Module - 1

Chapter - 1
Fundamental Concepts & Definitions

1.0 Introduction
Thermodynamics is a science which deals with the relations among heat, work and properties
of system when it is in equilibrium.
OR
Thermodynamics is a science which deals with the interaction between energy and material system.
Thermodynamics basically entails with four laws known as Zeroth, first, second and third law
of thermodynamics.
First law of thermodynamics deals with the concept of internal energy.
Second law of thermodynamics indicate the limit of converting heat into work and introduces
the principle of increase of entropy.
Third law defines the absolute zero temperature.
Zeroth law throws light on thermal equilibrium and establishes a concept of temperature.
Applications of thermodynamics are found in steam and nuclear power plants. IC engines, gas
turbines, refrigerators, air conditioners, compressors, chemical processing plants etc.
1.1 Definitions
System : It refers to a definite quantity of matter bounded by some closed surfaces.
Ex : Mass of gas or Vapor containing engine cylinder
Boundary

System * Surrounding

Boundary : The actual envelope enclosing the system is called boundary of the system.
The boundary of a system may be a real one like that of a cylinder enclosing a definite quantity of
fluid or it may be imaginary like the boundary of a certain mass of liquid as it flows along a pipe.

Piston
Cylinder

Fluid
System Flow
Imaginary
Bundary

Real Boundary
 1.2 Basic Thermodynamics

Surrounding : The combination of matter and space external to a system is called its surrounding.
Universe : A system and its surrounding together comprise a universe.
1.2 Types of Thermodynamic Systems
1. Open System : The thermodynamic system in which mass and energy crosses the boundary
is called an open system.
Air Air
IN OUT

mass
air System
(mass) Boundary

Energy
Energy

Ex : An air compressor in which air enters at low pressure and leaves at high pressure. Also
energy transfers across the system boundary.
Some more examples are
Scooter engine, centrifugal water pump, electric fan, turbine, radiator, condenser etc.
2. Closed System : The thermodynamic system in which energy crosses the boundary is
called closed system.
Valves
closed

air
(mass) Boundary

Energy

Ex : Compression of air in compressor, car battery, pressure cooker, boiler, steam power
plant, refrigerator, etc.
3. Isolated System : If no energy and mass crosses the boundary, then the system is called
isolated system. It has fixed mass and energy. It is a theoretical system. This concept is
helpful in the study and analysis of thermodynamic principles and laws.
Ex : Thermos Flask(100% insulation is assumed).
4. Homogeneous System : A system which consists of a single phase is termed as homogeneous
system.
Ex : Mixture of air and water vapour, water & nitric acid.
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.3

5. Heterogeneous System : A system which consists of two or more phases is termed as

Heterogeneous system.
Ex : Water + Vapour, Water + ice.
1.3 Control Volume and Control Surface
A Control region or control volume is defined as any region in space which is separated from
its surrounding by a control surface. There is a mass and energy interaction across the control
surface. The control surface is fixed in shape, position and orientation relative to the observer.
But in an open system, the boundary can change in its shape and position.
Examples for control volume
Steam turbines, centrifugal pumps, water turbines, steam nozzles.
Mass IN Mass OUT

Mass OUT
System Boundary
Control
Control Surface
Volume

Mass IN Energy Energy

Movement of
the piston
Control Volume Open System
1.4.1 Macroscopic Approach
If a system is described by means of measurable quantities such as temperature, pressure,
volume etc which are large scale properties or characteristics of the system, then such a system of
approach is called macroscopic approach or macroscopic point of view of the system.
It is also called as Classical Thermodynamics.
Different systems may require different macroscopic properties for their description. But all
macroscopic coordinates have the following characteristics in common.
a. They involve no special assumptions concerning the structure of the matter.
b. They are readily measurable.
c. Only few properties needed to describe a system adequately.
1.4.2 Microscopic Approach
This approach considers that the system is made of a very large number of discrete particles
known as molecules. These molecules have different velocity and energy. The values of these
properties are constantly changing with time. This approach to thermodynamics which is con-
cerned directly with the structure of matter is known as Statistical Thermodynamics.
The behavior of the system is found by using statistical methods as the number of molecules
is very large. So advanced statistical and mathematical models are needed to explain the changes
in the system.
 1.4 Basic Thermodynamics

The properties like velocity, momentum, impulse, kinetic energy, force of impact describes the
molecule. These properties cannot be easily measured by instruments. It leads to large number of
variables to describe the system. Because of this, microscopic approach is complicated.
1.5 Properties
A property is the characteristic which is used to identify the state of a system.
It must have unique numerical value, whenever the system in a particular state.
Ex : Pressure, temperature, specific volume, internal energy, etc.
Two sorts of properties are
1. Intensive Property :
The properties which are independent on the mass of the system are called intensive properties.
These properties are same for the entire system.
Ex : Temperature, pressure, density, specific volume, tensile strength, optical refractive index,
specific enthalpy, molecular weight, specific heat, quality of steam.
2. Extensive Property :
The properties which are dependent on the mass of the system are called extensive properties.
These are directly proportional to mass of the system.
Ex : Volume, area, length, charge, magnetization, pole strength, storage capacity of water tank,
potency of tablets(100 mg, 50 mg), memory space of a floppy disk, velocity of a bullet,
entropy, internal energy, roll strength of a class, concentration of sugar in the milk.
The ratio of an extensive property to the mass is called the specific value of the property.
1.6 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, when the properties such as pressure and
temperature are same throughout the system.
In other words, a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium when mechanical, thermal and
chemical equilibrium simultaneously exists.
Thermal Equilibrium :
In this, the temperature of the system does not change with time and it has same value at all
points of the system.
Mechanical Equilibrium
In this, no unbalanced forces with in the system or between the surroundings.
In otherwords, the pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with respect
to time.
Chemical Equilibrium
In this, no chemical reaction takes place in the system and chemical composition is same
through out the system and does not vary with the time.
1.7 Process
When the system changes from one equilibrium state to another, it does so by means of a
process.
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.5

1.7.1 Types of process

1. Reversible process :
A reversible process is one, which can be stopped at any stage and reversed so that the system
and surroundings are exactly restored to their initial state.
It is also called quasi-static process. No real process is purely reversible. But some processes
may approach reversibility to close approximation.
Ex : Frictionless relative motion, expansion and compression of spring, frictionless adiabatic
expansion, electrolysis.
2. Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is one in which heat is transferred to a finite temperature difference.
These processes pass through a series of non-equilibrium states.
Ex : Combustion, plastic deformation, throttling.
3. Flow Process :
A Process may be flow process in which mass is entering and leaving through the boundary of
an open system.
Ex : Steam flow in a turbine and nozzle, water flow in a turbine.
4. Non-Flow Process :
A process may be non-flow in which a fixed mass with in the defined boundary is under going
a change of state.
Ex : A substance being heated in a closed cylinder.
5. Cyclic Process :
If after the end of a thermodynamic process, the system comes back to its original state, then
the process is called as a cyclic process.
6. Non - Cyclic Process :
If after the end of a process, the state of the system is different from the initial state, then the
process is called as a non-cyclic process.
1.8 Path
The successive states passed by the system during a change of state is called path of the change
of the state.
1.9 Cycle
Any process or series of processes whose end states are identical is termed as a cycle.
2

p
3

V
Fig. shows a cycle in which a system commencing at condition 1, changes in pressure and
volume through the path 1-2-3 and returns to initial condition 1.
 1.6 Basic Thermodynamics

1.10 Point Function

When two properties locate a point on the graph then these properties are called point functions.
Ex : Pressure, volume, temperature, enthalpy, internal energy, entropy etc.
Point functions are exact differentials
2
i.e., ∫ dV
= V2 − V1
1

1.11 Path Function

These are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are given by
the area on the graph. In that case the area on the graph pertaining to the particular process is the
function of path of the process. Such quantities are called path functions.
Ex : Heat and Work
Heat and work are inexact differentials ie., their change cannot be written as difference be-
tween the end states.
1
i.e., ∫ δQ ≠ Q 2 − Q1 d=exact
1
2
∫ 1
δw ≠ W2 − W1 δ =inexact

1.12 Quasi-Static Process

p2,V2,T2 p
rocess
1 s i - s tatic p rocess
p1 Qu a
e v e r s ible P
Irr
Weights
Piston p2 2
Gas Cylinder Equilibrium
p1,V1,T1 states

V1 V2 V
Consider a piston cylinder arrangement in which there is a gas in the cylinder under pressure.
The system initially is in equilibrium state represented by the properties p1, V1, T1. The weights
on the piston just balances the upward force exerted by the gas. If all the weights are removed at
once, then the system undergoes a change of state and then comes to an equilibrium state with the
properties p2, V2, T2. But intermediate states passed through by the system are non-equilibrium
states. This process is called an irreversible process.
If the weights are removed one by one very slowly from the top of the piston, then the system
under goes a change of state with successive equilibrium states during the process and is repre-
sented by a curved line 1-2 on p-V diagram. Such a process is called Quasi-Static process.
Thus a quasi-static process is a succession of equilibrium states. It is also called as reversible
process.
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.7

Quasi → almost Static → Stable

Infinite slowness is the characteristic of quasi-static process.
1.13 Temperature
It is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a cold body.
OR
Temperature is a measure of hotness of the body.
1.14 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
"It states that if two bodies are independently in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other".

Body Thermal equilibrium Body

A by zeroth law B

Thermal Thermal
equilibrium equilibrium

Body
C
Consider three bodies A, B and C as shown in figure. Let bodies A and B are in thermal equi-
librium with body C independently. Then according to zeroth law, the two bodies A & B shall also
be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Zeroth law is also called as principle of temperature measurement. According to zeroth law the
temperature of given body is measured as shown in figure given below.

Body whose
Thermal equilibrium
temperature is to be Reference body
by zeroth law
measured

Thermal equilibrium
(Temperature Thermal equilibrium
measurement) (Calibration)

Thermometer

1.15 Adiabatic and Diathermic Walls

An adiabatic wall is one which does not allows the heat to interact between the systems
Diathermic wall is one which allows the heat to flow between two systems.
 1.8 Basic Thermodynamics

1.16 Temperature Concept

Consider two systems having any two gases with thermodynamic properties x1, y1,...etc, and
x2, y2,... etc. These systems are made to interact with each other through an adiabatic wall. It is
seen that no change in thermodynamic properties of the two systems even after a long period of
time.

System System System System

1 2 1 2

Adiabatic wall Diathermic wall

Now let the adiabatic wall is replaced by diathermic wall. The two systems are now interacts
with each other across this wall. Then the thermodynamic properties of both systems change rap-
idly. Finally change stops and both the systems come to equilibrium.
The change of state of one affects the change of state in the other. Finally when equilibrium
is attained by the two systems, atleast one property acquires a common value for both the sys-
tems. Let this property we call as temperature and let the two systems considered to have attained
thermal equilibrium.
1.16.1 Temperature Measuring Methods (Thermometric properties)
The science which deals with the measurement of temperature is called thermometry.
Low and medium temperatures are measured with the help of thermometers, where as high
temperatures are measured with the help of thermocouples and pyrometers.
Different methods of temperature measurement are
1. Change in volume method :
In this method, volume is used as thermometric property. A substance that expands
proportionately with increase in temperature is made use of. The substance may be
mercury(-38 to 3000 C), Alcohol(-10 to 1500 C).
2. Change in pressure method :
In this method, pressure is the thermometric property. If a gas confined to a constant
volume, its pressure will increase as the temperature increases. This change in pressure
may be correlated to measure the temperature.
3. Change in electric resistance method :
Electric resistance is used as a thermometric property. Electric resistance of metal increases
in direct proportion to temperature increase. This measured change in the resistance of a
particular piece of wire can be converted for the measurement of temperature.
4. Optical change method :
Brightness of the body is used as thermometric property.
The instrument which makes use of this method is known as optical pyrometer. The
brightness of the hot body is compared with an adjustable and calibrated source of light
with in the instrument.
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.9

5. Change in electric - potential method :

Electro Motive Force (EMF) developed by a circuit is used as a thermometric property.
The device that makes use of this method is called thermocouple.
Thermocouple is based on the principle that when a current flows in a closed circuit made
of two dissimilar metals, whose junction is kept at two different temperatures, the emf that
developed can be calibrated to measure the temperature.
1.16.2 Constant Volume Gas Thermometer
patm
Glass tube
h
M
Reference
Gas
point
Glass bulb
limbs

Flexible tube
Constant volume gas thermometer consists of a bulb connected to glass tube. The other end of
the glass tube is connected to mercury reservoir through a rubber tube. There is a fixed mark M
over the glass tube. Difference in levels of mercury in the reservoir is measured with reference to
M. The bulb usually filled with air.
Initially the bulb is kept in melting ice and reservoir level is suitably adjusted so that mercury
level is at M. Corresponding to this, difference in level of reservoir hi is noted.
At ice point, pressure is calculated by
pi = patm + ρghi
patm = Atmospheric pressure
ρ = Density of mercury
Bulb is kept at the boiling water and following above procedure, the pressure at steam point is
calculated by ps = patm + ρghs
hs = Difference in mercury level at steam point.
Now the bulb is kept in the bath whose temperature is to be measured. Again the reservoir is
adjusted to keep mercury level at M and height 'h' is noted.
Making appropriate substitution, the temperature t is calculated by
 h − h1 
= t   × 100
 hs − hi 
A graph of ps/pi and pi is drawn for different masses of gas in the bulb as shown below.
 1.10 Basic Thermodynamics

