Chapter - 4

Second Law of Thermodynamics

4.0 Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that in a closed cycle system, the cyclic integral of the heat
is equal to the cyclic integral of the work.

The first law, however possess the following limitations.

1. It places no restriction on the direction of heat and work.
2. There is limitation on the conversion of one form of energy into another.

The above limitations can be explained taking following examples.

1. If work is supplied to a thermally insulated closed system with the help of paddle wheel, the
energy of the system will increase. But the reversible process is impossible i.e., with the cool-
ing of the system to its original energy state, the entire paddle work - output is not possible.
2. A running automobile can be stopped by using the brakes where the kinetic energy of automo-
bile is converted into heat which increases the energy of brake drum. But it is not possible to
accelerate the automobile by cooling the hot brake drum.
3. If two metal blocks at temperatures T1 , T2 (T1 > T2) are brought into contact with each other,
heat flows from the high temperature block to low temperature block till they attains thermal
equilibrium. The reverse process by which the flows from the low temperature block to high
temperature block is impossible.
Second law of thermodynamics makes the distinction between heat and work stating that work
can be fully converted into heat but the heat cannot be fully converted into work.
4.1 Thermodynamic Cycle
It is one in which the chemical composition of the working fluid during a process does not change.
Ex : Steam power plant cycle - in which the composition of water throughout the cycle is same.
Refrigeration cycle - in which the refrigerant possess same composition through out the cycle.
4.2 Mechanical Cycle
It is one in which the chemical properties of working fluid change during the process.
Ex : Internal combustion engine cycle - Air and fuel is burnt in the engine cylinder. They are
then converted into the products of combustion and finally exhausted into the atmosphere. Thus,
though an IC engine goes through a cycle, the chemical properties of the working fluid change
and their end states are not the same. Hence this type of cycle is called as a mechanical cycle.
4.3 Thermal Reservoir or Thermal Energy Reservoir
It is defined as a large body of infinite heat capacity, which is capable of absorbing or reject-
ing an unlimited quantity of heat without suffering appreciable changes in its thermodynamic
coordinates(temperature).
 4.2 Basic Thermodynamics

Thermal reservoir from which heat is transferred to the system during a cycle is called source.
The thermal reservoir to which heat is rejected from the system during a cycle is called sink.
The environment constitutes the largest heat reservoir operating without change in temperature
usually employed as a heat sink and sometimes as a heat source.
The medium in the environment which are used as thermal reservoirs are
1. Atmospheric air
2. Ocean, river
3. Ground
4.4 Mechanical Energy Reservoir(MER)
It is a large body enclosed by an adiabatic impermeable wall capable of storing work as potential
energy or kinetic energy.
Mechanical energy reservoir recieves and delivers mechanical energy quasi statically.
4.5 Heat Engine (HE) :
It is a closed system which is continuously under going a cyclic process and across whose bound-
aries work and heat interactions are taking place.
Heat engine is an energy conversion device.
Heat engines are classified into
i. direct heat engine
ii. reversed heat engine
4.6 Direct heat engine :
It is a device operating in a cycle which absorbs positive amount of heat from a high temperature
reservoir(source), converts part of it into work and rejects the remaining quantity of heat to a low
temperature reservoir (sink).
The schematic diagram of heat engine is shown below
High temperature
Thermal Reservoir
(Source) T1

QS = Q1

HE W

Q r = Q2

Low temperature
Thermal Reservoir
(sink) T2

Fig 4.1 Direct heat engine

The performance of a direct heat engine is assessed by a parameter called thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency of a direct engine or heat engine is defined as the ratio of net work output to
the total heat input to the cycle.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.3

Wnet
h=
Qs
= Qs − Q r ( From I Law applied to closed cycle )
But Wnet
Qs − Q r Q
h= = 1− s
Qs Qr
4.6.1 Examples for heat engine :
1. Piston and Cylinder arrangement of an IC engine :

Qs We
System

Qr WC

Fig 4.2 Piston cylinder arrangement

In the above example, heat Qs is transferred to the system by the fuel, Work We is done by the sys-
tem, Work WC is done upon the system and then heat Qr is rejected from the system. The system
is brought back to the initial state through all these four successive processes which constitute a
heat engine cycle.
2. Steam Power Plant :
Steam
Steam
Turbine
WT
Q1 Boiler
Q2
Condenser
Water
IN
water
Water
Pump OUT

Wp
Fig 4.3 Steam Power Plant
In the above example, Q1 is transferred from the furnace to the water in the boiler to form steam
which then works on the turbine rotor to produce work WT. Then the steam is condensed to water
in condenser in which an amount of Q2 is rejected from the system. Finally work Wp is done on
the system (water) to pump it to the boiler. Thus the system undergoes a cycle.
4.7 Heat Pump (HP)
a. Reversed Heat Engine :
A heat pump is a device which works in a cycle absorbing energy as heat from a low temperature
reservoir and rejecting energy as heat to a reservoir at a higher temperature when work is done
on it.
 4.4 Basic Thermodynamics

Body at
T1 (Source)
Q1

HP W
Q2
Body at T2
(sink)
Fig 4.4 Heat pump
The schematic diagram of heat pump is shown in fig.
Q1 = Heat rejected
Q2 = Heat absorbed
The index of performance of heat pump is expressed in terms of coefficient of performance (COP).
COP of a heat pump is defined as the ratio of heat rejected from the heat pump to the high tem-
perature reservoir to the external energy input to the heat pump.
Q1
i.e., ( COP )HP =
W
But Q=
1 Q 2 + W
Q2 + W Q2
\ ( COP )HP = = +1
W W
Q
( COP )HP = ( COP )Rep + 1  2 = ( COP )Ref 
 W 
\ COP of heat pump is greater the COP of refrigerator
4.8 Refrigerator (R)
It is also reversed heat engine whose objective is to refrigerate a body at a low temperature by
absorbing energy as heat.
The index of performance of refrigerator is also expressed in terms of COP.
The schematic diagram of refrigerator is shown in fig.
Atm. at T1
(Source)
Q1
R W
Q2
Body at T2
(sink)
Fig 4.5 Refrigerator
COP is the ratio of heat absorbed from the low temperature body to the work input.
Q
i.e., ( COP )ref = 2 [W + Q2 = Q1
W
or W = Q1 - Q2 ]
Q2
( COP )Ref =
Q1 − Q 2
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.5

4.9 Statements of II law of thermodynamics

Kelvin - Planck Statement :
It states that "it is impossible to construct a cyclically operating device such that it produces
no other effect other than the absorbing of energy as heat from a single thermal reservoir and
performs an equilibrium amount of work".
OR
It is impossible to construct a cyclically operating device whose effect is to convert supplied heat
into equivalent amount of work.
Kelvin - Planck statement also tells that it is impossible to construct a heat engine which oper-
ates in a cycle receives a given amount of heat from a higher temperature body and does an
equal amount of work.
4.9.1 Perpetual Motion Machine Kind Second(PMMK II)
PMMK II is one which would violates the second law of thermodynamics. Any heat engine that
violates the second law could be converted into a PMMK - II.
PMMK II is a hypothetical device working cyclically, receives energy as heat from a single
thermal reservoir and delivers an equivalent amount of work.
PMMK II in the sense that work is done by utilizing freely available sources of energy such as
the ocean or atmosphere. But it is impossible to construct PMMK II as it violats the second law
of thermodynamics.
Thermal
reservoir T1

Q1
HE W = Q1
Q2=0
Fig 4.6 PMMK II
4.9.2 Clausius statement of second law of thermodynamics.
It states that "it is impossible to construct a device that working cyclically, produce no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a low temperature body to a high temperature body without
any external aid".
This statement is related to the heat pump. It says that "it is impossible to construct a heat pump
that operates without an input of work".
4.9.3 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius statements
The statements of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius are equivalent. Viz...., they mean the same thing.
This can be verified in an indirect manner by showing that violation of one implies the violation
of another.
It is explained as follows.
i. Violation of Kelvin-Planck statement leads to violation of Clausius statement.
Let us assume that the Kelvin-Planck statement is incorrect i.e, it is possible to construct a device
(HE) which is working cyclically, absorbs heat energy Q1 from a source at temperature T1 and
performs an equivalent amount of work (Q1 = W) (Ref Fig (1))
 4.6 Basic Thermodynamics

High temperature High temperature

Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
(Source) (Source)
T1 T1

Q1 Q3 = Q2+W Q1 Q3 = Q1+ W = Q2 + Q1

HE HP HE HP
W W
Q2 Q2

Low temperature Low temperature

Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
(sink) (sink)
T2 T2
(i) (ii)
Consider another cyclically working device (HP) which absorbs heat energy Q2 from a reservoir
at temperature T2 and delivers heat energy Q3 to a high temperature reservoir(T1). To accomplish
this, work W is done on the device (HP). The device heat pump is such that it does not violate
Clausius statement [Ref fig (i)]
According to I Law of thermodynamics
Q3 = Q2 + W
From the fig (i) it is noted that the heat pump utilizes the work delivered by the heat engine
Now consider the combination of HE and HP as a single device(Fig ii).
For the combined system
Q3 = Q2 + W
Since Q1 = W
Q3 =Q2 + Q1
From the heat pump, Q1 amount of heat is supplied to heat engine disconnecting it from source
at temperature T1 . Now the heat pump delivers Q2 amount of heat to the source which is same as
that of heat absorbed from the sink at T1 . As no work is supplied from the external agency to the
pump, Clausius statements is violated.
Hence the violation of Kelvin - Plank statement leads to the violation of Clausius statement.

ii. Violation of Clausius statement leads to violation of Kelvin - Planck statement.

