

𝐼 = ∮ 𝑱→ 𝑑𝑺→ = −
𝑑𝑄𝑖---------------------------

𝑠
(2)
𝑑𝑡

The presence or absence of a negative sign depends on what current and charge we consider.
Equation (2) is the integral form of the continuity equation; the differential, or point, form is
obtained by using the divergence theorem to change the surface integral into a volume integral

∮𝑠 𝑱→ 𝑑𝑺⃗→ = ∫𝒗𝒐𝒍 (𝛁 . 𝑱→) 𝑑𝑣---(3)

The enclosed charge 𝑄𝑖by the volume integral of the charge density,
∫𝒗𝒐 (𝛁 . 𝑱→) 𝑑𝑣 ∫ 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑣--------(4)
= −
𝑑 𝑣𝑜
𝒍 𝑙
𝑑𝑡

If surface is kept constant, the derivative becomes a partial derivative and may appear within
the integral,
∫𝒗𝒐 (𝛁 . 𝑱→) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣-------------(5)
𝛛𝜌𝑣
𝑣𝑜 𝛛𝑡
𝒍 = −∫ 𝑙
By cancelling volume integral on both sides we retain the point form of the continuity equation,
i.e.

𝛁 . 𝑱→ =
𝛛𝜌𝑣-----------------------

𝛛𝑡
(6)

The physical interpretation of divergence, this equation indicates that the current, or charge
per second, diverging from a small volume per unit volume is equal to the time rate of
decrease of charge per unit volume at every point