1.366 fluid (1)

ps
fluid (2)
pi

pi p
When the graph is extrapolated, cuts y-axis at a point which is at s = 1.366,
pi
p
For different fluids the graphs are drawn and they meet at same point i.e at s = 1.366,
pi
It shows that the temperature scale is independent of property of any individual substances.
1.16.3 Ice point and steam points
Ice point is the temperature at which pure ice co-existed with saturated water at one atmosphere.
Steam point is the temperature of equilibrium between pure water and pure steam at one
atmosphere.
1.16.4 Temperature Scales
There are four temperature scales in use
1. Centigrade Scale 2. Fahrenheit Scale
3. Rankine Scale 4. Kelvin Scale
1.16.5 Procedure for establishing temperature scale
a. Certain physical characteristic or thermometric property(pressure, volume, resistance,
etc.,) is selected.
b. A mathematical relation between temperature and thermometric property is assumed(linear,
quadratic or cubic).
c. Some numerical values are assigned to the temperature at some selected reference points(ice
point, steam point).
d. Equation is solved for the constants.
e. The required temperature scale is obtained after substituting values of constants in the
assumed mathematical relation.
1.16.6 International Temperature Scale
The international community of weights and measures in 1927 specified some standard tem-
perature reference points, in order to measure the temperature in the range of -1800C to 43000C.
They are.
i. Temperature of equilibrium between liquid oxygen and its vapour - oxygen point (-182.970C).
ii. Temperature of equilibrium between ice and saturated water - ice point (0.000C).
iii. Temperature of equilibrium between liquid water and its vapour - steam point(1000 C).
iv. Temperature of equilibrium between liquid sulphur and its vapour - sulphur point(444.60 C).
v. Temperature of equilibrium between solid and liquid silver - Silver point (960.80 C).
vi. Temperature of equilibrium between solid gold and liquid gold - Gold point (1063.00 C).
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.11

International temperature scale provides a scale that could be easily and rapidly used to cali-
brate scientific and industrial instruments.
1.16.7 Mathematical Temperature relations
1. Celsius or Centigrade Scale
Assume a temperature - thermometric relation
i.e t= ax+b --- (1)
x = thermometric property
For Celsius scale ice point and steam points are 00 C and 1000 C.
At ice point t = 00C, x = xi then equation (1) become
0 = axi+b ---(2)
At steam point, t = 1000 C, x = xs then equation (1) become
100 = axs+b---(3)
Solving (1) & (2)
0 = axi + b
(–) 100 = axs + b
(–) (–)
–100 = a(xi – xs)
100
or a =
xs − xi
Substituting 'a' value in equation (2), we get
100
= 0 .x i + b
xs − xi
−100
b= xi
xs − xi
Substituting 'a ' and 'b ' values in equation (1), we get
100 100
= tc x− xi
xs − xi xs − xi
 x − xi 
=t c 100   − − − − − ( 4)
 xs − xi 
t c = Centigrade temperature

2. Fahrenheit Scale
In Fahrenheit scale, ice point and steam points are 320 F and 2120F
Assume t = ax+b --- (5)
at ice point t = 320F, x=xi ⇒ 32 = axi + b --- (6)
at steam point t = 2120 F, x=xs ⇒(-)212 =(-) axs +
(-)
b ---(7)
Solving -180 = a(xi - xs)
180
a=
xs − xi
Substituting 'a ' value in equn (6)
180
= 32 xi + b
 180
1.12 a = Basic Thermodynamics
xs − xi
Substituting 'a ' value in equation (6)
180
= 32 xi + b
xs − xi
180
b 32 −
= xi
xs − xi
Substituting 'a ' and 'b ' in equation ( 5 ) we get
180 180
=tf x + 32 − xi
xs − xi xs − xi
x − xi
t f =32 + 180 × → (8)
xs − xi
t f = temperature in Fahrenheit

Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scales

We know that
x − xi
t c 100 ×
=
xs − xi
x − xi t
or = c
x s − x i 100
Substituting the above value in equation (8) we get
t
t f =32 + 180 × c
100
t=f 32 + 1.8 t c

3. Rankine Scale
For Fahrenheit scale
t s − t i= 212 − 32= 180
t  ps 
Also s lim
= =   1.366
t i i  pi 
P →0

Solving above two relations, we get

0
=t i 492
= R, t s 6720 R
These are the ice po int and steam po int s for Rankine scale
Assume = t ax + b
At ice po int t =4920 R, & x =x i → 492 =ax i + b
0
At steam po int t =672 R, & x =x s → 672 =ax s + b
( −) ( −) ( −)
Solving = a ( xi − xs )
180
180
a=
xs − xi
 At ice po int t =492 R, x =x i → 492 =ax i + b
0
AtAtsteam
steampopoint
intt t=
=672
672R,0
R, xx=xxs →→672
= 672=axaxs ++bb
=
s s
(−(−
) ) (−(− ) ) (−(− ))
Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.13
Solving
Solving = a a( x( xi −−xxs ) )
180
=180 i s
180
a a== 180
xxs −−xxi
s i
180
180
Again
=
Again
= 492
492 x − x xxi +i +bb
xs − xi s i
180x
180xi
bb 490
=
= 490−−x − x i
492
xs − xi s i
180
180 xxi
=\t Rt R x − x xx++492
\= 492−−180
180x − xi
xs − xi
s i xs − xi s i

 xx−−xxi  
t=
=Rt 492
492++180
180 i ...........(9)
R
 xxs − x 
s − xi 
i

Where tR = Rankine temperature

Relation between Rankine and Fahrenheit scales
We know that
 x − xi 
t= 32 + 180 
f
 xxs −−xxii 
t=
f 32 + 180  
x − x i tf x−s 32 − xi 
or =
xxs −−xxii t f180− 32
or =
x s − x iabove
Substituting 180
expression
 t − 32in equation (9)
→ t R = 492 + 180 ×  f
 t 180 − 32 
→ t R = 492 + 180 ×  f 
=t R 460 + t f  180 
t R 460 + t f
=

4. Kelvin Scale :
For Celsius scale ts - ti = 100
Again we know that
ts
= 1.366
ti
Solving above equations,we get
= t i 273K
= and t s 373K
These are theice point and steam points for Kelvin scale
Again assume=t ax + b
At ice point t =273K, x =→
xi 273 = ax i + b
At steam point t =
373, x =→
x s ( ) 373 (=
)
ax s (+) b
− − −

Solving − 100 = a ( x i − x s )
100  xi 
a
= and=
b 273 − 100  
xs − xi  xs − xi 
100 xi
 At ice point t =
273K, x =→
xi 273 =
ax i + b
At steam point t =
373, x =→
x s ( ) 373 (=
)
ax s (+) b
− − −
1.14
Solving − 100 = a ( x i − x s ) Basic Thermodynamics

100  xi 
a
= and=b 273 − 100  
xs − xi  xs − xi 
100 xi
\ tk
= x + 273 − 100
xs − xi xs − xi
 x − xi 
t k 273 + 100 
=  − − − (10 )
 xs − xi 
t k = Kelvin scale temperature
Relation between Kelving and Celsius scales
We know that
 x − xi  x − xi tc
tc 100
=  x − x  or x − x 100
 s i  s i

Substituting above expression in equation (10 )

t
t k 273 + 100 × c
=
100
t k 273 + t c
=
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.15

PROBLEMS ON TEMPERATURE SCALES

1. Fahrenheit and centigrade thermometers are both immersed in a fluid Fahrenheit

reading is numerically twice that of the centigrade reading. What is the temperature of
the fluid expressed as oR and K. (VTU Aug. 2000)
Data :
Tf 2Tc , =
= TR ?= Tk ?
We know that =
Tf 1.8 Tc + 32
2Tc 1.8Tc + 32
=
Tc = 1600 C
TF = 1.8 × 160 + 32 = 3200 F
Now TR =TF + 460 =320 + 460 =780o R
Tk = 273 + Tc = 273 + 160 = 433K
2. A thermocouple with test junction at T0C on gas thermometer scale and reference
junction at ice point gives the emf e=0.20t-5x10-4t2 mV. The millivoltmeter is calibrated
at ice and steam points. What will be the reading on this thermometer when the gas
thermometer reads 700C.  VTU Feb 2001
Data : e = 0.20t – 5 × 10-4 t2 (Gas thermometer and millivolt meter relation)
at ice point
t = 00 C
e 0.20 × 0 − 5 × 10−4 × ( 0 )
2
\=
e=0
at steam point
t = 1000 C
e 0.20 × 100 − 5 × 10−4 × 1002
=
e = 15 mV
t 700 C, =
at = e 0.20 × 70 − 5 × 10−4 × 70=
2
11.55mV
Let thermocouple temperature is related by
t tC = a + be − − − − − − (1) ( Thermocouple and millivoltmeter relation )
at ice point t=
tC 0,e
= 0
\0 = a + b × 0
a=0
0
at steam point
= t t c 100
= C, e 15 mV
\100 = a + b × 15
100 = 0 + b × 15
100
b=
15
 0
at steam point
= t t c 100
= C, e 15 mV
\100 = a + b × 15
1.16 Basic Thermodynamics
100 = 0 + b × 15
100
b=
15
\ Equation (1) become
100
t c= 0 +e
15
100
=tc e − − − − − ( 2)
15
When the gas thermometer reads 700 C, milli voltmeter reads11.55mV.
Then the thermocouple will read
100
t tC
= × 11.55
15
t tC = 77 0 C
3. A temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the relation t=a logep+b, where a
and b are constants and p is the thermometric property of the fluid in the thermometer.
If at ice point and steam point the thermometric property is found to be 1.5 and 7.5
respectively, what will be the temperature corresponding to the thermometric property
of 3.5 on celsius scale.
Data : t=a loge p+b
0
At ice point
= t 0= C, p 1.5
\ 0 a log e 1.5 + b
= − − − − − (1)
0
at steam
= point t 100
= C & p 7.5
\100 a log e 7.5 + b
= − − − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) and ( 2 )
=0 a log e 7.5
1.5 + b
=100 a log e 7.5 (+) b
( −) ( −) −

100 a log e 1.5 − a log e 7.5

−=
1.5 −100
= a log e =⇒a = 62.112
7.5 1.5
log e
7.5
Again 0 =62.112 log e 1.5 + b ⇒ b =−25.18
a = 62.112, b = −25.18
=\ t 62.112 log e p − 25.18
when p = 3.5
=t 62.112 log e 3.5 − 25.18
t = 52.630 C
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.17

4. The temperature T on a thermometric scale is defined in terms of property k by the

relation T =a logek+b. Where a and b are constants. The value of k is found to be 1.83
and 6.78 at ice and steam point respectively. Determine the temperature corresponding
to the value of k=2.42 on the thermometer.
Data : T = a loge k+b
0
at ice point
= T 0= C & k 1.83
=\ 0 a log e 1.83 + b − − − − − (1)
0
at steam =
point T 100
= C, k 6.78
\100 a log e 6.78 + b
= − − − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) & ( 2 ) , we get
a = 76.411, b = −46.175
=\ T 76.411 log e k − 46.175
when k = 2.42
T= 76.411 × log e 2.42 − 46.175
T = 21.350 C
5. A temperature T on a thermometric scale is defined in terms of 'p' by the relation
T=alogep+b. When a and b are constants. The temperature at ice and steam points are
00C and 1000C respectively. Instrument gives values of p as 1.86 and 6.81 at ice and steam
points. Evaluate temperature corresponding to a reading of p=2.5.  (VTU Mar 2001)
Sol : Follow the procedure of problem 4
6. The readings TA and TB of two celsius thermometers A and B agree at ice point and
steam points but elsewhere are related by TA = L+MTB+NTB2 where L,M and N are
constants. When both thermometers are immersed in a system of fluid, A registers 110C
and B registers 100C. Determine reading on A when B registers 37.40C. (VTU Feb 2002)
Data : TA = L + MTB + NTB2
at ice point T=
A T=
B 00 C
\0 = L + 0 + 0
L 0 − − − − − (1)
0
at steam point T=
A T=
B 100 C
\100 = L + M × 100 + N × 1002
100 100M + 10000N
= − − − − − ( 2)
0 0
when
= TA 11
= C, TB 10 C
\11 =0 + M × 10 + N × 102
11 10M + 100N
= − − − − − ( 3)
Solving equation ( 2 ) & ( 3)
100 100M + 10000N
=
[11 =10M + 100N ] × 10
100 100M + 10000N
=
=110 100M + 1000N
( −) ( −) ( −)
 Solving equation ( 2 ) & ( 3)
=100 100M + 10000N
1.18
[11 =10M
+ 100N ] × 10 Basic Thermodynamics