Let us assume that the Clausius statement is incorrect i.e., it is possible to construct a HP such
that it transfers energy Q from a low temperature body to a high temperature body unaided by any
external agency(Fig i).
Consider another device (HE) which receives heat Q1 from a high temperature body, delivers
work W and rejects heat energy to a low temperature body (fig i). This device doesnot violate any
of the above two statements.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.7

High temperature High temperature

Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
(Source) (Source)
T1 T1
Q1 - Q
Q Q1 = Q2+W Q Q1

HP HE W HP HE
W
Q Q2 Q

Low temperature Low temperature

Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
(Sink) (Sink)
T2 T2
(i) (ii)
Now consider the combination of HP and HE as a single device (fig ii).
This combined device working cyclically absorbs Q1 – Q as heat from the high temperature
reservior and delivers work W = Q1 – Q, leaving the low temperature reservoir T2 unaffected i.e.,
the resulting device is a PMMK II which is the violation of the Kelvin - Planck statement.
Thus the violation of the Clausins statement leads to a violation of Kelvin - Planck statement.
Therefore the Kelvin - Planck statement and Clausius statements are equivalent.
4.10 Carnot Cycle

Source
T1
Cylinder Piston

Insulation cap

Sink
T2

Fig 4.7 Components of Carnot engine

 4.8 Basic Thermodynamics

1 1
Isothermal Isothermal
expansion compression
2 2
Adiabatic Adiabatic
p compression
p expansion
Adiabatic Adiabatic
expansion compression

4 4
Isothermal 3 Isothermal 3
compression expansion

V V
Carnot Engine Cycle Carnot heat pump cycle
This cycle was first suggested by a French Engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824.
Carnot engine consists the following devices
1. Source
2. Sink
3. Insulation cap
4. Cylinder with piston
The following assumptions are made for the working of Carnot engine.
a. Piston moving in a cylinder doesnot develop any friction during motion
b. The walls of cylinder, cylinder head and piston are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
c. The transfer of heat doesnot affect the temperature of source or sink.
d. The working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
Following are the four stages of Carnot cycle
Stage 1 : Source is brought in contact with cylinder. Heat Q1 is transferred from source to fluid in
the cylinder. Due to this fluid expands isothermally at constant high temperature T1 (Process 1-2)
Stage 2 : Insulation cap is brought into contact with cylinder so that no flow of heat takes place.
The fluid expands adiabatically and reversibly and temperature falls from T1 to T2. (Process 2-3)
Stage 3 : Sink is applied to the cylinder. Heat Q2 flows from the fluid to sink and fluid is com-
pressed isothermally and reversibly at constant lower temperature(Process 3-4).
Stage 4 : Again insulation cap is brought into contact with cylinder. The compression is continued
adiabatically and reversibly and during which temperature is raised from T2 to T1. (Process 4-1).
Thus the cycle is repeated.
The efficiency of the cycle is calculated as follows.
Assume 1 kg of fluid
For the process 1-2
V V
Q1−=2 Q=1 RT1log e 2 , W1−=2 RT1log e 2
V1 V1
For the process 2 − 3
Q 2 −3 = 0, W2 −3 = −DE 2 −3 = −C v ( T2 − T1 ) = C v ( T1 − T2 )
Process 3 − 4
V V V
Q 3− 4 =
Q2 =
RT2 log e 4 =
− RT2 log e 3 , W3− 4 =
− RT2 log e 3
V3 V4 V4
Process 4 − 1
Q 4 −1 = 0, W4 −1 = −DE 4 −1 = −C v ( T1 − T2 )
 Q 2 −3 = 0, W2 −3 = −DE 2 −3 = −C v ( T2 − T1 ) = C v ( T1 − T2 )
Process 3 − 4
V V V
Q3− 4L=
Second awQof
2 =TRT 2 log e
4
− RT2 log e 3 , W3− 4 =
=
hermodynamics − RT2 log e 3 4.9
V3 V4 V4
Process 4 − 1
Q 4 −1 = 0, W4 −1 = −DE 4 −1 = −C v ( T1 − T2 )
Applying first law of thermodynamics for a cycle
∑ δQ = ∑ δW
Q1 − Q 2 = W1− 2 + W2 −3 + W3− 4 + W4 −1
V2 V
= RT1log e + C v ( T1 − T2 ) − RT2 log e 3 − C v ( T1 − T2 )
V1 V4
V2 V
= RT1log e − RT2 log e 3
V1 V4
= Wnet
Heat supplied during the process 1 − 2
V
Q1 = RT1log e 2
V1
W Q − Q2
Carnot efficiency =hc = net = 1
Qs Q1
V2 V
RT1log e − RT2 log e 3
V1 V4
=
V
RT1log e 2
V1
From processes 2 − 3 and 4 − 1
1 1
V2  T2  γ−1 V1  T2  γ−1
= =  &  
V3  T1  V4  T1 
V V1 V3 V2
=
\ 2 or
=
V3 V4 V4 V1
V
Rlog e 2 ( T1 − T2 )
V1 T1 − T2
=\hc =
V T1
RT1log e 2
V1
T − T2
hc = 1
T1
T1
Note : For heat pump COP =
T1 − T2
T2
Refrigerator COP =
T1 − T2
 4.10 Basic Thermodynamics

4.11 Carnot's theorem or Carnot Principle or I corollary of Carnot's theorem :

It states that "all heat engines working between a given constant temperature source and a
given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency than a reversible engine".
Proof :
Source T1

Q1IR Q1R

WIR WR
HEIR HER

Q2IR Q2R

Sink T2

Fig.(i)
Consider an Irreversible (IR) and Reversible (R) engines working between the source at T1 and
sink at T2 as shown in fig. i
Source T1
Assume hIR > hR and
Q=
1IR Q=
1R Q1 Q1IR Q1R
since hIR > hR
WIR WR WIR WR
ie., > HEIR HP
Q1IR Q1R
Q2IR Q2R
WIR > WR ( Q1IR =
Q1R )

Sink T2
[Link]

Now (HE)R be reversed, and it is a reversible heat engine, the magnitudes of heat and work trans-
fer quantities remains the same, but their direction will be reversed as in fig (ii). The reversed HE
now works as a heat pump (HP)R.
Q1IR=Q1R

Q1IR Q1R

WIR WR
HEIR HPR
WIR-WR
Q2IR Q2R

Sink T2

Fig (iii)
Since WIR > WR, some part of WIR (equal to WR) may be fed to drive the heat pump (HP)R.
Since Q1IR = Q1R = Q1 , the heat discharged by (HP)R may be supplied to (HE)IR . Then the source
may be eliminated as in fig (iii).
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.11

The net effect is that (HE)IR and (HP)R constitute a heat engine producing heat with a single res-
ervoir at T2. This violates the Kelvin - Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics.
Hence the assumption ηIR > ηR is wrong. Therefore ηR > ηIR
4.11.1 Second Corollary of Carnot theorem
It states that "the efficiency of all reversible engines working between the same temperature
reservoirs is the same".
Proof :
Source T1

Q1R1 Q1R2

WR1 WR2
HER1 HER2

Q2R1 Q2R2

Sink T2

Fig (i)
Consider two reversible engines HER1 and HER2 operating between the same temperatures T1 and
T2 as shown in fig (i).
Assume that hR1 > hR 2 and the rates of working of the engines be
such that Q=
1R1 Q=
1R 2 Q1
Since hR1 > hR 2 , we have
WR1 WR 2
>
Q1R1 Q1R 2
or WR1 > WR 2 ( Q1R1 =
Q1R 2 )

Source T1

Q1R1 Q1R2

WR1 WR2
HER1 (HP)R

Q2R1 Q2R2

Sink T2
Fig ii
Now let the (HE)R with lower efficiency be reversed to operate as a heat pump (HP)R as shown
in fig (ii).
 4.12 Basic Thermodynamics

Since WR1 > WR2 some part of WR1 (equal to WR2) may be fed to drive the pump (HP)R and Q1R1 =
Q2R2=Q1, that the heat discharge by heat pump (HP)R may be supplied to HER1. Then the source
may be eliminated as shown in fig (ii).
Q1R1=Q1R2

Q1R1 Q1R2

WR1 WR2
HER1 HPR
WR1-WR2
Q2R1 Q2R2

Sink T2

Fig (iii)
Now the combination of HER1 and (HP)R constitutes a heat engine producing the net work
WR1-WR2, while exchanging heat with a single reservoir at T2. This violates the second law. Hence
the assumption ηR1 > ηR2 is wrong
i.e., ηR1 = ηR2
i.e., the efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are
the same.
4.11.2 Absolute Zero temperature
Absolute zero temperature mainly based on third law of thermodynamics. It says that "it is
impossible by any procedure to reduce any system to the absolute zero temperature in a finite
number of operations".
Consider a combination of reversible heat engines operating in series between high temperature
reservoir TH = T1 and low temperature TL such that TL tends to zero.
If the heat rejection decreases, the work done and thermal efficiency increases. This process
continues until the last reservoir reaches absolute zero temperature. For last reservoir heat
rejection, Qlost → 0 , so that work output becomes
W = W1+W2+W3+.....
=(Q1 - Q2) + (Q2 - Q3) + (Q3 - Q4) +...
As W → Q, the thermal efficiency tends to unity. By the II law, the operation of a cyclic heat en-
gine with zero heat rejection cannot be achieved as it violates Kelvin - Planck statement .
Thus absolute zero temperature cannot be attained in practice.
Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.13

Source T1

Q1

W1
HE1

Q2

T2
Q2
W2
HE2
Q3
T3
Q3
W3
HE3
Q4
T4
Q4
W4
HE4
Q5
TL TL = 0
 4.14 Basic Thermodynamics

PROBLEMS ON II LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. A heat engine receives heat at the rate of 1500kJ/min and gives an output of 8.2kW.
Determine (i) the thermal efficiency, (ii) the rate of heat rejection.
Data : Q1 1500kJ
= = / min 25kW,
= W 8.2kW Source
( i ) Thermal efficiency T1
W 8.2 Q1
=
h = = 0.328
= 32.8%
Q1 25
HE W
( ii ) Rate of heat rejection
Q 2 = Q1 − W = 25 − 8.2 = 16.8kW Q2
Sink
T2

2. A domestic food refrigerator maintains a temperature of –12oC. The ambient air

temperature is 35oC. If heat leaks into the freezer at the continuous rate of 2kJ/S,
determine the least power necessary to pump this heat out continuously.
Data : T1 = 35 + 273 = 308K, T2 = 273 − 12 = 261K
Source (Atm)
Q= 2kJ / S =
P W = ?
2
T1
For minimum power requirement
Q1
Q 2 T2
=
Q1 T1 Ref W
T1 308 Q2
Q1 = × Q2 = × 2 = 2.36kJ / S
T2 261
Sink (Freezer)
Now, Q1 =
W + Q 2 or W =
Q1 − Q 2
T2
W= 2.36 − 2= 0.36kJ / S
3. An inventor claims that his heat engine delivers work at the rate of 1kW and absorbs
energy as heat at the rate of 65kJ/min from a source at 1127oC when the ambient
temperature is 27oC. Would you agree with this claim?
Data : W = 1kW = 60kJ / min, Q1 = 65kJ / min, T1 = 1127 + 273 = 1400K,
T2 =27 + 273 =300K
Max. possible efficiency i.e., Carnot efficiency
T1 − T2 1400 − 300
=
he = = 0.7856
T1 1400
Efficiency claimed by the inventor
W 60
hinventor = = =0.923
Q1 65
Since the hinventor > hcarnot , the inventor claim cannot be true.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.15

4. An inventor claims that his engine has the following specifications

Power developed = 76kW Fuel burned / hr = 4kg
Heating value of fuel = 75000kJ/kg Temperature limits = 727oC and 27oC
Discuss the possibility of claim. VTU Aug 2000
4
Data : =
P W = 76kW, m= f 4kg / =
h kg / s
3600
CV =75000kJ / kg, T1 =727 + 273 =1000K, T2 =27 + 273 =300K
Max possible Carnot efficiency
T1 − T2 1000 − 300
h=
c = = 0.70 = 70%
T1 1000
Heat supplied by the source
4
Q1 =m f × CV = × 75000 =83.33kW
3600
Efficiency claimed by the inventor
W 76
hinventor = = =0.912 =91.2%
Q1 83.33
Since hinventor > hc , inventor 's claim is not possible
5. An inventor claims to have deviced a cyclic engine which exchanges heat with the
reservoirs at 300K and 540K and which can produce 450J work per 1000J of heat
extracted from the heat reservoir. Is his claim possible? BU OCT 1997
Data
= : T1 540K,
= T2 300K,
= W 450J,
= Q1 1000J
T1 − T2 540 − 300
=
hc = = 44.447%
T1 540
W 450
hinventor = = =0.45 =45%
Q1 1000
Since hinventor > hc , claim is not feasible
6.
An inventor claims that his engine has the following specifications.
Heating value of the fuel = 74500kJ/kg, Power developed = 75 kW
Temperature limits = 750oC & 25oC Fuel burned = 0.07kg/min
State whether the claim is valid or not VTU Feb 2003
Data:CV =74500 kJ / kg, T1 =750 + 273 =1023K , T2 =25 + 273 =298K
= m f 0= .07 kg / min,W 75 kW
T1 − T2 1023 − 298
Carnot efficiency = he = = 0.7087
T1 1023
W 75 75
hinventor = = = =0.8629
Q1 m f × CV 0. 07
× 75000
60
Since hinventor > hC , claim is not valid
 4.16 Basic Thermodynamics

7. A carnot refrigerator is used for removing 6270kJ/min of heat from a cold storage
room at –20oC. Heat is discharged to the atmosphere at 25oC. Find the (i) COP of the
refrigerator, (ii) Power required.
Data : T1 =
25 + 273 = 298K, T2 = −20 + 273 =
253K, Q 2 =
6270kJ / min, COP =?, P =?
T2 253 Source (Atm)
( COP
= )Ref = = 5.62
T1
T1 − T2 298 − 253
Q2 Q1
Now ( COP )Ref =
W
Ref W
6270 / 60
5.62 =
W Q2
W = 18.5kJ / S
Sink (Cold Storage)
T2

8. A house requires 2 × 105 kJ/hr for heating in winter. Heat pump is used to absorb heat
from cold air out side in winter and send heat to the house. Work required to operate
the heat pump is 3 × 104 kJ/h. Determine (i) heat extracted from out side (ii) COP.
Data : Q1 = 2 × 105 kJ / h, Q 2 = 3 × 104 kJ / h, COP =
?, W = ?
5 Source (House)
Q1 2 × 10
( COP )= = = 6.67 T1
HP
W 3 × 104
Now Q= W + Q2 Q1
1

2 × 105 =×
3 104 + Q 2 HP W
5
Q=
2 1.7 × 10 kJ / h Q2
Sink (Atm)
T2
9. An inventor claims to have developed a refrigerator that maintains the refrigerated
space at –10oC while operating in room of 25oC and has a COP 8.5. How would you
evaluate his claim as a patent officer? VTU Mar 2000
Data : T2 =
−10 + 273 = 263K, T1 = 25 + 273 =298K
( COP )inventor = 8..5
T2 269
( COP=
)carnot = = 7.5
T1 − T2 268 − 263
Since ( COP )invertor
Since(COP) inventor
( COPcarnot
>>(COP) ) ref asasaapatent
patentofficer
officerinventor 's claim
inventor's claimisisrejected.
rejected.
10. A heat engine receives reversibly 420kJ/S of heat from a source at 327oC and rejects heat
reversibly to a sink at 27oC. There are no other heat transfers. For each of the three
hypothetical heat rejected in (a), (b) and (c) below, show which case is reversible, which
is possible and which is impossible.
(a) 210kJ/cycle, (b) 105kJ/cycle, (c) 315kJ/cycle. BU Aug 1996
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.17

Data : T1 =327 + 273 =600K, T2 =27 + 273 =300K, Q1 =420kJ / Cycle

T2 300
hc = hrev = 1 − = 1− = 0.5
T1 600
( a ) When 210kJ / cycle heat is rejected
W 420 − 210
hHE = = = 0.5
Q1 420
Since hHE =hrev , heat engine is possible and also reversible
( b ) When 105kJ / cycle is rejected
420 − 105
=
hHE = 0.75
420
Since hHE > hrev , heat engine is not possible
( c ) When 315kJ / cycle is rejected
420 − 315
=
hHE = 0.25
420
Since hHE < hrev , heat engine is possible, but not reversible
11. A heat engine receives 125kJ of heat per cycle, from a reservoir at 300oC and rejects
heat to a reservoir at 0oC by the following hypothetical amounts (i) 95kJ/cycle, (ii)
59.5 kJ/cycle, (iii) 31.25kJ/cycle. Which of these represent reversible, irreversible and
impossible cycles? VTU March 2000
Data : Q1 = 125 kJ / cycle, T2 = 300 + 273 = 573K
T2 =+ 0 273 = 273K
T − T2 573 − 273
hrev =hc = 1 = =0.5235
T1 573
( i ) When 31.25 kJ / cycleis rejected
W Q1 − Q 2 125 − 31.25
hHE = = = = 0.75
Q1 Q1 125
Since hHE > hC , heat engineis impossible
( ii ) When 95 kJ / cycleis rejected
W 125 − 95
hHE = = = 0.24
Q1 125
Since hHE < he , heat engineis irreversible
( iii ) When 59.5 kJ / cycleis rejected
125 − 59.5
=
hHE = 0.524
125
Since hHE = hC , heat engineis reversible
12. A reversible heat engine operates between reservoirs at temperatures of 177oC and 27oC.
Find the efficiency of the engine.
 4.18 Basic Thermodynamics

Evaluate the heat transfer from 177oC reservoir and the heat transfer to the 27oC
reservoir if the work output from the engine is 2.7kJ.
If the above engine is operated as a heat pump between the same reservoir, evaluate
COP of heat pump and power required to run the pump when the heat transfer rate
from 27oC reservoir is 4.5kJ/S. BU Mar 1999
Ans. Heat Engine T1
T = 177 + 273 = 450K, T = 300K
T11 = 177 + 273 = 450K, T22 = 27 + 273 = 300K 450K
T1 = 177
T1 +− 273 450K,
T2 =450 − 300T2 = 300K
h=HE = = 0.333
T1 T−1 T2 450450− 300 Q1
h=HE = = 0.333
WT1 450
2.7 HE W
hHE = ⇒ 0.333 =
QW1 2.7
Q1
hHE = ⇒ 0.333 = Q2
Q1
Q1 = 8.108kJ /S Q1
Q1 = 8.108kJ
Heat /S T2
W = QPump
– Q2 ⇒ 2.7 = 8.108 – Q2 Q2 = 5.41 kJ/kg
1
Heat Pump T1 450 300K
COP =
= = 3.0
T1 T
−1 T2 450450 − 300
COP =
= = 3.0
T1 − TQ2 1 450 − 300
Q1 T1
Now COP = ⇒ 3= ⇒ Q1 = 3W
Q
W1 Q
W1 450 K
Now COP = ⇒ 3= ⇒ Q1 = 3W
WQ1 W
Also COP = Q1
QQ −Q
Also COP = 1 1 2
Q13W
− Q2 3W HP W
= 3 = , 3
3W3W− Q2 3W3W − 4.5 Q2
= 3 = , 3
W =3W − Q 2/ S
2.25kJ 3W − 4.5
T2
W = 2.25kJ / S 300K
13. A refrigerator working between 27oC and –13oC is driven by an electric motor rated at
1.5kW. What quantity of ice at 0oC can be obtained from water at 20oC in 10 hrs.
 VTU March 2001
Data : T1 = 27 + 273 =
300K, T2 = −13 + 273 =260K, W = 1.5kW, mice =?,
T2 260
( COP
= )ref = = 6.5
T1 − T2 300 − 260 T1
Heat extracted from water 300K
=Q 2 m Cpw ( 20 − 0 ) + Lice  Q1
=m  4.2 ( 20 ) + 335 Ref W
= m × 418.6 kJ /10hrs
Q2
m × 418.6
= kJ / S T2
10 × 3600
m × 418.6 260K
Q2
Now COP = ⇒ 6.5 = × 3600
10
W 1.5
m m=
= ice 839.39kg
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.19