100 100M + 10000N

=
=110 100M + 1000N
( −) ( −) ( −)

−10 = 0 + 9000N
−10 1
N= = −
9000 900
Substituting N in Equation ( 2 ) , we get
1
100 =0 + M × 100 − × 10000
900
10
M=
9
10 1
\ TA= TB − TB 2
9 900
when B registers 37.40 C, then
10 1
TA = × 37.4 − × 37.42
9 900
TA = 39.960 C
7. A constant volume gas thermometer containing a gas gives the reading of gas pressure
of 1 bar and 1.5 bar at ice point and steam point respectively. Assuming T=a+bp where
p is in N/m2, express the Celsius temperature T in terms of gas pressure. What is the
temperature recorded by the thermometer when it registers a pressure of 1.2 bar.
 (VTU April 2001)
Data : T = a+bp – – – –(1)
at ice point T = 00 C & p = 1 bar = 1 × 105 N / m 2
\ 0 = a + b × 1 × 105 − − − − ( 2)
T 1000 C,=
at steam point = = 1.5 × 105 N / m 2
p 1.5 bar
\100 = a + b × 1.5 × 105 − − − − ( 3)
Solving equation ( 2 ) & ( 3) we get
a= 2 × 10−3
−200 & b =
\Τhe equation (1) becomes T = −200 + 2 × 10−3 p
when = = 1.2 × 105 N / m 2 , then
p 1.2 bar
T =−200 + 2 × 10−3 × 1.2 × 105
T = 400 C
8. The equation Rt = R0 (1+αt) is applicable to a resistance thermometer. Rt and R0 are
the values of resistance at temperature t0C and 00C respectively. The thermometer is
calibrated by immersing in boiling water (1000C) and boiling sulphur (4450C). The
instrument indicates the resistance values at these two temperatures to be 14.7Ω and
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.19

29.2Ω respectively. Determine the temperature of the fluid for which the corresponding
thermometer resistance is 23.5Ω.
Data : Rt = R0(1+αt)
At boiling temperature of water t=1000C and Rt = 14.7 Ω
= R 0 (1 + α ×100 )
\14.7 − − − − (1)
At boiling sulphur
= t 4450 C and =
R t 29.2W
= R 0 (1 + α × 445 )
\ 29.2 − − − − ( 2)
Solving eqn (1) & ( 2 )
14.7
= R 0 + R 0 α × 100

( −)
29.2
=( ) R 0 (+) R 0 α × 445
− −

−14.5 = − R 0 α × 345
R 0 α =0.042
Substituting R 0 α value in equation (1)
14.7 = R 0 + 100 × 0.042
\Ro =
10.49W
\ R t = R 0 + R 0 αt or R1 = 10.49 + 0.042 t
when =
R t 23.5W, the t become
23.5 = 10.49 + 0.042 × t
t = 309.760 C
9. A certain thermometer is calibrated using ice and steam points designating them as
being temperature of 00C and 1000C respectively. Thermometric function chosen to
establish the scale is t=aloge x +b
a. Determine the constants a & b in terms of Xsteam and Xice
b. Show that the new scale is given by
 X 
100 log e  
 X ice 
t=
X 
log e  steam 
 X ice 
Data : t = aloge x + b
when t 00=
= C 0 a log e X ice + b − − − − (1)
0
when t 100=
= C, ( )100 ( ) a log e X steam (+) b − − − − ( 2)
− − −

Solving −=
100 a log e X ice − a log e X steam
−100 ( log e X ice − log e X steam ) a
100
or a =
 X steam 
log e  
 X ice 
Substituting 'a 'value in equation (1) , we get
 −100 ( log e X ice − log e X steam ) a
100
or a =
 X steam 
1.20 log
e  Basic Thermodynamics
 X ice 
Substituting 'a 'value in equation (1) , we get
−100log e X ice
b=
X 
log e  steam 
 X ice 
Now substituting a &=
b in t a log e x + b, we get
100 100log e X ice
=t × log e X −
X  X 
log e  steam  log e  steam 
 X ice   X ice 
100
=\t ( log e X − log e Xice )
 X steam 
log e  
 X ice 
100 log e  X 
 X ice 
t=
X 
log e  steam 
 X ice 
10. The resistance of the windings in a certain motor found to be 80Ω at room temperature 250C.
When operating at full load under steady state conditions, the motor is switched off and the
resistance of the windings immediately measured again is found to be 93Ω. The windings
are made of copper whose resistance at temperature t0C is given by Rt = R0[1+0.00393t],
where R0 is the resistance at 00C. Find the temperature attained by the coil during full load.
Data : Rt = R0[1+0.00393t]
when t = 25oC, Rt=80Ω
\ 80= R 0 [1 + 0.00393 × 25]
R 0 72.84W
=
when R=
t 93W at full load, then t become
R 0 [1 + 0.00393 × t ]
93 =
=93 72.84 [1 + 0.00393t ]
t = 70.420 C
11. The temperature 't' on a Celsius thermometer scale is defined in terms of property 'p'
by the relation. p=e(t-B)/A where A & B are constants. Experiment gives value of p of 1.86
and 6.81 at ice and steam points. Obtain relation for t and find the temperature t for the
reading of p=2.5. (July - 2007)
Data : p=e (t-B)/A

0
at ice point
= t 0= & p 1.86
\1.86= e0 − B / A= e − B / A
−B
log e 1.86
= × log e
A
A log e 1.86 = − B
or A log e 1.86 + B = 0............. (1)
 at ice point
= t 0=
& p 1.86
\1.86= e0 − B / A= e − B / A
−B
log e 1.86
Fundamental × log e& Definitions
= Concepts 1.21
A
A log e 1.86 = − B
or A log e 1.86 + B = 0............. (1)
0
at steam
= point t 100
= C, & p 6.81
e(100 − B) / A
\ 6.81 =
100 − B
log
= e 6.81 × log e
A
B 100.............. ( 2 )
A log e 6.81 +=
Solving (1) & ( 2 )
A log e 1.86 + B =
0
A log e 6.81 + B =
100
( −) ( −) ( −)

A log e 1.86 − A log e 6.81 =

−100
 1.86 
A log e   = −100
 6.81 
A = 77.05
From (1)
77.05 × log e 1.86 + B =
0
B = −47.8
\p =e( t + 47.8) / 77.05
when p = 2.5, t become
( t + 47.8) / 77.05
2.5 e= t 22.80 C
12. A new scale N of temperature is divided in such a way that the freezing point of ice is
1000N and the boiling point is 4000N. What is the temperature reading on this new scale
when the temperature is 1500C. At what temperature, celsius and new temperature
scale readings would be the same.
Sol : Consider a temperature - thermometric property relation as t = ax+b
Relation for new temperature scale
For new temperature scale
at ice point=
t t=
N 1000 N, then =
x xi
\100
= ax i + b − − − − − (1)
at boiling point,=
t t=
N 4000 N, then =
x xs
\ 400
= ax s + b − − − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) & ( 2 ) , we get
300 300
a
= &=
b 100 − xi
xs − xi x5 − xi
300 300
\tN
= x + 100 − xi
xs − xi xs − xi
x − xi
t= 100 + 300 × −−−−− 3
 Solving (1) & ( 2 ) , we get
300 300
a
1.22=
&=
b 100 − xi
x s − x
i x5 − xi Basic Thermodynamics

300 300
\tN
= x + 100 − xi
xs − xi xs − xi
x − xi
t=
N 100 + 300 × − − − − − ( 3)
xs − xi
Relation for celsius scale
Taking ice point and steam point temperature as 0oC & 100oC and applying the above
procedure we get
x − xi
t c 100 ×
= − − − − − ( 4)
xs − xi
Re lation between new scale and celsius scale
x − xi t
From eqn ( 4 ) = c
x s − x i 100
Substituting above value in eqn ( 3) , we get
tc
t N = 100 + 300 ×
100
or =
t N 100 + 3t c
when t c = 1500 C, the temperature on new scale
t N= 100 + 3 ×150
= 100 + 450
t N = 5500 N
Now,=
t N 100 + 3t c
when tN= tC , we get tC = 100 + 3tC or tC = –50oC.
i.e., at –50o­C, both the scales become equal.
13. In 1709 Sir Isac Newton proposed a linear temperature scale, where in the ice point
and normal human body temperatures were assumed as the two fixed points with
temperature of 00 and 120 respectively. If the temperature of the human body on
celsius scale is 360C, obtain the relation between Newton's scale and celsius scale. If
the temperature of the normal human body is 980F in the Fahrenheit scale, obtain the
relation between Newton scale and Fahrenheit scale.
Data : Assume a linear temperature thermometric property relation as
t=ax+b
Relation for Newtons scale
at ice point= t t= N 00 N & =
x xi
0 ax i + b
\= − − − − − (1)
at human body temprature at=
t t=
N 120 N & =
x xb
\12
= ax b + b − − − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) & ( 2 )
12 −12 x i
=a = , b
x b − xi x − xi
 at human body temprature at=
t t=
N 120 N & =
x xb
\12
= ax b + b − − − − − ( 2)
Fundamental
Solving (1C) oncepts
& ( 2 ) & Definitions 1.23

12 −12 x i
=a = , b
x b − xi x − xi
\ Newton temprature scale
12 12x i
=tN .x −
x b − xi x b − xi
12 ( x − x i )
tN − − − − − ( 3)
x b − xi
Relation for celsius scale
 x − xi 
We know that t c 100 
=  − − − − − ( 4)
 xs − xi 
at t c = 360 C x become x b
 x − xi 
\ 36 =
100  b 
 xs − xi 
x b − x i 36
or =
x s − x i 100
Equation ( 4 ) can be written as
x − xi x b − xi
=t c 100 ×
x b − xi xs − xi
From equation ( 3)
x − xi t
= N
x b − x i 12
t N 36
\ t c = 100 × ×
12 100
tc = 3 t N
Relation between Newton and Fahrenheit scales :
We know that
 x − xi 
t=
f 32 + 180  
 xs − xi 
x − x i t F − 32
=or − − − − − ( 5)
xs − xi 180
0
when
= t F 98
= F, x x b
x b − x i 98 − 32
\ equation ( 5 ) becomes, =
xs − xi 180
x b − xi 11
− − − − − ( 6)
xs − xi 30
 x − xi 
Now we have t N = 12  
x −x
 x b − x i 98 − 32
\ equation ( 5 ) becomes, =
xs − xi 180
x b − xi 11
1.24 − − − − − ( 6) Basic Thermodynamics
xs − xi 30
 x − xi 
Now we have t N = 12  
 x b − xi 
x − xi xs − xi
tN =12 × ×
xs − xi x b − xi
Substituting equation ( 5 ) & ( 6 )
( t f − 32 ) × 30 = 2
t N =12 × ( t f − 32 )
180 11 11
14. A thermometric property x is equal to 7.5cm and 52.5 cm, when the thermometer is in
thermal equilibrium with ice point and steam point respectively. The temperature varies
linearly with x. Now assume that a temperature t on a certain temperature scale is defined
by t = a+bx2 where t=320 and 2120 at the ice point and steam point respectively. Find the
temperature t on this scale when the temperature is 1000 C on the Fahrenheit scale.
Sol : Assume a linear relation of
tF = ax + b for Faheren temperature scale.
at ice point t = 320 F , x=xice =7.5 cm
32=a x 7.5 + b
at steam point t = 2120 F, x=xs = 52.5 cm
\ 212 =× a 52.5 +b
Solving above equations, we get
180 xi
a
= , b 32 − 180
=
xs − xi xs − xi
180 180 × 7.5
a
= , =
b 32 −
52.5 − 7.5 52.5 − 7.5
Substituting a & bin the t F equation
180 180 × 0.75
=tF x + 32 −
52.5 − 7.5 52.5 − 7.5
 x − 7.5 
or t=
F 32 + 180  
 52.5 − 7.5 
t F= 2 + 4x − − − − − (1)
when t F = 1000 F then x becomes
100 = 2 + 4 × x
\x =24.5cm
Now consider the relation for new temperature scale ie t= a + bx 2
0
at ice =
point t 32
= & x 7.5 cm
\ 32 =a + 7.52 × b
0
at steam point
= t 212
= , x 52.5 cm
\ 212 =+a 52.52 × b
Solving above two equations
32= a + 7.52 b
 0
at ice =
point t 32
= & x 7.5 cm
\ 32 =a + 7.52 × b
Fundamental Concepts & 0Definitions 1.25
at steam point
= t 212
= , x 52.5 cm
\ 212 =+a 52.52 × b
Solving above two equations
32= a + 7.52 b
212= a + 52.52 b
=a 28.25,
= b 0.067
\ t N= 28.25 + 0.067x 2
Temperature on new scale when t f = 1000 is
t N = 28.25 + 0.067 × 24.52
t N = 68.27 0

15. The resistance of a platinum wire is found to be 11Ω at ice point and 15.247Ω at
steam point and 28.887Ω at sulphur point. Find the constants A,B in the equation R =
R0[1+At+Bt2] and plot R against t in the range of 0 to 6000C
Ans : At ice point t = 00C , R = 11Ω
\11= R 0 [1 + 0 + 0]
\ R 0 =11W
at steam point
= t 1000=
C, R 15.247W
\15.247 = 11 1 + A × 100 + B × 1002  − − − − − (1)
at sulphur point
= t 4450=
C, R 28.887W
= 11 1 + 445 × A + B × 4452 
\ 28.887 − − − − − ( 2)
Solving equation (1) & ( 2 ) , we get
3.92 × 10−3 , B =
A= −5.9 × 10−7
\ R= 11[1 + 3.92 × 10−3 t − 5.9 × 10−7 t 2 ]
Resistance at temperature range of 0-6000C
Assume an increment of 600C
At t = 00C, 600C, 1200C, 1800C............600oC, the R is calculated and tabulated as shown in
table. A graph of R v/s t is plotted as shown in figure.
toC 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600
RW 11 13.56 16.08 18.55 20.97 23.35 25.68 27.97 30.2 32.39 34.54
 1.26 Basic Thermodynamics

35

30

25

20
R,Ω

15

10

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 to C

16. When the reference junction of thermocouple is kept at ice point and the test junction
is at steam point, the celsius temperature t and emf of the thermocouple is given by the
relation e=at+bt2 where a = 0.20 mv/degree, b = -5.0 x 10-4 mv/deg2 . Calculate emf when
t = -100, 200, 400 and 5000C and draw the graph of e against t in this range.
Data : e = at + bt2, a = 0.20 mV/degree, b = –5.0 × 10–4 mV/ deg2
we have e = 0.20 t – 5.0 × 10–4 t2
at t = –100oC, e = 0.20 × (–100) – 5.0 × 10–4 (–100)2 = –25mV
at t = 200oC, e = 0.2 × 200 – 5.0 × 10–4 (200)2 = 20mV
at t = 400oC, e = 0.2 × 400 – 5.0 × 10–4 (400)2 = 0mV
at t = 500oC, e = 0.2 × 500 – 5.0 × 10–4 (500)2 = –25mV

20
e, mv

15

10

100 50 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
–5
t oC
– 10

– 15

– 20

– 25
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.27

17. Two thermometers, one centigrade and other Fahrenheit, are immersed in a fluid.
After the thermometers reach equilibrium with the fluid, it is noted that both the
thermometers indicate the same numerical value, find the identical numerical value
shown by the thermometers. What would be the corresponding temperature of the fluid
expressed in Kelvin and degrees Rankine?
Data : We have
5 9
= tC ( t f − 32 ) or t=
f 32 + t c
9 5
At equilibrium, t C = t f
5
\ t C= ( t C − 32 )
9
−40o C =
tC = tf
Temperature on Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales
tk =
t C + 273 =
−40 + 273 =233K
tR =
t f + 460 = 420o R
−40 + 460 =
18. Consider a particular Celsius scale assigned the value of 0oC1 to the steam point and
100o C1 to the ice point.
(a) Using an ideal gas as the thermometric medium, set up a relationship between
degree celsius and the pressure for a constant volume thermometer. Proceed to derive
the correlation between (a) oC and oC1 . At what temperature are the oC and oC1 scales
numerically equal.
(b) What is the numerical value of the absolute zero for the particular scale? What is
200K in oC1?
Data : a. Consider a temperature pressure relation as tC1 = ap + b....(1)
o 1
at ice
= point t 100
= C , p pi
= api + b.... ( 2 )
100
o 1
at steam point
=t 0= C p ps
0 aps + b.... ( 3)
=
Solving ( 2 ) & ( 3)
100
= a pi + b
0 aps + b
=
( −) ( −) ( −)
= a ( pi − ps )
100
100
a=
pi − ps
100
Now100
= pi + b
pi − ps
100
b 100 −
= pi
pi − ps
Substituting a & bin equation (1)
 100
a=
pi − ps
100
1.28
=
Now100 pi + b Basic Thermodynamics
pi − ps
100
b 100 −
= pi
pi − ps
Substituting a & bin equation (1)
100 100
t1c
= p + 100 − pi
pi − ps pi − ps
100
100 −
= ( pi − p )
pi − ps
 p − pi 
t1c 100 − 100 
= 
 ps − pi 
p − pi 100 − t1c
or = .... ( 4 )
ps − pi 100
For normal temperaturescale
Let t =
C ap + b.... ( 5 )
o
at ice point
= t C 0= C, p pi
o
at steam point
= t C 100
= C, p ps
\ Substituing above conditionsin equation ( 5 ) we get
0 api + b
= ... ( 6 )
100
= a ps + b ... ( 7 )
Solving ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) we get
−100 100
=a = and b pi
pi − ps pi − ps
Substituting a and bin equation ( 6 )
We get
100
=tC ( p − pi )
ps − pi
p − pi t
or = C ... ( 8 )
ps − pi 100
Comparing ( 4 ) & ( 8 )
100 − t1C t
= C
100 100
t C 100 − t1C ... ( 9 )
=
1
Let t=
C t=
C t
From ( 8 )
=t 100 − t
2t = 100
t = 50o
 =
100 100
t C 100 − t1C ... ( 9 )
=
Fundamental
1
Let t= Concepts
t= t & Definitions 1.29
C C

From ( 8 )
=t 100 − tt
2t = 100
t = 50o
ie.., t1=
C t=
C 50o
At 50o , both the scales will have same numerical value
(b) At absolute zero, tC = –273oC
From (5)
−273 = 100 − t1C
t1C = 373o
at 200k
K, t C = − 73o C
200 − 273 =
\ t1C= 100 − t C= 100 − ( −73=
) 173o
19. It is proposed to devise a new scale with value 5 assigned to ice point and 20 to the steam
point. The pressure of an ideal gas at constant volume is to be used as thermometric
medium.
a. Set up a linear relationship between the pressure and the temperature in ON on the
new scale. What is the Kelvin absolute zero in this scale?
b. Derive relationship between ON and oK
c. If the pressure at the steam point was 12 atm, what is the pressure at 0o N and what is
the temperature in oN when the pressure is 2 atm.
Ans. a. Assume tN = ap + b ....(1)
o
at ice point
=t 5= N, p pi
o
at steam=
point t 20
= N, p ps
Substituting above conditionsin equation (1)
5 a pi + b
=
20 a ps + b
=
Solving, we get
15 15pi
a= , b= 5 −
ps − pi ps − pi
Substituting a and bin equation (1)
15 15pi
=tN p+5−
ps − pi ps − pi
 p − pi 
= 5 + 15  
 ps − pi 
p − pi t N − 5
or = ... ( 2 )
ps − pi 15
Similarly for celsiusscale we get
100
=tC ( p − pi )  Assign 0 Cand100 Casice and steam points 
o o

p −p
 p − pi
= 5 + 15  
 ps − pi 
p − pi t N − 5
or
1.30 =
... ( 2 ) Basic Thermodynamics
ps − pi 15
Similarly for celsiusscale we get
100
=tC ( p − pi )  Assign 0o Cand100o Casice and steam points 
ps − pi
p − pi t
or = c ... ( 3)
ps − pi 100
Equating ( 2 ) and ( 3)
t N − 5 tC
=
15 100
tC t N − 5
= ... ( 4 )
20 3
at absolute zero t C = −273o C
−273 t N − 5
=
20 3
t N = 35.95o N
( b ) In Kelvin scale, we have
t=
k t C + 273
or t C= t k − 273
\ Equation ( 4 ) become
t k − 273 t N − 5
= ⇒ 20tN – 100 = 3tk – 819 ⇒ 3tk = 20 tN – 100 + 819
20 3
or t k 273 ( 0.878 + 0.0244t
= 0.244 t NN) ....( 5 )
( c ) For a constant volume thermometer
p α tk
or p = f t k ...( 6 )
Where f is the proportionality constant
at steam
= point t k 373K
= and p 12atm
p 12
\f = =
t k 373
\ Equation ( 6 ) become
12
p=
tk
373
12
or p = × 273 ( 0.878 + 0.244 t N )
373
=p 8.78 ( 0.878 + 0.0244 t N ) ....( 7 )
When t N = 0o N, p become
p 8.78 ( 0.878 + 0.0244 × 0 )
=
= 7.71atm
 tk 373
\ Equation ( 6 ) become
12
p= t kConcepts & Definitions
Fundamental 1.31
373
12
or p = × 273 ( 0.878 +0.0244
0.244 t tNN)
373
=p 8.78 ( 0.878 + 0.0244 t N ) ....( 7 )
When t N = 0o N, p become
p 8.78 ( 0.878 + 0.0244 × 0 )
=
= 7.71atm
When p = 2atm, t N become
=2 8.78 ( 0.878 + 0.0244t N )
t N = −26.66o N
20. Estimate the % variation in temperature reading from a thermocouple having its test
junction in gas and other reference junction at ice point. The temperature of gas using
gas thermometer is found to be 50oC. Thermocouple is calibrated with emf varying
linearly between ice point and steam point, When thermocouple test junction is kept in
gas at toC and reference junction at ice point, the emf produced in milli volts is e = 0.18t
- 5.2 x 10-4 t2 . VTU Jan 2017(CBCS)
Data : Let thermocouple temperature and emf relation as ttc = a + be
Gas thermometer and emf relation as e = 0.2t - 5 x 10-4 t2
at ice point t = 0o C
e = 0.2 x 0 - 5 x 10-4 x 0
= 0 mV
at steam point t =100o C
\ e= 0.2 × 100 − 5 × 10−4 × 1002 = 15mV
at t = 70o C we get
e= 0.2 × 50 − 5 × 10−4 × 502 = 8.75mV
Now t tC= a + be .... (1)
at ice point t=
tc 0,e
= 0
\0 = a + b × 0
a =0
o
at steam point
= t tc 100
= C,e 15mV
100 = 0 + b × 15
100
b=
15
Equation (1) become
100 100
t tc= 0 + e= e ... ( 2 )
15 15
When the gas thermometer reads50o C, the thermocouple will read
100
t tc
= × 8.75
15
= 58.33o C
 100 = 0 + b × 15
100
b=
15
1.32 Basic Thermodynamics
Equation (1) become
100 100
t tc= 0 + e= e ... ( 2 )
15 15
When the gas thermometer reads50o C, the thermocouple will read
100
t tc
= × 8.75
15
= 58.33o C
58.33 − 50
%Variation
= ×= 100 16.66%
50
21. The temperature ‘t’ on a linear Celsius scale is related to thermometric property ‘X’
by the relation, t = [Link] + B, where A and B are constants. The value of X was found
to be 1.47 and 5.2 at the ice point and steam point which are assigned the numbers 0
and 100 respectively on Celsius scale. Determine the temperature ‘t’ corresponding to a
reading of X equal to 2.65.  VTU June/July 2017(CBCS)
Ans. t = A loge x + B -----(1)
at ice point t = 0oC & x = 1.47
\ 0 = A loge 1.47 + B -----(2)
at steam point t = 100oC & x = 5.2
\100 = A loge 5.2 + B ------(3)
Solving above two equations
= 0 A log e 1.47 + B
( − )100
= (−) Alog e 5.2 + B
(−)

− 100 A ( log e 1.47 − log e 5.2 )

=
1.47
= A log e
5.2
−100
=A = 79.15
1.47
log e
5.2
Now 0 A log e 1.47 + B
=
0=
79.15 × log e 1.47 + B
B = −30.49
Equation (1) become
t =79.15 × log e X − 30.49
at X = 2.65 we get
t = 79.15 × log e 2.65 − 30.49 = 46.64o C
 Fundamental Concepts & Definitions 1.33

22. On some temperature scale 0°C is equivalent to 100°B and 100°C is equivalent to 300°B.
Determine the temperature in °C corresponding to 200°B. Convert the temperature
obtained in °C to Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale.  VTU June/July 2018(CBCS)
Ans. Consider a temperature - pressure relation for a : B scale as tB = a + bp...(1)
At ice point tB = 100o B,, p = pi
100= a + b pi ... ( 2 )
o
At steam =
point t B 300
= B, p ps
300= a + bPs ... ( 3)
Solving ( 2 ) & ( 3)
100= a + bPi
300= a + bps
( −) ( −) ( −)
−200 = b ( pi − ps )
−200
b=
pi − ps
Substituting 'b 'expression in equation ( 2 )
 −200 
100= a +  
 pi − ps 
 pi 
a 100 + 200 
= 
 pi − ps 
Substituting 'a '&' b 'in equation (1)
 pi  200
tB =100 + 200  − ×p
 pi − ps  pi − ps
 p −p 
t B 100 + 200  i
= 
 pi − ps 
lB − 100 pi − p
= .... ( 4 )
200 pi − ps
Consider a temperature pressure relation for a celsiusscale as t C= a + bp ... ( 5 )
o
at ice point
= t e 0=
C, p pi
\ 0 = a + bpi ... ( 6 )
o
at steam=
point t e 100
= C, p ps
a bps ... ( 7 )
\100 =+
Solving ( 6 ) & ( 7 ) we get
−100 +100
=b = & a pi
pi − ps pi − ps
\ equation ( 5 ) become
 o
at steam=
point t e 100
= C, p ps
\100 =+ a bps ... ( 7 )
( 6 ) &
1.34Solving
( 7 ) we get Basic Thermodynamics