14. A heat pump is used for cooling in summer and heating in winter. The indoor temperature
is to be maintained at 25oC in summer and 20oC in winter. Heat transfer from the fabric
of the room is estimated as 0.75kW per degree of temperature difference between the
outside and the inside.
(a) If the outdoor temperature is 45oC in summer, what is the minimum power required
to run the heat pump.
(b) what is the lowest outdoor temperature for which the inside of the house can be
maintained at 20oC in winter by reverse cycle using the same power input.
Ans. Summer cooling
For summer cooling, heat pump act as a refrigerator T1
T1 = 273 + 45 = 318K, T2 = 273 + 25 = 298K Atm

T2 298 Q1
( COP
= )Ref = = 14.9
T1 − T2 318 − 298 Ref W
Minimum power required
Q2
Q2
( COP )Ref
= Where 2Q
= 0.75 ( 45 − 25
= ) 15kW
T2
W
15 House
14.9 =
W
T1
W = 1kW House
Winter heating
Q1
Q1 T1
( COP )HP= = ( T=1 20 + 273 = 293K ) HP W
W T1 − T2
0.75 ( 293 − T2 ) 293 Q2
= =
1 293 − T2
T2
T2 = 273K Atm
15. A heat pump is used for cooling in summer and heating in winter. The house is maintained
at 24oC year round. The heat loss is 0.44kW per degree difference between outside and
inside temperature. The average outside temperature is 32oC in summer and 4oC in
winter. Determine
(i) the power required for both heating and cooling BU Feb 1997
Ans. Summer cooling Atm
For summer cooling, heat pump act as a refrigerator T1
T2 =24 + 273 =297K , T1 =32 + 273 =305K
T2 297 Q1
( COP= )Ref = = 37.13
T1 − T2 305 − 297 Ref W
Power requiredfor cooling
Q2
( COP )Ref = Q2 0.44 ( 305 − 297 )
⇒ 37.13 =
W W House
W = 0.0948kW T2
Winter heating
T1 = 297K , T2 =+4 273 = 277K
 Power requiredfor cooling

( COP )Ref =Q2 0.44 ( 305 − 297 )

⇒ 37.13 =
4.20 W
W Basic Thermodynamics
W = 0.0948kW
Winter heating T1
T1 =297K , T2 =+ 4 273 = 277K House

T1 297 Q1
( COP
= )HP = = 14.85
T1 − T2 297 − 277 HP W
Minimum power required Q2
( )
( COP )HP = Q1 ⇒ 14.85 = 0.44 297 − 277 ⇒ W = 0.5925kW T2
W W Atm
16. A freezer is to be maintained at temperature of 238K on a summer day when the ambient
temperature is 306K. In order to maintain the freezer box temperature at 238K, it is
necessary to remove heat from it at the rate of 1230J/S. What is the maximum possible
COP of the freezer and what is the minimum power that must be supplied to the freezer.
 BU Oct 1999
Data
= : T1 306K,
= T2 238K,= Q 2 1230J
= / S 1.23kJ / S
Q2 T2 T1
= COP = Atm
Q −Q1 T −T
2 1 2

238 Q1
= = 3.5
306 − 238 Ref W
For minimum power requirement
Q 2 T2 Q2
=
Q1 T1 T2
T1 306 Freezer
Q1 = Q 2 × = 1.23 × = 1.58 kJ / S
T2 238
W = Q1 − Q 2 =1.58 − 1.23 = 0.35 kJ / S
17. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at temperature 700oC and
50oC. The engine drives a reversible refrigerator which operates between reservoirs at
temperature of 50oC and -25oC. The heat transfer to the engine is 2500kJ and the net
work output of the combined engine refrigerator plant is 400kJ.
(i) Determine the heat transfer to the refrigerant and the net heat transfer to the
reservoir at 50oC
(ii) Reconsider (i) given that the efficiency of the heat engine and COP of the
refrigerators are each 45% of their maximum possible values. VTU Aug 2001
Data::TT1 == 700
Data 700 += 273
273 ==923K
973K
1
T2 =50 + 273 =323K T1 T3
973K 248K
T3 =−25 + 273 =248K
Q1 Q4
Q1 = 2500kJ WHE WRef
HE Ref
Wnet = WHE − WRef = 400kJ
Wn
Case ( i ) : Q2 Q3

T1 − T2 973 − 323 T2
hHE max= = = 0.668 323K
T1 973
WHE W
Again hHE max = ⇒ 0.668 = HE
Q1 2500
 net HE Ref

Case ( i ) :
T1 − T2 973 − 323
hHELmax
Second aw
= of
=
Thermodynamics= 0.668 4.21
T1 973
WHE W
Again hHE max = ⇒ 0.668 = HE
Q1 2500
WHE = 1670kJ
T3 248
( COP=
)Ref max = = 3.306
T2 − T3 328 − 248
WHE − WRef = 400kJ
Q4
Also ( COP )Ref max
= =1670 − WRef 400kJ
WRef
Wref = 1270kJ
Q4
3.306 =
1270
Q 4 = 4198.6kJ is the heat transfered to the refrigerant
Q3 =Q 4 + Wref =4198.6 + 1270 =5468.6kJ
Q2 =Q1 − WHE =2500 − 1670 =830kJ
Heat rejection to 50o C reservoir
= Q 2 + Q3 = 830 + 5468.6 =
6298.6kJ
Case ( ii ) : When h & COP are 45% of their maximum values
h=
HE 0.45 × h=
max 0.45 × 0.668
= 0.3
WHE =hHE × Q1 =0.3 × 2500 =750kJ
WRef = WHE − Wn = 750 − 400 = 350kJ
COP of the actual refrigerators
( COP )Ref =0.45 × ( COP )max =0.45 × 3.306 =1.48
Q 4 =350 × 1.48 =518kJ is the heat transfered to the refrigerant
Q3 = 518 + 350 = 868kJ
Q 2 = 2500 − 750 = 1750kJ
Heat rejected to 50o C reservoir
= Q 2 + Q3 = 1750 + 868 = 2618kJ
18. A heat engine is sued to drive a heat pump. The heat transfer from the heat engine and
from the heat pump are used to heat the water circulating through the radiator of a
building. The efficiency of heat engine is 27% and the COP of heat pump is 4.0 Evaluate
the ratio of the heat transfer to the circulating water to the heat transfer to the engine.
Q + Q4
hHE 0.27, ( COP=
Data : = )HP 4, W = HE WHP , 2 = ?
Q1
Q1 − Q 2
Now=
hHE = 0.27
Q1
=or Q 2 0.73Q1 − − − (i )
Q4
( COP )HP= = 4 − − − ( ii )
Q 4 − Q3
But, WHP = WHE
 1