−100 +100
=b = & a pi
pi − ps pi − ps
\ equation ( 5 ) become
100 100
te = pi − p
pi − ps pi − ps
 p −p 
t c = 100  i 
 pi − ps 
pi − p t
= c ... ( 8 )
pi − ps 100
Equating ( 4 ) & ( 5 )
t B − 100 t c
=
200 100
t − 100
tc = B
2
Temperaturein o Ccorresponding to 200o B
200 − 100 100
tc
= = = 50o C
2 2
Temperature in kelvin and Fahrein heit
tk =t c + 273 =50 + 273 =323K
t f = 32 + 1.8t c = 32 + 1.8 × 50 = 122o F
 Chapter - 2
Work and Heat

2.0 Introduction
A Closed system and its surroundings can interact in two ways
a. by work transfer. b. by heat transfer.
These may be called energy interactions and these bring about changes in the properties of
the system. Thermodynamics mainly studies these energy interactions and associated property
changes of the system.
Work : In mechanics work is defined as the product of a force and distance moved by the object
in the direction of the force.
i.e., W = F x S where S = distance moved or displacement
It is also called Mechanical work.
2.1 Thermodynamics definition of work
In thermodynamics, work transfer is considered as occurring between the system and
surroundings.
Work is said to be done by a system if the sole effect on things external to the system could be
reduced to raising of a weight.
It can be explained as follows :

fan Pulley
Motor Motor

+ - W + -
Surrounding Weight
Battery Battery

Surrounding
System boundary
System boundary
Fig (i) Work done according to mechanics Fig (ii) Work done according to the thermodynamics
In the fig (i) , the motor drives a fan. The system is doing work upon the surroundings. When
the fan is replaced by a pulley and weight as in fig(ii), the weight may be raised with the pulley
driven by the motor. The sole effect on thing external to the system is thus raising of a weight.
Work is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary while a change of state is tak-
ing place with in a system.
Sign Convention for work
1. When work is done by the system on the surroundings, for example, expansion of fluid pushing
a piston outward, then work is said to be positive.
 2.2 Basic Thermodynamics

System W is +ve
W
Surrounding
2. If work is done on the system by the surroundings, for example, when a force is applied to a
piston to compress fluid, the work is said to be negative.

System W W is -ve

Surrounding
The SI unit of work done is Nm or Joule or kJ
1 Joule = 1 Nm
2.2 Different forms of work
Different forms of work are
1. pdV work or displacement work.
2. Electrical work
3. Shaft work
4. Stirring work.
5. Flow work
6. Work done in stretching a wire.
7. Work done in changing the area of a surface film.
8. Magnetization of a paramagnetic solid.
2.2.1 pdV Work or Displacement work
p
1 Quasi - Static Process
p1

p1, V1 p2, V2
p2 2

Work transfer
1 2
V
V1 dV V2
Let the gas in the cylinder be a system
Let p1 = Initial pressure of the system
V1 = Initial volume of the system
The system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Let the piston move outwords to a new final position.
Let p2 = Pressure of the system in final position.
V2 = Volume of system in final position.
 Work and Heat 2.3

Let p and V are pressure and volume at any intermediate point in the travel of the piston.
When the piston moves an infinitesimal distance dl, then the force acting on the piston.
F = p x A A = area of the piston.
The infinitesimal work done by the gas on the piston
dW = F x dl = pAdl = pdV dV = A x dl = infinitesimal displacement volume.
The work done by the gas when piston moves from initial position to final position.
2 V2
∫
1
dW = ∫ p dV
V1
V2
or W1− 2 = ∫ p dV
V1

It is called displacement work or pdV work.

The magnitude of the work done is given by the area under the path 1 - 2 as shown in p - V dia-
gram. Since p is at all times a thermodynamic coordinate, all the states passed through by the
system as the volume changes from V1 to V2 must be equilibrium states and path 1 - 2 must be
Quasi - static. The piston moves infinitely slowly so that every state passed through is an equilib-
rium state.
Note :
The integration of pdV can be performed only on a quasi - static path or when p is expressed in
2
terms of V, then the integral pdV can be evaluated.
∫
1

2.2.2 Displacement work or pdV work for various thermodynamic (Quasi static)
processes.
1. (i) Constant Volume (Isochoric) process :
Consider a gas under goes expansion at constant volume. Work done by the gas
p
p1 1 =
2
[ V1 V2 ]
W1.2 ∫=
pdV
1
0=

p2 2

V
(ii) Constant pressure (Isobaric) Process
Consider a gas is expanded at constant pressure from volume V1 to V2. Work done
p
V2
W1−2 = ∫ p dV
V1
1 2
W
= 1−2 p ( V2 − V1 ) (\ p1 = p2 = p)
W1-2

V
V1 V2
 2.4 Basic Thermodynamics

(iii) Process in which pV = C(Isothermal Process)

We know that
2
W1− 2 = ∫ p dV p
1

But pV = C p1 1
i.e., =
pV p=
1V1 p 2=
V2 C pV = C
p1V1 p2 2
or p =
V W1-2
pV 
2
\ W1− 2 =∫1  1V 1  dV V
V1 V2
2 dV V
=p1V1 × ∫ =p1V1log e 2
1 V V1
p1  V2 p1 
or W1− 2 p1V1log e =
=  p1V1 p=
2 V2 or 
p2  V1 p 2 

(iv) Process in which pVγ = C (Reversible Adiabatic or isentropic process)

Displacement work
2 p
W1− 2 = ∫ p dV
1
p1 1
But =pV γ p= 1V1
γ
p 2=V2 γ C pVγ = C
pV γ
p2
or p = 1 γ1 2
V W1-2
2p V
γ
2 dV
\= W1− 2 ∫ 1 1
= .dV p1V1 ∫ γγ
1 Vγ 1 V V
2 V1 V2
γ V
− γ+1
 p1V1 γ
= p1V= 1    V2 − γ+1 − V1− γ+1 
 −γ + 1 1 1 − γ
 p V γ V − γ+1 − p1V1γ V1− γ+1 
W1− 2 =  1 1 2 
 1− γ 
But p1V1 = p 2 V2
γ γ

p 2 V2 γ .V2 − γ+1 − p1V1γ V1− γ+1

\ W1− 2 =
1− γ
p V − p1V1
W1− 2 = 2 2
1− γ
p1V1 − p 2 V2
W1− 2 =
γ −1
 Work and Heat 2.5

(v) Process in which pVn = C (Polytropic process)

Displacement work p
2
W1− 2 = ∫ p dV
1 p1 1
n
but pV = C pV n = C
pV n p=
or = 1V1
n
V2 n C
p 2= p2 2
n
pV
p= 1 1
n
V
2 2 V
p1V1n n V
− n +1
 V1 V2
\W
=1− 2 ∫1 V n =dV p V
1 1 
 − n + 1 1


p1V1n V2− n +1 − p1V1n V2− n +1

=
−n + 1
n n
But p1V1 = p 2 V2
p 2 V2 n V2− n +1 − p1V1n V1− n +1
\ W1− 2 =
−n + 1
p V − p 2 V2
W1− 2 = 1 1
n −1

2. Electrical Work :
System Boundary
I I

V
When current flows through a resistor, there is work transfer into the system. This is because the
current can drive a motor inturn motor can drive a pulley and the pulley can raise a weight. Rate
of work transfer W = VI.
3. Shaft Work
System boundary
Motor
Shaft
When a shaft is considered as the system and is rotated by a motor, there is a work transfer into
the system. This is because the shaft can rotate a pulley which can raise a weight.
If T is the torque applied to the shaft and dθ is the angular displacement of the shaft, then the shaft
work
2
W
= ∫ 1
T dθ
The rate of work transfer
2 dθ
W= ∫ T = Tω
1 dt
 2.6 Basic Thermodynamics

4. Paddle Wheel Work or Stirring Work :

When the weight is lowered, the paddle wheel turns and hence there is work transfer into the fluid
system which gets stirred. Paddle
Since volume of system remains constant. Wheel
∫ p dV = 0 System
W ΔZ
But work transfered to the system
z2 θ2
− ∫ m g dz =
W= − ∫ T dθ W
z1 θ1

− ve sign incicates that work is supplied to the system

5. Flow Work :
It is the amount of work required to move a fluid into or out of the system.
dW
= flow Force × distance Control
= pA dx surface
= pdV fluid
Control
dx = distance moved by the imaginary piston Flow P
Volume
dWflow pdV dx
Flow work / unit= mass =
dm dm
6. Work done in stretching a wire
Let us consider a wire as the system. If the length of the wire in which there is a tension τ is changed
from L to L+dL, the infinitesimal amount of work done in stretching the wire is equal to
dW = - τ dL - ve sign indicate that work is supplied to expand the wire
τ = Tension force of the wire.
For a finite change of length τ = σA
2 2
∫1
dW= ∫ 1
−τdL dL
2
W1− 2 =−∫ τ dL
1

7. Work done in changing the area of a surface film

Consider a liquid film suspended on a wire frame. To stretch this film it take some force which
mainly depends on surface tension of that film. The work associated with the stretching of a film
is called as surface tension work.
It is given by
dW = −σdA
2
or W1−2 =− ∫ σ dA
1

Where σ Surface
= = tension force / unit length
 Work and Heat 2.7

8. Magnetization of a paramagnetic solid

A change in magnetization of a substance in presence of a magnetic field is done with some
amount of work transfer to that system. It is given by
dW = −C0 H dM
2
or W1.2 = −C0 ∫ H dM
1

Where
H = Magnetic field intensity
M = Magnetization
C0 = Proportionality constant

9. Spring Work

unstretched Stretched

x x

F = Kx

When a force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes. If F is the spring force and
dx is the differential amount of change in length of the spring, then the spring work
dWspring =F dx
but for springs, displacement x is linearly proportional to the force applied.
i.e. F = Kx
Therefore, dW=Kxdx
For a finite amount of change in length of the spring
2 x2 K ( x 22 − x12 )
∫1 dW
= ∫ Kxdx ⇒ W1=
x1 −2
2
2.3 Work is a path function :

1
b
p
a 2

V
Consider a closed system undergoing a change of state from 1 to 2.
Let us consider two processes a and b connecting the end states 1 and 2.
Work transfer during process 1 - a - 2
 2.8 Basic Thermodynamics

area below the curve 1 − a − 2

2
= a ∫ pdv
1

Work transfer during the process 1 - b - 2

area below the curve 1 − b − 2
2
= b ∫ pdV
1

Since area below the curve 1-a-2 is not equal to the area below the curve 1-b-2, it follows that
work transfer depends on the path the system passes through before arriving at the final state.
Therefore work is a path function.
2.4 Heat
Heat is defined as the form of energy, that is transferred across a boundary by virtue of a tempera-
ture difference.
Heat is a transient quantity which only appears at the boundary while a change is taking place
with in the system.
Heat is some thing which appears at the boundary when a system changes its state due to differ-
ence in temperature between the system and surroundings.
Heat like work, is not a conserved quantity and is not a property of the system. Its differential is
therefore not exact. For this reason , if Q denotes heat, its differential will be written as δQ.
The total heat transferred during a process in which a system passes from state 1 to state 2 is written as
2
Q= ∫ 1
δQ = 1 Q 2 or Q1− 2
–Q
The SI unit of heat is kJ or kNm.
Sign convention for heat +Q
Heat received by the system = +Q
Heat rejected by the system = - Q
A process in which no heat crosses the boundary of the system is called an adiabatic process.
2.5 Heat is a path function
T

1
Quasi - static

2
W1-2 Area = Heat Transfer

X
Heat is a path function ie the amount of heat transferred when a system changes from state 1 to
state 2, depends on the intermediate states through which the system passes.
Whenever there is a temperature difference there will be heat flow. The temperature difference is
the cause and heat transfer is the effect. Like displacement work, heat transfer can also be written
as the integral of the product of the intensive property T and the differential change of an exten-
sive property , say x
 Work and Heat 2.9

2 2
Q1− 2 = ∫
1
δQ = ∫
1
T dx
It is valid for a Quasi - static process only and the heat transfer involved is represented by the
area under the path 1-2 in T–X diagram. Therefore, heat transfer is a path function ie the amount
of heat transferred when a system changes from state 1 to state 2 depends on the path the system
follows.
2.6 Comparison of Heat and Work
Similarities
1. Both are path functions and inexact differentials.
2. Both are boundary phenomena ie both are recognized at the boundaries of the system.
3. Both are associated with a process, not a state. Unlike properties, work or heat has no meaning
at a state.
4. System possess energy but not work or heat.
Dissimilarities
1. In heat transfer, temperature difference is required.
2. In a stable system, there cannot be work transfer, however there is no restriction for the transfer
of heat.
3. For work, the sole effect external to the system could be reduced to raise of a weight. But in the
case of heat transfer other effects are also observed.
4. Heat is a low grade energy where as work is a high grade energy.
 2.10 Basic Thermodynamics