Q1 − Q 2
Now=hHE = 0.27
Q1
4.22
=
or Q 0.73Q − − − (i) Basic Thermodynamics
2 1

Q4
( COP )HP= = 4 − − − ( ii )
Q 4 − Q3
T1 T3
But, WHP = WHE
Q 4 − Q3 = Q1 − Q 2
Q1 Q3
= Q1 − 0.73Q1 ( From eqn ( i ) ) HE
WHE = WHP
HP
Q 4 − Q3 =
0.27Q1
Q2 Q4
From ( ii )
Q4 T2
=4 Radiator
0.27Q1
or Q 4 = 1.08Q1
The ratio of heat transfer to the circulating water to the heat transfer
to the engine
Q 2 + Q 4 0.73Q1 + 1.08Q1 1.81Q1
= = = 1.81
Q1 Q1 Q1
19. A Carnot engine working between 227oC and 27oC drives a Carnot heat pump working
between ToC and 27oC. The ratio of net heat transferred to the reservoir at 27oC to the
heat absorbed by the engine is 4.6. Determine the value of T. VTU Aug 2003
Data : T1 =227 + 273 =500K, T2 =27 + 273 =300K
Q2 + Q4
= 4.6
Q1 T1
ToC
T1 − T2 500 − 300 227oC
h=
HE = = 0.4
T1 500
Q1 Q3
Q − Q2 WHE = WHP
Also hHE =1 HE HP
Q1
Q1 − Q 2 Q2 Q4
0.4 =
Q1
T2
=Q 2 0.6Q1 − − − (i) 27oC
But WHE = WHP
Q1 − Q 2 = Q 4 − Q3
Q1 − 0.6Q1 =
Q 4 − Q3
Q3 0.4Q1 − − − ( ii )
Q 4 −=
From the data
Q2 + Q4
= 4.6
Q1
or Q 2 + Q 4 =
4.6Q1
Q 4 = 4.6Q1 − Q 2= 4.6Q1 − 0.6Q=
1 4Q1
Q 4Q
\ ( COP )HP = 4 = 1 = 10
Q 4 − Q3 0.4Q1
 Q2 + Q4
= 4.6
Q1
or Q 2 + Q 4 =
4.6Q1
Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.23
Q 4 = 4.6Q1 − Q 2= 4.6Q1 − 0.6Q=
1 4Q1
Q 4Q
\ ( COP )HP = 4 = 1 = 10
Q 4 − Q3 0.4Q1
T2
Now ( COP )HP =
T2 − T
300
10 = ⇒T = 270K
300 − T
T = −3o C
20. A refrigerator produces 2 tonnes of ice at 0oC per day from water maintained at 0oC.
It rejects heat to atmosphere at 27oC. The power to the refrigerator is supplied by an
engine which absorbs heat from a source which is maintained at 227oC by burning fuel
of CV 20 × 103 kJ/kg. Find the consumption of fuel per hour and the power developed
by the engine. Assume both the devices to run on Carnot cycle. BU Feb 1996
Data : T1 =227 + 273 =500K, T2 =27 + 273 =300K, T3 =273K,
m f ?,=
= WHE ?,=
mice 2000kg / day.
= CV 20000kJ / kg
T1 − T2 500 − 300
h=
HE = = 0.4 T1 T3
T1 500 500 K 273 K
T3 273
( COP
= )Ref = = 10.11
T2 − T3 300 − 273 Q1 Q3
WHE = WRef
Heat absorbed from water or refrigeration effect HE Ref
mice × Lice 2000 × 335 Q2 Q4
Q3 = = = 7.75kJ / S
24 × 3600 24 × 3600
Q3 Q2 7.75 Atmosphere
Now (=COP )ref or Wref
= =
Wref ( COP )ref 10.11 T2 = 300 K

=Wref 78.35
= kJ / S WHE
Now Wref
= Q 4 − Q3
78.35 =
Q 4 − 7.75 Q4 =
86.10kJ / S
W
hHE = HE
Q1
78.35
0.4 =
Q1
78.35
Q1
= = 195.8kJ / S
0.4
Now Q=1 m f × CV
195.8
= m f × 20000
195
mf =
= 0.00958kg
= /S m f 35.1kg / hr
20000
 4.24 Basic Thermodynamics

21. Two Carnot engines work in series between the source and sink temperature of 550K and
350K. If both engines develop equal power, determine the intermediate temperature.
Data
= : T1 550K,
= T3 350K,= W1 W = 2 , T2 ?,
W1 T1 − T2  T − T2  Source
hHE1 = = or W1 =  1  Q1 T1 = 550K
Q1 T1  T1 
W2 T2 − T3  T − T3  Q1
hHE 2 = = or W2 =  2  Q2
Q2 T2  T3  HE1 W1
Since W1 = W2
Q2
 T1 − T2   T2 − T3 
=
  Q1   Q2 − − − (1)
 T1   T2  T2
We know that
Q1 Q 2 Q3 Q2
= =
T1 T2 T3 HE2 W2
T1
or Q=
1 × Q2 − − − ( 2) Q3
T2
Sink
Substituting eqn ( 2 ) in eqn (1) we get
T3 = 350K
 T1 − T2  T1  T2 − T3 
  Q2 × =   Q2
 T1  T2  T2 
 550 − T2  550 T2 − 350
 × =
 550  T2 T2
550 − T2 = T2 − 350
900
T2
= = 450K
2
T2 = 450K
22. A reversible engine operates between temperature limits T1, T, where T1 is higher
temperature. The heat rejected by this engine is received by a second reversible engine
at the same temperature T which in turn rejects heat to a sink at temperature T2.
( i ) If two engines have equal efficiency,Show
Showthat
thatTT= T1 T2
T1 + T2
( ii ) If two engines have equal work output,Show
Showthat
thatTT=
2
Ans. Case (i): For equal efficiencies
Data : i.e., hHE1 =
hHE 2
T1 − T T − T2
=
T1 T
T ( T1 − T )= T1 ( T − T2 )
T1T − T 2 = T1T − T1T2
T 2 = T1T2
 = Q=
2 Q1 × − − − ( 2)
T1 T T1
Substituting eqn ( 2) in eqn (1) , we get
T ( T1 − T )= T1 ( T − T2 )
 T1 − T   T − T2  T
Second
T TL−aw = TTT
T 2of hermodynamics
−TT  T =  Q1  T  × Q1 × T 4.25
1 1 1 2 1 1

T 2 = T1T2 T1 − T = T − T2
2T= T1 + T2
T = T1T2 T1 + T2
T= T1
2
Case (ii) : For equal work output
But
i.e., W1 = W2 W1 T1 − T Q1
hHE1 = =
T −T  T − T2  Q1 T1 HE
=
\ 1  Q1   Q2 − − − (1)  T − T 1
W1
T
 1   T  W1 =  1 Q1
 T1  Q2
Q1 Q 2 Q3
Again = =  T − T2 
Similarly W2 =  Q
T1 T T2  T  2
T
T
Q=
2 Q1 × − − − ( 2)
T1 Q2
Substituting eqn ( 2 ) in eqn (1) , we get HE W2
2
 T1 − T   T − T2  T
 = Q1   × Q1 × Q3
 T1   T  T1
T1 − T = T − T2 T2
2T= T1 + T2
T1 + T2
T=
2
But combination of two Carnot engines operate between the temperatures of 180oC
23. A series
and [Link] T − T the intermediate temperature of the engine which produce equal
hHE1 = 1
= 1
work. Q1 T1
Ans. For equal work output
 T − Ttemperature
Intermediate 
W1 =  1  Q1
T1 + TT21 180 + 20 200
= T = = = 100o C
2  T2 − T2  2
Similarly W2 =   Q2
24. Two Carnot engines  TA and  B are connected in series between two thermal reservoirs
maintained at 1000K and 300K. Engine A receives 1750kJ of heat from the high
temperature reservoir and reject heat to the Carnot engine B. Engine B takes in heat
rejected by engine A and rejects that heat to the low temperature reservoir. If engines
A and B have equal thermal efficiencies determine (i) the heat rejected by engine A, (ii)
the temperature at which heat is rejected by engine A, (iii) the work done during the
process by the engines A and B.
Data= : T1 1000K,= T3 300K,= Q1 1750kJ,=Q 2 ?,=
T2 ?, =WA ?, = WB ?
For equal thermal efficiency
i.e., hHEA =
hHEB we have
T2= T1T3= 1000 × 300= 548K
T − T 1000 − 548
hHEB =
hHEA =1 2 = 0.452
=
T1 1000
WA WA
Now hHEA = ⇒ 0.452 =
Q 1750
 For equal thermal efficiency
i.e., hHEA =hHEB we have
4.26
T = T T = 1000 × 300= 548K Basic Thermodynamics
2 1 3

T − T 1000 − 548
hHEB =
hHEA =1 2 = 0.452
=
T1 1000 T1 = 1000K
WA WA
Now hHEA = ⇒ 0.452 =
Q1 1750 Q1
WA = 791kJ HEA WA
WA = Q1 − Q 2 ⇒ Q 2 = Q1 − WA = 1750 − 791 = 959 kJ
Q2
WB WB
hHEB = ⇒ 0.452 =
Q2 959 T2
WB = 433.47 kJ
Q2
HEB WB