PROBLEMS ON WORK AND HEAT

1.
Gas from cylinder of compressed helium is used to inflate an inelastic flexible ballon,
originally completely flat to a volume 0.6m3 . If the Barometer reads 760 mm of Hg,
what is the amount of work done upon the atmosphere by the ballon. Sketch the system
before and after the process.
Data : V1 = 0, V2 = 0.6 m3
= p 760 mm of= Hg 1.013=bar 1.013 × 100 kPa
W =? Final Volume of
Ballon
The displacement work
= W cylinder work + Ballon work Ballon
2 2 initially
= ∫1 cyl
pdV + ∫
1 Ballon
pdV flat
Helium
0 p ( V2 − V1 ) =
=+ p ( V2 − V1 ) [ For cylinder dV =0] cylinder
1.013 × 100 ( 0.6 − 0 )
=
W = 60.795 kJ
2. Determine the work done by the air which enters into an evacuated vessel from
atmosphere when the valve is opened. The atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar and 1.5m3
of air at atmospheric condition enters into the vessel.
Data : p = 1.013 x 100 kPa
3
= V1 1.5m
= V2 0
Initial vol. of
W =? Ballon=1.5m3=V1
The displacement work Final Volume
2 V2 = 0
=W ∫Cyl
pdV + ∫
1Ballon
pdV

0 p ( V2 − V1 ) =
=+ p ( V2 − V1 ) =
1.013 × 100 ( 0 − 1.5 ) Evacuated
cylinder
W = −151.96kJ

3. A piston and cylinder machine containing a fixed mass has a stirring device as shown in
fig. The piston is frictionless and it is held against the fluid due to atmospheric pressure
of 101.3kPa. The stirring device is turned 9500 revolution with an average torque of
1.25 Nm. Meanwhile the piston of 0.65m diameter moves out 0.6m. Find the network
transfer for the system.
Data
= : p 101.3 = kPa, N 9500 revolutions, = T 1.25 Nm,
= D 0.65m
= W ?
L 2 − L1 =
0.6m
Workdone by the stirring device upon the system
W1 = 2πNT = 2π × 9500 × 1.25 = 74.62 × 103 Nm = 74.62 kJ
W1 is negative as it is transferring int o the system
Work done by the system
 Work and Heat 2.11

L2 Piston
Boundary
L1
Stirrer
=p 101.3 =kPa, N 9500 revolutions,
= T 1.25 Nm,
= WD1 0.65m
= W ?
L 2 − L1 =
0.6m W 2
Workdone by the stirring device upon the system
W1 = 2πNT = 2π × 9500 × 1.250.6m
= 74.62 NmCylinder
= 74.62 kJ
W1 is negative as it is transferring int o the system
Work done by the system
W2 = p ( V2 − V1=
) p ( AL2 − AL1=) pA ( L2 − L1 )
π
= 101.3 × × 0.62 × 0.65 = 20.167 kJ
4
W2 ia + ve as it is co min g out from the system
The net work transfer for the system
W =+W1 W2 = −74.622 + 20.167
W = −54.46 kJ
− ve sign indicates that work is done the on system.
4. A diesel engine piston which has an area of 45cm2 moves 5cm during part of suction
stroke, 300cm3 of free air is drawn in from the atmosphere. The pressure in cylinder
during suction stroke is 0.9 × 105 N/m2 and the atmosphere pressure is 1.013×105 N/
m2. The difference between the suction and atmosphric pressure is accounted for flow
resistance in the suction pipe and inlet valve. Find the network done during the process.
Data :
300 m3 of air

Initial Final
A = 45 cm = 45 × 10 m , V1 = 0, V2 = 300 cm =300 × 10-6 m3
2 -4 2 3

ps = 0.9 × 105 N/m2, patm = 1.013 × 105 N/m2

L = 0.05 m
Network done = work done by free air + work done on piston
= ps × A × L - patm (V2 - V1)
= 0.9 × 105 × 45 × 10–4 × 0.05 - 1.03 × 105 × (300 × 10–6 – 0)
W = –10.14 J
 2.12 Basic Thermodynamics

5. Consider the system shown in fig. Initial conditions of the gas are V1 = 0.1 m3, p1 =
200kPa. The ambient pressure is 100kPa. The spring exerts a force which is proportional
to the displacement from its equilibrium position. The gas is heated until the volume is
doubled at which p2 = 600 kPa. Determine the work done by the gas. (VTU Aug . 2001)
Data :
p1 =200kPa, V1 =0.1m3 , p 2 =600kPa, V2 =2V1 =2 × 0.1 =0.2m3
=p atm 100kPa,
= W ?
Force balance at any position of the piston p1 = 200 kPa
pA p atm .A + Spring force
= V1 = 0.1 m3 F=kx

pA p atm . A + kx
= patm=100kpa
V
But displacement x =
A x
V
\ pA
= p atm A + k
A
kV
p p atm +
= − − − − − (1)
A2
Work done
2
W = ∫ [Link]
1

2 kV 
= ∫  p atm + 2  dV
1
 A 
 kV 2  2 k
=  p atm .V + = p atm [ V2 − V1 ] +
2 
 V 2 − V12 
2  2
 2A 1 2A
k
=−( V2 V1 )  patm + 2 ( V2 + V1 )
 2A 
 kV2 kV1 
W =( V2 − V1 )  p atm + +
 2A 2 2A 2 
kV kV kV
From equation (1) 2 = p − p atm i.e 21 = p1 − p atm & 22 =
p 2 − p atm
A A A
 p − p atm p 2 − p atm 
\ W = ( V2 − V1 )  p atm + 1 + 
 2 2 
 2 p atm + p1 − p atm + p 2 − p atm 
= [ V2 − V1 ]  
 2 
 p + p2 
= [ V2 − V1 ]  1 
 2 
200 + 600 
=[0.2 − 0.1]  = 40 kJ
 2 
 Work and Heat 2.13

6. Classify the following as heat and work interaction. The system to be considered is
shown underlined.
a. A honey bee sucking nector from a flower
Ans. Work interaction.
b. Baking of bread in an oven
Ans. Heat interaction
c. A person drawing money from ATM cash counter
Ans. Work interaction
d. Rising of mercury in a thermometer placed in the mouth of a Patient
Ans. Heat interaction.
7. A home cooler has a fan of 170W rating and a water circulating pump of 50W rating. If
the cooler operates for 10hrs, find the energy consumed by the cooler.
Data : Total Power = 170 + 50 = 220W.
For 10 hrs operation
Total power consumed = 220 x 10 = 2200Wh = 2.2 kWh
8. A fluid in a horizontal cylinder fitted with a frictionless leak proof piston is continuously
agitated by means of a stirrer passing through the cylinder cover. The cylinder diameter
is 400 mm. During a stirring process of 10 min the piston moves slowly outwords to a
distance of 485 mm against the atmospheric pressure. The net work done by the fluid
during this process is 2000 Nm. Given that the speed of the electric motor driving the
stirrer is 840 rpm, estimate the torque required in driving the shaft and shaft output of
the motor.
Data : D = 400 mm = 0.4 m, L = 485 mm = 0.485 m, W = 2000 Nm
t = 10 min = 600 sec, N = 840 rpm, T = ?, P = ?
Net work done
= W Wpdv + Wstirring
Wpdv p atm ( V2 − V1 )
=

(
= p atm AL 2 − AL 1 )
= p atm A ( L 2 − L1 )
= p atm A.L
π
= p atm × D2 × L
4
π
= 1.013 × 105 × × 0.42 × 0.485 = 6175.44 J
4
Wstirring =
W − Wpdv = 2000 − 6175.44 =
−4175.44 Nm
−4175.44
Stirring work / =
unit time = 6.96 W
600
2πNT
Stirring work = shaft output work =
60
2π × 840 × T
6.96 =
60
T = 0.079 Nm
 2.14 Basic Thermodynamics

9. The properties of a closed system change following the relation between pressure and
volume as pV = 3, where p is in bar, V is in m3 . Calculate the work done when the
pressure increases from 1.5 bar to 7.5 bar.
Data : p1 = 1.5 bar, p2 = 7.5 bar, pV = 3, W = ?
We have pV = 3
i.e., p=
1V1 p=2 V2 3
3 3
V=
1 = = 2m3
p1 1.5
3 3
V=
2 = = 0.4m3
p 2 7.5
2 2 3 V 0.4
Now W 100
= = ∫1 [Link] 100
= ∫1 V dV 300
= log e 2 300 log e
V1 2
(100is taken for converting bar into kPa )
W = −483 kJ
10. To a closed system, 150 kJ of work is supplied. If the initial volume is 0.6 m3 and pressure
of the system changes as p = 8 - 4V, where p is in bar, V is in m3, determine the final
volume and pressure of the system.
Data : W = -150 kJ, V1 = 0.6 m3, p = 8-4V, V2 = ?, p2 = ?
2
2 2  4V 2 
W= ∫ [Link] = 100 ∫ ( 8 − 4V ) .dv = 100 8V − 
1 1
 2 1
  V 2 − V12  
= 8 ( V2 − V1 ) − 4  2  100
  2  
150 100 8 ( V2 − 0.6 ) − 2 ( V2 2 − 0.62 ) 
−=
2V2 2 − 8V2 + 2.58 =0
8 ± 64 − 4 × 2 × 2.58
V2 =
2× 2
V2 = 0.35 m3
Final Pr essure p 2 = 8 − 4V2 = 8 − 4 × 0.35 = 6.58 bar
11. Derive the expression of work for the following non-flow process
C C
(i ) p = ( ii ) p = 2
V V
Data : ( i ) p = C
V
2 2 C 2
= W ∫= [Link] ∫ = dV C [ log
= V] C log e V2 / V1
1 1 V 1
But= pV C and p= 1V1 p=
2 V2 C
V2
\W =
p1V1 log e
V1
C
 V
2 C 2 2
=W ∫=
[Link] ∫ = dV C [ log
= V] C log e V2 / V1
1 V 1 1
Work and Heat 2.15
But=pV C and p=
1V1 p=
2 V2 C
V2
\W =
p1V1 log e
V1
C
( ii ) p =
V2
2 2 C 2
=W ∫=
[Link] ∫
1 1
=
V 2
dV C ∫ V −1dV
1

2 2 2
 V −2+1   V −1   1
= C =
 C  = C  − 
 −2 + 1 1  −1 1  V 1
1 1  C C
=C  −  = −
 V1 V2  V1 V2
C
From p = 2 we get
V
pV 2 = C i.e p=
1V1
2
p=
2 V2
2
C
p1V12 p 2 V2 2
\ W= −
V1 V2
W p1V1 − p 2 V2
=
12. A gas system has mass m, occupies a volume V at a pressure of p and temperature T.
a
These properties are related by the equation  p + 2  ( V − b ) =
mRT, where a, b & R
 V 
are constants . Obtain an expression for the displacement work done by this gas system
during a constant temperature process for 10 kg of gas expanding from 1m3 to 10 m3 at
a temperature of 293K. Assume a = 15.7 x 104 Nm4, b = 1.07 x 10-2 m3, R = 0.278 kJ/kg K
Data :
 a 
 p + 2  (V − b) =
mRT
 V 
 mRT a 
= p  − 2
V−b V 
Displacement work
2 mRT a  2
=W ∫=
[Link] ∫
1 
V−b V 
− 2  dV
1

V −b 1 1
=W mRT log e  2 +a − 
 V1 − b   V2 V1 
3  10 − 1.07 × 10−2  4  1 1
W= 10 × 0.278 × 10 × 293 log e  −2  15.7
+ ×10  − 
1.0 − 1.07 × 10  10 1 
3
= 1744.8 × 10 J =
1744.8 kJ
 2.16 Basic Thermodynamics

13. A spherical balloon of 1m diameter contains a gas at 1.5 bar. Due to heating the pressure
reaches to 4.5 bar. During this process the pressure is directly proportional to the
diameter cubed of the balloon. Determine the work done.
Data : D1 = 1m, p1 = 1.5 bar = 1.5 x 105 N/m2 , p2 = 4.5 bar = 4.5 x 105 N/m2, W = ?
p α D3
or p = CD3
when p = 150 kPa, D = 1m then
150 = C.13
C = 150 kPa / m3
p 2 = CD 2 2
450 = CD 23 ⇒ 450 = 150D32
D 2 = 1.4417 m
2
W = ∫ [Link]
2