Q3

T3 = 300K

25. Two reversible engines operate in series between a high temperature TH and a low
temperature TL reservoirs. Engine A rejects heat to engine B through an intermediate
reservoir of temperature TI. Engine B reject heat to low temperature reservoir. Both the
engines have same thermal efficiency. Let the work of engine B equal to 500kJ, the low
temperature TL equal to 300K and the heat received by the engine A be equal to 2000kJ.
Determine (i) TH & TI, (ii) Heat rejected by engine A, (iii) thermal efficiency, (iv) Work
done by engine A. BU Aug 94
Data : WB = 500kJ, TL =300K, Q1 = 2000kJ, hHEA = hHEB
We have hHEA =
hHEB TH
WA WB
=
Q1 Q2 Q1
Q1 − Q 2 WB HEA WA
=
Q1 Q2
Q2
Q 2 Q1 − Q 22 =
WBQ1
Q 22 − Q1Q 2 + W2 Q1 =
0 TI
Q 22 − 2000Q 2 + 500 × 2000 =
0
Q2
Q 22 − 2000Q 2 + 1000000 =
0
HEB WB
− ( −2000 ) ± ( −2000 )
2
− 4 × 1× 1000000 2000
Q2
= = = 1000kJ Q3
2 2
WB 500
hHEB = = = 0.5 TL
Q 2 1000
TI − TL
hHEB =
TI
 − ( −2000 ) ± ( −2000 ) − 4 × 1× 1000000 2000
Q2
= = = 1000kJ
2 2
WB 500
hHEBLaw
Second = of T = 0.5
= hermodynamics 4.27
Q 2 1000
TI − TL
hHEB =
TI
TI − 300
0.5 =
TI
0.5T=
I TI − 300
0.5TI = 300
300
TI
= = 600K
0.5
T −T T − 600
Now hHEB =
hHEA =H 1 ⇒ 0.5 =H
TH TH
0.5T=
H TH − 600
0.5TH = 600
600
TH
= = 1200K
0.5
W
hHEA =A
Q1
WA =
hHEA × Q1 =
0.5 × 2000 =
1000kJ
26. Three Carnot engines A, B, C work in series between the temperature limits of 1000K
and 300K. The amount of work output is in the proportion of 6 : 4 : 2. Determine
the intermediate temperatures if the heat from the source is 1000 kJ/S. Also determine
power developed by each engine in kW. BU Aug 1996
Data
= : T 1000K,
= T 300K. W = : W : W 6 : 4 : 2
Data : T11 = 1000K, T44 = 300K, WA1 : W2B : W3 C = 6 : 4 : 2
= Q1 1000kJ / S,= WA ?,= WB ?,= WC ?
WA T1 − T2 T1 
hHEA = = or Q1 = WA × 
Q1 T1 T1 − T2 
W T − T3 T2 
hHEB = B = 2 or Q 2 = WB ×  ....... (1)
Q2 T2 T2 − T3 
W T − T2 T3 
hHEC = C = 3 or Q3 = WC × 
Q3 T43 T3 − T24 
Now =
Q1 WA + Q 2
T1
i.e., WA × = WA + Q 2
T1 − T2
WA T − T2
= 1
WA + Q 2 T1
WA 1000 − T2
=
WA + Q 2 1000
1000W=
A 1000WA − T2 W1 + 1000Q 2 − T2 Q 2
T=
2 WA (1000 − T2 ) Q2
T2 WA
 WA T − T2
= 1
WA + Q 2 T1
WA 1000 − T2
4.28 =
Basic Thermodynamics
WA + Q 2 1000
1000W=
A 1000WA − T2 W1 + 1000Q 2 − T2 Q 2
T=
2 WA (1000 − T2 ) Q2 T1
T2 WA
Q2 =
1000 − T2 Q1
T2 T2 WA HEA WA
WB × = [From eqn (1)]
T2 − T3 1000 − T2
Q2
WB T − T3
= 2
WA 1000 − T2 T2
4 T2 − T3 2
= =
6 1000 –+ T2 3 Q2
3T2 − 3T3 = 2000 − 2T2 HEB WB
2000 + 3T3 = 5T3
Now 2000 Q Q3
= +W3TB 3+ Q 3
− − − ( 2)
2
T2 =
T2 5
× WB = WB + Q3 T3
T2 − TQ
Now =22 WB + Q3
TW T −T Q3
2 B
×W = B 2= WB3 + Q3
TW +Q
2 B− T32 3
T2 HEB WC
WBW×BT2= QT22T−2 −T3Q3T3 + WB T2 − WB T3
= Q4
W
= + Q3Q3 ( T2T−2 T3 )
B T3
B

WB × TW2= TQ 2 T2 − Q3T3 + WB T2 − WB T3
Q3 = B 3 T4
W
= −3T(3T2 − T3 )
B T3 T2 Q

WWT WT
Q3 = C B= 3 B 3  From eqn (1) 
T3 − 300
T2 − T3T2 − T3
WCC WT
= = BB 33  From eqn (1) 
T33 − 300 T22 − T33
WWC C T3 − 300
WT
= = B 3
TW3B− 300T2 −TT23− T3
2 C 1 T3T−3 300
W − 300
= ==
4 B 2 T2T−2 T−3T3
W
22T3 −
1 600T= −T300− T3
= = 3 2
4=
3T 3
2 T2 +T2600
− T3
2T3 − 600
2000=+T23T−3T3
3T3 = + 600  From eqn ( 2 ) 
3T=3
5
T2 + 600
T = 416.67K
2000 + 3T3
3T33 = + 600  From eqn ( 2 ) 
52000 + 3 × 416.67
=Now T2 = 850K
T3 = 416.67K 5
T − T 1000 − 850
Now T
Now =2000
hHEA 1 + 32× 416.67
= = 0.15
= 2 = T1 5 1000850K
 2T3 − 600 =T2 − T3
3T=
3 T2 + 600
2000 + 3T3
Second
3 + 600  From eqn ( 2 ) 
3T L=aw of Thermodynamics  
4.29
5
T3 = 416.67K
2000 + 3 × 416.67
=Now T2 = 850K
5
T − T2 1000 − 850
Now hHEA
= 1 = = 0.15
T1 1000
WA WA
hHEA = , ⇒ 0.15 = ⇒ WA = 150kJ / S
Q1 1000
WA : WB : WC = 6 : 4 : 2
WB 4 2
= =
WA 6 3
2W 2
WB = A = × 150 =100kJ / S
3 3
WC 2 1
= =
WB 4 2
WB 100
W
=C = = 50kJ /S
2 2
27. Two reversible engines A and B are arranged in series A rejecting heat to B through an
intermediate reservoir. Engine A receives 200kJ at a temperature of 421oC from a hot
source, while engine B is in communication with a cold sink at a temperature of 4.4oC.
If the work output of A is twice that of B find (i) the intermediate temperature between
A and B, (ii) the efficiency of each engine, (iii) heat rejected to the cold sink.
VTU June 2008
Data : Q1 =200kJ, T1 =421 + 273 =694K, T3 =4.4 + 273 =277.4K, W =2WB
T2 = ?, hHEA = ?, hHEB = ?, Q3 = ?
T1 = 694K
WA T1 − T2
hHEA = =
Q1 T1 Q1
WA 694 − T2 HEA
= WA
200 694
200 ( 694 − T2 ) Q2
WA = ............... (1)
694
T2
WB T2 − T3
Similarly hHEB = =
Q2 T2
Q2
WB T2 − 277.4
= HEB WB
Q2 T2
T2 − 277.4 Q3
=WB × Q 2 ............ ( 2 )
T2
But WA = 2WB T3 = 277.4K

200 ( 694 − T2 )  T − 277.4  Q 2

= 2× 2 
694  1  T2
 Q2 T2
T2 − 277.4
=WB × Q 2 ............ ( 2 )
T2
4.30 Basic Thermodynamics
But WA = 2WB
200 ( 694 − T2 )  T − 277.4  Q 2
= 2× 2 
694  1  T2
200 ( 694 − T2 ) Q1 200  Q1 Q 2 for series
2 ( T2 − 277.4 )
= 2 ( T2 − 277.4 )
=  T =
694 T1 694  1 T2 connection
T2 = 694 − T2 = 2T2 − 554.8 ⇒ T2 = 416.27 K
200 ( 694 − T2 ) 200 ( 694 − 416.27 )
=WA = = 80.038kJ
694 694
WA 80.38
WB == = 40.019 kJ
2 2
WA 80.038
hHEA = = = 0.40
Q1 200
T2 − T3 416.27 − 277.4
hHEB
= = = 0.334
T2 416.27
WB 40.019
hHEB = = 0.334 = ⇒ Q 2 = 119.96 kJ
Q2 Q2
WB = Q 2 − Q3 ⇒ 40.019 = 119.96 − Q3
Q3 = 79.94 kJ
28. The COP of a heat pump is 5 and the power required to drive it is 35kW.
a. Evaluate the heat transfer from and to the working fluid
b. The heat transfer from the heat pump is used to heat the water circulating the
radiators of a building. Determine the mass flow rate of water required if its temperature
increases by 20oC.
Ans. COP = 5, W = 35 kW, DT = 20o C Source
a. Heat transfers : T1
Q1
( COP )Hp = Q1
W
Q HP W
5= 1
35
Q1 = 175kW Q2
Q1 − Q 2 = W Sink
175 − Q = 35 T2
2

Q 2 = 140 kW
b. Mass of water circulated in the radiator :
Q2 is used to heat the water in radiator
Now = Q 2 mCpw DT
140 =m × 4.2 × 20
m =1.68kg / s
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.31

29. Using a heat engine of thermal efficiency of 30% to drive a refrigerator having a COP
of 5, what is the heat received by the heat engine for each MJ of heat removed from the
cold body of the refrigerator.
Ans. (COP)Ref = 5, hHE = 0.3, Q4 = 1 MJ, Q1 = ?
T1 T3

Q1 Q4
WHE = WRef
HE Ref

Q2 Q3

T2 T4

Q4
( COP )Ref =
w
W
1
5= ⇒ W = 0.2 MJ
W
W 0.2
Now hHE = ⇒ 0.3 =
Q1 Q1
Q1 = 0.667 MJ
30. A house hold refrigerator is maintained at 2oC. Every time the door is opened, warms
material is placed inside, introducing an average of 420 kJ of heat, but making only a
small change in temperature of the refrigerator. The door is opened 20 times a day and
the refrigerator COP is 15% of the ideal COP. The cost of operating the refrigerator
is 32 paise per kWh. What is the monthly bill of this refrigerator? The atmospheric
temperature is 30oC.
Ans. T2 = 2 + 273 = 275 K, T1 = 30 + 273 = 303K, (COP)act = 0.15(COP)ideal
T
( COP )ideal = 2
T1 − T2
T1
275
= = 9.82 Atm
303 − 275
( COP ) = 0.15 × 9.82 = 1.473 Q1
act

Q2 Ref W
( COP )act =
W
Q2
But Q 2 = Heat removed by the refrigerator in one month
\ Q 2 = 420 × 20 × 30 = 252000 kJ T2
Storage space
252000
\1.473 =
W
W =171079 kJ
Electricity charges for one month
0.32 × 171079
= = Rs15.2
3600
 \ Q 2 = 420 × 20 × 30 = 252000 kJ
252000
\1.473 =
W
4.32 Basic Thermodynamics
W =171079 kJ
Electricity charges for one month
0.32 × 171079
= = Rs15.2
3600
31. A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. the heat transfer from the heat engine and
from the heat pump are used to heat the water circulated through the radiators. The
efficiency of the heat engine is 30% and the COP of the heat pump is 4.5. Evaluate the
ratio of the heat transfer to the heat engine to heat transfer to the radiator.
Q 2 + Q3
=
Ans. hHE 0.3, (= COP )HP 4.5,= ?
Q1
Source Sink
T1 T3