2 2
= ∫
1
CD
= 3 3
dV CD= [ V ] 1 CD13 [ V2 − V1 ]
= CD3 V2 − CD3 V1
D 23 π D 3π
= CD31 − CD31 1
6 6
 D − D1 
6 6
= πC  2 
 6 
1.4417 6 − 16 
= π × 150  
 6 
W = 621.76 kJ
14. A spherical balloon of diameter 0.5 m is initially having an inside pressure of 100 kPa.
Due to heating the pressure inside the balloon increases to 400 kPa during which the
inside pressure varies inversely proportional to the square of the diameter of the balloon.
Determine the displacement work during this process. VTU July 2007
Data : D1 = 0.5m, p1 = 100kPa, p2 = 400kPa
1 C
pa 2 or p =
D D2
= when p 100 = kPa and D 0.5 m then
C
100 =
0.52
C =100 × 0.52 =25 kPa m 2
when p = 400 kPa, D becomes
C
p2 = 2
D2
25 25
400 = ⇒ D22 = = 0.0625 ⇒ D 2 = 0.25m
D22 400
2 2 C
=W [Link]
= .dV
 C =100 × 0.5 =25 kPa m
when p 400 kPa, D becomes

Work and Heat 2.17

25 25
400 = ⇒ D2 = = 0.0625 ⇒ D 2 = 0.25m
D 400
2 2
=W ∫=
1
[Link] ∫
1
.dV

C C C CV
2 [ ] 2 [ 2 ] 2 V2 − 2
= V = V − V1=
D D D D

=
C πD 23
. −
C πD13
Cπ
=
[ ] = 25 × π  0.25 
= −3.27 kJ
D2 2
6 2
D1 6 6  6 

15. A cylinder contains 1 kg of a certain fluid at initial pressure of 20 bar. The fluid is allowed
to expand reversibly behind a piston according to a law pV2 = C until the volume is
doubled. The fluid is then cooled reversibly at constant pressure until the piston regains
its original position, heat is then supplied reversibly with the piston firmly locked in
position until the pressure rises to the original value of 20 bar. Calculate the net work
done by the fluid for an initial volume of 0.5 m3.  (VTU Aug.2001, VTU Jan 16 CBCS)
Data :
3
= m 1kg,
= V2 2V = 1 , V1 0.5m
= , p1 20 bar,
= V3 = V1 , W ?
Pr ocess 1 − 2
pV 2 = C
C 1
p= 2
V p
2 C 2 pV2 = C
V=C
\ W1−=
2 ∫1 [Link]= ∫1 V 2 dV
3 p=C 2
 V −2 +1  1 1 
= C =  C − 
 −2 + 1   V1 V2 
V
C C p1V12 p 2 V2 2
W1− 2 = − = − = p1V1 − p 2 V2
V1 V2 V1 Va
2 2
We know that p=
1V1 p=
2 V2 C
p1V12 V12 20
i.e., p=
2 = 20 × = = 5 bar
= 500 kPa
( 2V1 ) 4
2 2
V2
\ W1− 2 = 20 × 100 × 0.5 − 500 × 2 × 0.5
W1− 2 = 500 kJ / kg
Pr ocess 2 − 3 ( p 2 =
p3 ) cons tan t Pr essure process
W2 −3 =p 2 ( V3 − V2 ) =500 ( 0.5 − 2 × 0.5 ) =−250 kJ
Pr ocess 3 − 1 constant volume process
W
=3−1 ∫ dV [
pdV But= = V3 V1 ]
\ W3−1 =
0
= W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3−1
Net work
= 500 − 250 + 0
 Pr ocess 3 − 1 constant volume process
W
= 3−1 dV [
∫ pdV But= = V3 V1 ]
2.18 Basic Thermodynamics
\ W3−1 = 0
Net work
= W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3−1
= 500 − 250 + 0
W = 250 kJ
16. A fluid at a pressure of 3 bar and with specific volume of 0.18 m3/kg contained in a
cylinder below the piston expands reversibly to a pressure of 0.6 bar according to a law
p =C/V2, where C is a constant. Calculate the work done by the fluid on the piston.
Data =
: p1 3=bar 300kPa,= V1 0.18 m3 / kg
=p 2 0.6
= bar 60 kPa,
= W ?
2 C 2
W1.2
= ∫=
[Link] ∫
1 V2
.dV
1
1

 V −2 +1  1 1  p pV2 = C
= C =  C − 
 −2 + 1   V1 V2 
C C p1V1 p 2 V2 22 2
= − = −
V1 V2 V1 V2
V
W=
1− 2 p1V1 − p 2 V2
p1V12 = p 2 V2 2
p1V12 300 × 0.182
V2 2
= =
p2 60
V2 = 0.402 m3
\ W1− 2 = 300 × 0.18 − 60 × 0.402
W1− 2 = 29.84 kJ / kg
17. An engine cylinder of diameter 22.5 cm has a stroke length of 37.5 cm. The swept
volume is 4 times of clearance volume. The pressure of gas at the beginning of expansion
stroke is 1569 kPa. Find the work done during expansion stroke assuming the process
is reversible adiabatic. Take γ = 1.4.
Data : D = 22.5 cm=0.225 m, L=37.5 cm=0.375 m, Vs = 4 Vc, P1 = 1569 kPa
π 2 π
Vs = D L =× 0.2252 × 0.335 = 0.0149 m3
4 4 p 1
1 0.0149
=Vc =Vs = 3.72 × 10−3 m3 pVγ = C
4 4
V1 =Vc = 3.72 × 10−3 m3 =
0.0186 m3 2

Now p1V1γ = p 2 V2 γ V
γ 1.4 Ve Vs
V   0.00372 
p2 = p1 ×  1  =1569 ×  
 V2   0.0186 
p 2 = 164.49 kPa
Work done during exp ansion
p1V1 − p 2 V2 1569 × 0.00372 − 164.4 × 0.0186
=W1− 2 =
γ −1 1.4 − 1
 V  0.00372 
p2 = p1 ×  1  =1569 ×  
 V2   0.0186 
p 2 = 164.49 kPa
Work and Heat 2.19
Work done during exp ansion
p1V1 − p 2 V2 1569 × 0.00372 − 164.4 × 0.0186
=W1− 2 =
γ −1 1.4 − 1
W1− 2 = 6.94 kJ
18. A fluid is heated reversibly at a constant pressure of 1.013 bar until it has a specific
volume of 0.1 m3/kg. It is then compressed reversibly according to a law pV=C to a
pressure of 4.2 bar, then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law pV1.3 = C to
the initial conditions. The work done in the constant pressure process is 515 Nm and the
mass of the fluid present is 0.2 kg. Calculate the net work done on or by the fluid in the
process and sketch the cycle on a p-V diagram.
Data :
p1 =1.013 bar = 1.013 × 100 kPa, p3 =
4.2 × 100 kPa, W1− 2 =
515 Nm, V2 = 0.1 m3 / kg
V2 = 0.1 × 0.2 = 0.02 m3 Wn = ?
Pr ocess 1 − 2
W1− 2 = 515 Nm 3
Pr ocess 2 − 3
=pV C= i.e., p 2 V2 p3 V3 p pV1.3=C pV=C
p 2 V2 1.013 × 100 × 0.02
V3
= = = 0.0049 m3
p3 4.2 × 100
1 p=C 2
V 0.0049
\ W2 −3 = p 2 V2 log e 3 = 1.013 × 100 × 0.02log e
V2 0.02 V
W2 −3 = −2897.3 Nm
Pr ocess 3 − 1
p.V1.3 C=
= i.e., p3 V31.3 p1V11.3
1.3
 V1  p3
  =
 V3  p1
1/1.3
V1  p3 
= 
V3  p1 
1/1.3 1/1.3
p   4.2 × 100 
V1 = V3 ×  3  0.0049 × 
= 
 p1   1.013 × 100 
V1 = 0.0144 m3
p3 V3 − p1V1 4.2 × 100 × 0.0049 − 1.013 × 100 × 0.0144
W3−1
\= =
n −1 1.3 − 1
W3−1 = 1916 Nm
Wn = Net work done = W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3−1
=515 + ( −2897.3) + 1916 =−466.3 Nm
'− ' sign shows that work is done on the fluid
 2.20 Basic Thermodynamics

19. A fluid undergoes the following processes in sequences to complete a cycle

i. Heated reversibly at constant pressure of 1.05 bar until it has a volume of 0.02 m3.
ii. It is then compressed reversibly according to a law pV = C to a pressure of 4.2 bar.
iii. It is then allowed to expand reversibly according to a law pV1.3 = C
iv. Finally it is heated at constant volume back to initial conditions.
If the work done during the constant pressure process is 515 Nm, Calculate the net
work done on or by the cycle. Sketch the cycle on p-V diagram.
Data : p1 = p2 =1.05 bar =1.05 × 105 Pa, v 2 =
0.02 m3 , p3 = 4.2 × 105 Pa, n =
4.2 bar = 1.3
=W1− 2 515
= Nm, Wnet ?
p 3
Pr ocess 1 − 2 ( Const pressure process )
W1− 2 p1 ( V2 − V1 )
=
pV1.3=C pV=C
1.05 105 ( 0.02 − V1 )
515 =×
V1 = 0.015 m3 1 p=C
2
( ii ) Pr ocess 2 − 3 ( pV =
C) V=C
4
p 2 V2 = p3 V3
V
p 2 V2 1.05 × 105 × 0.02
V3 =
= = 0.005m3
p3 4.2 × 105
V3  0.005 
W2 −3 =
p 2 V2 log 1.05 × 0.02 × log e 
= =− 2911.22 Nm
V2  0.02 
( iii ) Pr ocess 3 − 4 ( pV1.3 =
C)
p3 V31.3 = p 4 V41.3
4 V1 [ V4
p3 .V31.3 p= V1 ]
1.3
=
1.3
p 4  V3 
= 
p3  V1 
1.3 1.3
 0.005  5  0.005  5
p 4 = p3   = 4.2 × 10 ×   = 1.01 × 10 Pa = 1.01bar
 0.015   0.015 
p3 V3 − p 4 V4 4.2 × 105 × 0.005 − 1.0 × 105 × 0.015
=W3− 4 = = 1950 Nm
n −1 1.3 − 1
( iv ) Pr ocess 4 − 1( V =
C)
W4 −1 = 0
\ The network Wn =
W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3− 4 + W4 −1 =
515 − 2911.22 + 1950 + 0 =
−446.22 Nm
− ve sign indicates that work is done on thesystem.
20. 1 kg of air contained in a closed system at 100 kPa and 300K is compressed isothermally
till the volume halves. During this process, it is also stirred with a torque of 1 Nm at 400
rpm for 1 hr. Calculate the net work done on the system. Assume R = 0.285 kJ/kg K.
 Work and Heat 2.21

Data : m = 1 kg, p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 300K, pV = C

1
V2
= V1=
, T 1Nm,= N 400 rpm, = t 1 hr,=W ?,= R 0.285 kJ / kg k
2
Work done by the stirring device upon the system
2πNT 2π × 400 × 1
= W1 = = 0.042 kNm / sec
60 1000 × 60
= 0.042 × 3600 = −150.79 kJ
Work done on the system during isothermal compression
V
W2 = p1V1 log e 2
V1
 V 
= mRT1 log  1  = 1 × 0.285 × 300 log e 0.5
 2V1 
W2 = −59.26 kJ
Net work done on the system
Wnet =+
W1 W2 = −150.79 − 59.26 =
−210.05 kJ
21. A film of ethanol at 200C has a surface tension of 22.3 m N/m and is maintained on a
wire frame. Consider the film with two surfaces as a control mass and find the work
done when the film is moved 10mm to make the film of 20 mm x 40 mm
− ( 22.3 × 10−3 × 20 × 40 × 10−6 ) =
2
− ∫ σ dA =
Ans : Wsurface = −σA = 1.78 × 10−5 Joules
1
tensile

22. A simple magnetic substance is undergoing a quasi-static process at constant volume.

The work done is given by dW = -C0H dM, where H is the magnetic field intensity M is
the magnetisation and Co is a constant. Assume that magnetisation is proportional to the
magnetic field intensity divided by temperature of the magnetic substance, determine the
work done in an isothermal process during a change of magnetisation from M1 to M2.
Data : dW = -C0 [Link]
H KH
Ma ie M = , K = constant
T T
MT
or =K
H
MT M1T1
or =
H H1
 H 
H =  1  MT
 M1T1 
For an isothermal process T = T1
 H1 
\H =
 M
 M1 
2 2 H1
−C0 ∫ H dM =
\ W1−2 = − C0 ∫ [Link]
1 1 M1
H  M2  2 H
−C 1
= −C 1  M 2 − M 2 
=
 For an isothermal process T = T1
H 
\H =
2.22
1
M
 Basic Thermodynamics
M  1 
2 2 H1
−C0 ∫ H dM =
\ W1−2 = − C0 ∫ [Link]
1 1 M1
H  M2  2 H
−C 0 1 
=  = −C0 1  M 2 2 − M12 
M1  2  1 M1
C0 H1
=W1−2  M12 − M 2 2 
2M1 
23. A steel rod of 10 mm dia and 500 mm length extends by 10 mm when a tensile force is
applied to it, in a direction parallel to the length of the rod. Taking Young's modulus of
steel as 200 GN/m2 , Calculate the stress and force applied on the rod and the work done
by the force.
Data : d = 10mm, l = 500 mm = 0.5 m, dl = 10mm = 0.01m, E = 200 G N/m2 =200 x 109 N/m2,
F = ?, σ=?, W = ?
We know that
2
W=− ∫ τ dl
1
2
= − ∫ σ A dl τ = Tensile Force
1