Q1 Q4
W
HE HP

Q2 Q3

Radiator
T2
Q 2 + Q3 Q 2 Q3
= +
Q1 Q1 Q1
Q − Q2 Q
But hHE = 1 =1 − 2
Q1 Q1
Q2
or = 1 − hHE
Q1
Q 2 + Q3 W Q3
\ = (1 − hHE ) + ×
Q1 Q1 W
= (1 − hHE ) + hHE × ( COP ) HP
=(1 − 0.3) + 0.3 × 4.5
= 2.05
32. It is proposed to produce 1000 kg of ice per hour from liquid water at 0o C in summer
when the ambient temperature is 30o C. It is planned to use a heat engine to operate
the refrigeration plant. Hot water at 70o C which is produced by solar heating may
be used as a source to supply heat to the heat engine and the engine uses the ambient
temperature as the sink. Calculate
i. The power required to drive the refrigerator
ii. The ratio of heat extracted from the freezing water to the heat absorbed as heat by
the heat engine.
iii. The rate at which heat is rejected to the ambient atmosphere by both the devices.
Assume the latent heat of fusion of water at 0o C as 333.43 kJ/kg.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.33

Ans. T3 = 0 + 273 = 273 K, T1 = 70 + 273 = 343K, T2 = 30 + 273 = 303K.

Source Sink
T1 T3

Q1 Q4
W
HE Ref

Q2 Q3

Ambient
T2
Heat removed from 1000 kg of water at 00 C
L 1000 × 333.43
= m w × ice =
3600 3600
= 92.62 kW
T3 273
( COP
= )Ref = = 9.1
T2 − T3 303 − 273
Q34
Again ( COP )Ref =
W
92.62
9.1 =
W
W =10.19 kW
We have Q3 = W + Q 4 =10.18
10.19 + 92.62 =102.8kW
T1 − T2 343 − 303
h=
HE = = 0.117
T1 343
W 10.18
10.19
Also hHE = ⇒ 0.117 =
Q1 Q1
Q1 = 87 kW
Again Q 2 = Q1 − W = 87 − 10.18
10.19 = 76.82 kW
Q 4 92.62
= = 1.065
Q1 87
Q 2 + Q3= 76.82 + 102.8= 179.62 kW
33. The efficiency of a Carnot engine can be increased either keeping by increasing the
source temperature keeping the sink temperature constant or by decreasing the sink
temperature, Which of the above possibilities is more effective?
Ans. h1 = Efficiency of heat engine when source temperature is varied.
h2 = Efficiency of heat engine when sink temperature is varied.
 4.34 Basic Thermodynamics

T2 T2
h1 = 1 − = 1−
T1 T1 + DT

h2 = 1 −
T2 ( T − DT )
= 1− 2
T1 T1
T2 − DT T2
h
=1 − h2 −
T1 T1 + DT

=
( T1 + DT )( T2 − DT ) − T1T2
T1 ( T1 + DT )
T1T2 − T1DT + T2 DT + DT 2 − T1T2
=
T1 ( T1 + DT )
DT ( T2 − T1 + DT )
=
T1 ( T1 + DT )
Since T2 < T1 , it follows that h1 – h2 < 0 or h2 > h1 . Therefore it is more effective to
decrease the sink temperature rather than increase the source temperature.
34. A heat pump working in a reversible cycle takes in heat from a reservoir at 5o C and
delivers heat to high temperature reservoir at 60oC. The heat pump is driven by a heat
engine taking heat from source at 840o C and rejects heat to low temperature reservoir
at 60o C , The engine also drives a machine of 30 kW capacity. If the heat pump transfer
17 kJ/s to temperature reservoir at 60oC, determine
i. Rate of heat flow from reservoir at 840o C
ii. Rate of heat rejected to sink at 60oC. (VTU Jan 2017 (CBCS))
Ans. T1 = 840 + 273 = 1113 K, T2 = 60 + 273 = 333 K, T3 = 5 + 273 = 278K,
WHE – WHP = 30kW = Wn , Q4 = 17 kJ/s, Q1 = ?, Q2 + Q3 = ?
T1 T3
1113K 278K

Q1
Q4
WHE WHP
HE HP
Wn
Q2 Q3

T2
333K
T1 − T2 1113 − 333
h=
HE = = 0.70
T1 1113
T2 333
( COP
= )HP = = 6.06
T2 − T3 333 − 278
Q3
( COP )HP =
WHP
17
6.06 =
WHP
 T2 333
( COP
= )HP = = 6.06
T2 − T3 333 − 278
Q3
( COPL)HP
Second aw=of Thermodynamics 4.35
WHP
17
6.06 =
WHP
WHP = 2.805kJ / s
WHE =Wn + WHP =30 + 2.805 =
32.805kW
W
hHE = HE
Q1
32.805
0.70 =
Q1
Q1 = 46.86 kW
Rate of heat rejected to the reservoirs of 60o C
WHE = Q1 – Q2
32.805 = 46.86 – Q2
Q2 = 14.06 kW
Q2 + Q3 = 14.06 + 17 = 31.06 kW
35. A Carnot heat engine operates between source temperature of T1K and sink temperature
of T2K. Difference between the source and sink temperature is 240. If the work developed
by the Carnot engine is 0.74 times the heat rejected by the Carnot engine to the sink, find
the efficiency of the Carnot engine and also source temperature and sink temperature.
 (VTU June/July 2017 CBCS)
Ans. T1 – T2 = 240K , W = 0.74 Q2, hHE = ?, T1 = ?, T2 = ?
W
hHE =
Q1
But Q
= Q1 − Q 2
0.74Q=
2 Q1 − Q 2
1.74Q 2 = Q1
W 0.74 Q 2
=
\hHE = = 0.425
= 42.5%
1.74Q 2 1.74 Q 2
T − T2
Now hHE =1
T1
240
0.425 =
T1
T1 = 564.32K
We have T1 − T2 = 240 ⇒ 564.32 − T2 = 240
T2 = 324.32K
36. Two reversible engines A and B working on Carnot cycle operate in series such
that engine A receives heat from source maintained at 600 K and rejects heat to an
intermediate sink maintained at T1. Engine B receives heat rejected by engine A through
 4.36 Basic Thermodynamics

intermediate sink and rejects heat to a sink maintained at 300 K. If both the engines
have same efficiency, determine the temperature Ti of the intermediate sink.
 (VTU June/July 2017)
Ans. For same efficiency the intermediate temperature
T1 + T3 600 + 300
T=
i
= T2 = = 450K
2 2
\h = h
HE1 HE2

T1 = 600K

Q1
HE1 W1

Q2

T2

Q2
HE2 W2

Q3

T3 = 300K

37. A heat engine receives half of its heat at a temperature of 1000K and the rest at 500K
while rejecting heat to a sink at 300K, What is the maximum possible efficiency of this
heat engine?  (VTU June/July 2018)
Ans.
T1 T2
1000K 500K

Q1 w Q2

HE

Q3

T3
300K
T=
2
K =
500k,T3 300 k,Q=
1 0.5Q,Q=
2 0.5Q, hHE= ?
Applying entropy principle
Q1 Q 2 Q3
+ =
T1 T2 T3
0.5Q 0.5Q Q3
+ =
1000 500 300
0.0005Q + 0.001Q =
0.00333Q3
 2 3 1 2 HE

Applying entropy principle

Q1 Q 2 Q3
Second + of =
T1 Law
T2 T Thermodynamics
3
4.37

0.5Q 0.5Q Q3
+ =
1000 500 300
0.0005Q + 0.001Q =
0.00333Q3
Q3 = 0.45Q
Efficiency of heat engine
w
hHE = W = Ww
=
( Q1 + Q2 ) − Q3
Qs Q1 + Q 2 Q1 + Q 2
Q3 0.45Q
1−
= 1−
=
Q1 + Q 2 0.5Q + 0.5Q
= 1 − 0.45
= 0.55= 55%
38. The efficiency of the Carnot engine rejecting heat to a sink at 7°C is 32%. If the heat
rejected to the sink is 16.66 kJ/s. What is the power developed by the engine? Also
determine the source temperature.  (VTU June/July 2018)
Ans. hc = 0.32,T2 = 7 + 273 = 280C,Q 2 = 16.66 kJ / s, W = ?,T1 = ?
We have
W Q1 − Q 2
hc= =
Qs Q1 T1
Q
0.32 = 1 − 2 Q1
Q1
16.66 HE w
0.32 = 1 −
Q1
Q2
Q1 = 24.5kJ / s
\ Power output W =Q1 − Q 2 =24.5 − 16.66 =7.84 kJ / s T2
Source temperature 7oC
T − T2 T
hc = 1 ⇒ 0.32 = 1 − 2
T1 T1
280
0.32 = 1 −
T1
T1 = 411.76o
 4.38 Basic Thermodynamics