2  dl 
= − ∫ σAl × dε  dε = l or dl = ldε 
1

2 2 σ
= −σAl ∫ dε = − AEl ∫ ε dε  E = ⇒ σ = Eε
1 1 ε
 ε 2 − ε12 
= − AEl  2 
 2 
π
Now A= × 0.012
4
ε1 =0
dl 0.01
ε2 = = = 0.02
l 0.5
π  0.022 − 0 
\ W =− × 0.012 × 200 × 109 × 0.5  
4  2 
W = −1570 Nm
Stress σ = Eε = 200 × 109 × 0.02 = 4 × 109 N / m 2
π
Tension force τ = σ × A = 4 × 109 × × 0.012 = 0.314 × 106 N = 314 kN
4
24. An electric potential difference of 220 V is maintained across 450Ω resistor for a period
of 8 minutes. Estimate the electrical work done and power.
Data : V = 200V, R = 450Ω , t = 8 min = 480 sec, W=?, P = ?
We know that
 Work and Heat 2.23

V = IR
220 = I × 450
I = 0.489 A
Work done
= VI × t
= 200 × 0.489 × 480 = 51638.4 J
Power =
P ==
VI 220 × 0.489 =
107.58 W
25. A fluid at 0.7 bar occupying 0.09m3 is compressed reversibly to a pressure of 3.5 bar
according to a law pVn = const. The fluid is then heated reversibly at constant volume
until the pressure is 4 bar, the specific volume is then 0.5 m3/kg. A reversible expansion
according to a law pV2 = constant, restores the fluid to its initial state. Sketch the cycle
on p-V diagram and calculate
(i) mass of fluid present
(ii) the value of n in the first process
(iii) the net work of the cycle
Data :
= p1 0.7 = bar 70kPa,= V1 0.09m3= , p 2 3.5=
bar 350 kPa,= p3 4bar
= 400kPa
v3 0.5 m3 / kg,=
= m ?,=
n ?, W=
net ?
From 3 − 1 3

p3 V32 = p1V12 V=C

2
1 p pV2=C
p3  V1  V1  p3  2
2
=   ⇒ =  
p1  V3  V3  p1 
pVn=C 1
1 1
 p3  2
 400  2
V
=3   ×V =
1  = 0.037 m3
 × 0.09 V
p
 1  70 
V3 0.037
Now =
m = = 0.075 kg
v3 0.5
p3 V3 − p1V1 400 × 0.037 − 70 × 0.09
=W3−1 = = 8.5 kJ
2 −1 2 −1
=W2 −3 0= [V2 V3 ]
From1 − 2
n n
n np1  V2  70  0.037 
p1V= p 2 V2 ⇒ =
1   ⇒ =   ⇒= n 1.81
p 2  V1  350  0.09 
p V − p 2 V2 70 × 0.09 − 350 × 0.037
W1− 2 = 1 1 = = −8.2 kJ
n −1 1.81 − 1
Wnet = W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3−1
−8.2 + 0 + 8.5 =
= 0.2963 kJ
 2.24 Basic Thermodynamics

26. A non-flow reversible process occurs for which pressure and volume are correlated by
p = V2 + 6/V where p is in bar and V is in m3, What amount of work will be done when
volume changes from 2 to 4 m3 ?
Ans. V1 = 6
2m3 , V2 =
4m3 , p =V2 + , W = ?
V
2
W = ∫ [Link]
1

2 6
= 100 ∫  V 2 +  dV
1
 V
2
 V3 
= 100  + 6log e V 
 3 1
 V 3 − V13 V 
= 100  2 + 6log e 2 
 3 V1 
 43 − 23 4
= 100  + 6log e 
 3 2
W = 2283kJ
27. Gas is compressed from an initial volume of 0.42m3 to a final volume of 0.12m3. During
this quasistatic process, the pressure changes with volume according to the relation p
= a + bv where a = 600 kPa and b = -1200 kPa/m3 . Calculate the displacement work
during the process by
a. Plotting the process on p-V diagram and finding the area
b. Integration of the general formula for displacement work.
Ans. a. Solution by p - V diagram and its area
We have p= a + bV
\ p1 =a + bV1 =600 − 1200 × 0.42 =96 kPa
p2 =
a + bV2 =
600 − 1200 × 0.12 =
456 kPa
Displacement
= work W1− 2 area below the curve1 − 2
1= area of traingle 1 – 2 – a + area a – b – c – 1
= ( p1 + p 2 )( V2 − V1 )
We have p2= a 1+ bV
=
\ p1 =a +1bV12=600
( V1 −−V1200
2 )( p 2 − p1 ) + ( V1 − V2 ) p1
× 0.42 =96 kPa p
p2 =
=
a + bV
( 96 + 456 )( 0.42 − 0.12 )
600 1200
22 1 = −  p0.12
× 2 − p1
= 456 kPa
 2
== ( V1 − V2 )  + p1  p2
= = 82.8kJ
Displacement work
2 W 1− 2  area 2below the
 curve1 − 2
( b ) Solution 1byintegration
(
= p +p V −V )( ) p1 1
2
1
2
2 21 12
a
W=
1− 2 ∫ p dV
=1 ∫ ( a+ bV ) dV
= ( 96 +1 456 )( 0.42 − 0.12 )
2
= a ( V=2 82.8kJ
− V1 ) +
(
b V22 − V12 ) b c V
V2 V1
2
( b ) Solution byintegration
=600 (p0.12
( 0.12 2
− 0.422 )
( a+)bV
= −∫0.42 + ()−dV
1200 ) =−82.8kJ
2
W=
1− 2 ∫ dV 1 2
b ( V22 − V12 )
= a ( V2 − V1 ) +
 = 82.8kJ
( b ) Solution byintegration
2
Work
W=and Heat
1− 2p dV
= ∫ ∫ ( a+ bV ) dV
1
2.25

b ( V22 − V12 )
= a ( V2 − V1 ) +
2

=600 ( 0.12 − 0.42 ) + ( −1200 )

( 0.12
=−82.8kJ
2
− 0.422 )
2
Area method gives only the magnitude of work transfer. Where as the solution by integration
gives both magnitude and direction of work transfer.
28. Consider the expansion of air inside a cylinder as shown in fig. The initial volume is 0.025
m3 and the initial pressure is 10MPa. If the air undergoes a quasi - static process according
to the law pV1.4 = C to a final volume of 0.2m3 , determine
i. Total work done by air
ii. Amount of work done against the spring. Assume atmospheric pressure to be
101.325kPa

p
Patm

Ans. V1 = 0.025m3 , p1 = 10 MPa, V2 = 0.2m3 , patm = 101.325kPa, pV1.4 = C

p1V11.4 = p 2 V21.4
1.4 1.4
p 2  V1  p2  0.025 
=   ⇒ = 3   ⇒= p 2 54.4 kPa
p1  V2  10 × 10  0.2 
p1V1 − p 2 V2 10 × 103 × 0.025 − 54.4 × 0.02
=W1.2 =
n −1 1.4 − 1
= 353kJ
W= 1− 2 Watm + Wspring
But
= Watm patm ( V2 − V1 )
= 101.325 ( 0.2 − 0.028 )
= 17.73kJ
\ 353= 17.73 + Wspring
Wspring = 335.27 kJ
29. Hydrogen is contained in a piston - cylinder device at 101.325 kPa and 0.425 m3. At
this state a linear spring whose force is proportional to the displacement with a spring
constant of 219 kN/m is touching the piston but exerts no force on it. The cross-sectional
area of the piston is 0.279m2. The hydrogen gas is heated causing it to expand until its
volume is doubled. Determine
i. The final pressure
ii. Total work done by the hydrogen
iii. Fraction of the total work done against the spring.
 2.26 Basic Thermodynamics

Ans.

kx
p
Patm
Pressure of hydrogen at any position of the piston
kx
pA
= p atm +
A
kx
=p p atm +
A
kx
=p1 patm + 1
A
kx 2
=p 2 patm +
A
kx kx
p 2 =p1 =patm = 2 − patm − 1
A A
p kx kx
p 2 − p= + 2 −p − 1
1 atm A atm A
k ( x 2 − x1 )
p=2 p1 +
A
V2 − V1 2V1 − V1 V1 0.425
But x 2 − x1 = = = = = 1.523m
A A A 0.279
1.523
\= p 2 101.325 + 219 × = 1297 kPa
0.279
Displacement work
2 2  kx 
W1− 2
= ∫=
p dV ∫
1 1  p atm +
 A
 dV
2 2 dV
∫ patm dV + ∫ k x dx
=
1 1
dx =
A
 x 2 − x12   x 22 − x12 
= p atm ( V2 − V1 ) + k  2 =  p atm ( 2V2 − V1 ) + k  
 2   2 
1.5232 
= 101.325 × [ 0.425] + 219  −= 0  297.063kJ
 2 
1 1
Also Wspring = k  x 22 − x12  = × 219 (1.5232 − 0 ) =254 kJ
2 2
Wspring 254
= = 0.9216
W1− 2 297.063
It is the fraction of total work done against the spring.
 Work and Heat 2.27

30. The tangential force on the cutting tool of a lathe machine when cutting a workpiece of
0.35m diameter is 120N. If the work piece is rotating at 200 rpm, determine the rate of
work done on the work piece in watts. What would be the work done during a cutting
operation of 10 minutes ?
0.35
Ans. F= t 120N, R= = 0.165m, N= 200 rpm, W = ?,=t 10 min
2
Torque exerted T= F1 × R
120 × 0.165 =
= 19.8 Nm
2πNT
Shaft power P =
60
2π × 200 × 19.8
= = 414.7 W
60
Work donein10 min
414.7
= W = 0.691J
10 × 60
31. A sperical balloon has an initial diameter of 25 cm and contains air at 1.2 bar. Because
of heating, the diameter of the balloon increases to 30cm and during heating process the
pressure is found to be proportional to the diameter. Calculate the work done during
the process.
Ans. D1 = 0.25m, D2 = 0.3m, p1 = 1.2bar , p a D or p = CD
p
P
or = C
D
p p1 p 2
= =
D D1 D
p1
=p ×D
D1
Also volume of balloon
1 3
V= πD
6
1 1 2
dV= π × 2D 2 dD= πD dD
6 2
Displacement work
2 2 p 1
W1− 2 = ∫ p dV= ∫ 1 × D. πp 2 dD
1 1 D 2
1

1 p 2
= π × 1 ∫ D3 dD
2 D1 1
2
1 p1  D 4 
= π  
2 D1  4 1
 2.28 Basic Thermodynamics

π p1
W1− 2 =×  D 42 − D14 
8 D1 
π 1.2 × 105
= × 0.34 − 0.254 
8 0.25
= 790.5J
32. A gas of mass 1.5kg undergoes a quasi - static process where the pressure and specific
volume are related by the equation p = a + bv , where a & b are constant. The initial and
final pressures are 1000 kPa and 200kPa respectively and the corresponding volumes
are 0.2m3 / kg and 1.2 m3 / kg. The specific internal energy of the gas is given by the
relation U = 1.5 pv - 85, where U is in kJ/kg, p is in kPa and v is in m3 / kg. Find the
magnitude and direction of heat transfer and the maximum internal energy of the gas
during the process.
Ans. p1 = 1000 kPa, p2 = 200 kPa, v1 = 0.2 m3 / kg , v2 = 1.2 m3/kg , p = a + bv,
u = 1.5 pv - 85, Q = ?, Umax = ?
= at p1 1000
= kPa, v1 0.2 m3 / kg
1000 = a + b × 0.2 ... (1)
=at p 2 200kPa,
= v 2 1.2 m3 / kg
2000 = a + b × 1.2 ... ( 2 )
Solving (1) & ( 2 )
b= − 800 kPa − kg / m3
a =1160 kPa
\=p 1160 − 800v
2 2
W1− 2
= p dv ∫ (1160 − 800v ) dV
∫=
1 1

 v 2 − v12 
= 1160 ( v 2 − v1 ) − 800  2 
 2 
2
1.22 − 0.22 
= 1160 (1.2 − 0.2 ) − 800  
 2 
= 600 kJ / kg
For1.5kg mass
W1− 2 =1.5 × 600 =900 kJ
Changein internalenergy
U 2 −=
U1 (1.5p 2 v 2 − 85) − (1.5p1v1 − 85)
= 1.5 ( p 2 v 2 − p1v1 )
= 1.5 ( 200 × 1.2 − 1000 × 0.2 )
= 60 kJ / kg
For1.5kg mass
U 2 − U1 = 1.5 × 60 = 90 kJ
Heat transfer