Review Questions

1. State I law of thermdynamics applied to a cyclic and non-cyclic process.

2. Explain Joule’s experiment of I law of thermodynamics.
3. What is PMMKI? Why is it impossible?
4. Show that internal energy is the property of a system.
5. For an adiabatic process show that pVγ = C.
6. On a single p - V diagram represent the different thermodynamic processes.
7. Write the SFEE for the following
i. Water turbine ii. Nozzle iii. Air compressor iv. Gas turbine v. Boiler
8. State and explain Kelvin - Planck statement of II law of thermodynamic.
9. State Clausius statement of II law of thermodynamics.
10. Show that Kelvin - Plank statement and Clausius statement are equivalent
11. Explain the working of Carnot engine. Obtain the efficiency expressin for the same.
12. State and prove Carnots theorem.
13. Prove that efficiency of all reversible engines working between the same temperature
reservoirs is same.
14. Write a note on absolute zero temperature.
15. In a cyclic process, heat transfers are +14.7, -25.2, -3.56 and +31.5 kJ. What is the network
for the cyclic process? [Ans. 17.34 kJ]
16. 1.5kg of liquid having a constant specific heat of 2.5 kJ/kg K is stirred in a well insulated
chamber causing the temperature to rise by 15o C. Find ΔE and W for the process.
 [Ans. 56.25 kJ, -56.25 K]
17. A system composed of 2kg of mass expands in a friction less piston and cylinder machine
from the initial state of 1 MPa, 100o C to a final temperature of 30o C. If there is no heat
transfer, find the network for the process.
 [Ans : 100.52 kJ]
18. Air at 101.325 kPa, 20 C is taken into a gas turbine power plant at a velocity of 140 m/s
o

through an opening of 0.15 m2 cross - sectional area. The air is compressed, heated expanded
through a turbine, and exhausted at 0.18 MPa, 150o C through an output is 375 kW. Calculate
the net amount of heat added to the air in kJ/kg. Assume that air obeys the law pv = 0.287
(t + 273), where p is the pressure in kPa, v is the specific volume in m3 /kg, and t is the
temperature in oC. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kg. [Ans. 150.23 kJ/kg ]
19. A gas flows steadily through a rotary compressor. The gas enters the compressor at a
temperature of 16o C, a pressure of 100 kPa, and an enthalpy of 391.2 kJ/kg. The gas leaves
the compressor at a temperature of 245o C, a pressure of 0.6 MPa, and an enthalpy of 534.5
kJ/kg. There is no heat transfer to or from the gas as it flows through the compressor.
a. Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas assuming the gas velocities at entry
and exit to be negligible.
b. Evaluate the external work done per unit mass of gas when the gas velocity at entry is 80
m/s and that at exit is 160 m/s. [Ans. 143.3 kJ/kg, 152.9 kJ/kg]
 Second Law of Thermodynamics 4.39

20. The steam supply to an engine comprises two streams which mix before entering the engine.
One stream is supplied at the rate of 0.01 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2952 kJ/kg and a velocity
of 20 m/s. The other stream is supplied at the rate of 0.1 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2569 kJ/kg
and a velocity of 120 m/s. At the exit from the engine velocity the fluid leaves as two streams,
one of water at the rate of 0.001 kg/s with an enthalpy of 420 kJ/kg and the other of steam,
the fluid velocities at the exit are negligible. the engine develops a shaft power of 25 kW. The
heat transfer is negligible evaluate the enthalpy of the second exit stream.
 [Ans. 2402 kJ/kg]
21. The stream of air and gasoline vapour, in the ratio of 14 : 1 by mass, enters a gasoline engine
at temperature of 30o C and leaves as combustion products at a temperature of 790o C. The
engine has a specific fuel consumption of 0.3 kg/k Wh. The net heat transfer rate from the
fuel - air stream to the jacket cooling water and to the surroundings is 35 kW. The shaft power
delivered by the engine is 26 kW. Compute the increase in the specific enthalpy of the fuel -
air stream, assuming the changes in kinetic energy and elevation to be negligible.
 [Ans. -1877 kJ/kg mixture]
22. An air turbine part of an aircraft refrigerating plant. Air at a pressure of 295 kPa and a
temperature of 58o C flows steadily into the turbine with a velocity of 45 m/s. The air leaves
the turbine at a pressure of 115 kPa, a temperature of 2oC, and a velocity of 150 m/s. The shaft
work delivered by the turbine is 54 kJ/kg of air. Neglecting changes in elevation, determine
the magnitude and sign of the heat transfer per unit mass of air flowing for air, take cp = 1.005
kJ/kg K and the enthalpy h = cp t. [Ans. +7.96 kJ/kg]
23. In a turbomachine handling an incompressible fluid with a density of 1000 kg/m3 the
conditions of the fluid at the rotor entry and exit are given below
Inlet Exit
Pressure 1.15 MPa 0.05 MPa
Velocity 30 m/s 15.5 m/s
Height above datum 10m 2m
If the volume flow rate of the fluid is 40 m /s , estimate the net energy transfer from the fluid
3

as work. [Ans. 60.3 MW]

24. A room for four persons has two fans, each consuming 0.18 kW power, and three 100 W
lamps. Ventilation air at the rate of 80 kg/h enters with an enthalpy of 84 kJ/kg and leaves
with an enthalpy of 59 kJ/kg. If each person puts out heat at the rate is to be removed by a
room cooler, so that a steady state is maintained in the room. [Ans. 1.92 kW]
25. Using an engine of 30% thermal efficiency to drive a refrigerator having a COP of 5, what is
the heat input into the engine for each MJ removed from the cold body by the refrigerator?
[Ans. 666.67 kJ]
If this system is used as a heat pump, how many MJ of heat would be available for heating
for each MJ of heat input to the engine?  [Ans. 1.8 MJ]
26. An electric storage battery which can exchange heat only with a constant temperature
atmosphere goes through a complete cycle of two processes. In process 1-2, 2.8 kWh of
electrical work flow into the battery while 732 kJ of heat flow out to the atmosphere. During
process 2-1, 2.4 kWh of work flow out of the battery, (a) Find the heat transfer in process 2
 4.40 Basic Thermodynamics

– 1. (b) If the process 1 – 2 has occurred as above, does the first law or the second law limit
the maximum possible work of process 2 – 1? What is the maximum possible work? (c) If
the maximum possible work were obtained in process 2 – 1, what will be the heat transfer in
the process? [Ans. (a) –708 kJ (b) Second law, W2 - 1 = 9348 kJ (c) Q2–1 = 0]
27. A household refrigerator is maintained at a temperature of 2°C. Every time the door is opened,
warm material is placed inside, introducing an average of 420 kJ, but making only a small
change in the temperature of the refrigerator. The door is opened 20 times a day, and the
refrigerator operates at 15% of the ideal COP. The cost of work is 32 paise per kWh. What is
the monthly bill for this refrigerator? The atmosphere is at 30°C [Ans. Rs. 15.20]
28. A heat pump working on the Carnot cycle takes in heat from a reservoir at 5°C and delivers
heat to a reservoir at 60°C. The heat pump is driven by a reversible heat engine which takes
in heat from a reservoir at 840°C and rejects heat to a reservoir at 60°C. The reversible heat
engine also drives a machine that absorbs 30 kW. If the heat pump extracts 17 kJ/s from the
5°C reservoir, determine (a) the rate of heat supply from the 840°C source and (b) the rate of
heat rejection to the 60°C sink.  [Ans. (a) 47.61 kW; (b) 34.61 kW]
29. A refrigeration plant for a food store operates with a COP which is 40% of the ideal COP
of a Carnot refrigerator. The store is to be maintained at a temperature of - 5°C and the heat
transfer from the store to the cycle is at the rate of 5 kW. If heat is transferred from the cycle
to the atmosphere at a temperature of 25°C, calculate the power required to drive the plant
and the heat discharged to the atmosphere.  [Ans. 4.4 kW, 6.4 kW]
30. A heat engine is used to drive a heat pump. The heat transfers from the heat engine and from
the heat pump are used to heat the water circulating through the radiators of a building. The
efficiency of the heat engine is 27% and the COP of the heat pump is 4. Evaluate the ratio of
the heat transfer to the circulating water to the heat transfer to the heat engine. [Ans. 1.81]
31. If 20 kJ are added to a Carnot cycle at a temper ature of 100°C and 14.6 kJ are rejected at 0°C,
determine the location of absolute zero on the Celsius scale. [Ans. -270.37°C]
32. Two reversible heat engines A and B are arranged in series, A rejecting heat directly to B.
Engine A receives 200 kJ at a temperature of 421°C from a hot source, while engine B is in
communication with a cold sink at a temperature of 4.4°C. If the work output of A is twice
that of B, find (a) the intermediate temperature between A and B, (b) the efficiency of each
engine, and (c) the heat rejected to the cold sink. [Ans. 143.4°C, 40% & 33.5%, 80 kJ]
33. A heat engine operates between the maximum and minimum temperatures of 671°C and 60°C
respectively, with an efficiency of 50% of the appropriate Carnot efficiency. It drives a heat
pump which uses river water at 4.4°C to heat a block of flats in which the temperature is to be
maintained at 21.1 °C. Assuming that a temperature difference of 11.1 °C exists between the
working fluid and the river water, on the one hand, and the required room temperature on the
other, and assuming the heat pump to operate on the reversed Carnot cycle, but with a COP
of 50% of the ideal COP, find the heat input to the engine per unit heat output from the heat
pump. Why is direct heating thermodynamically more wasteful?
[Ans. 0.79 kJ/kJ heat input]
 Module - 3

Chapter - 5
Reversibility
5.0 Reversibility and irreversibility (Reversible and irreversible process)
The process is said to be reversible if both the system and surrounding A
can be restored to their respective initial states by reversing the direction of
process. X
Let the state of a system be represented by 'A' and let the system be
B
taken to state 'B' by following the path A-B. If the system and also the
surroundings are restored to their initial states, and no change in universe Y
is produced, then the process A-B will be a reversible process. Reversible Fig 5.1 Reversible
process consists of a succession of equilibrium states. process
Reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient so that every
state passed through by the system is an equilibrium state. So a reversible process coincides with
a quasi-static process.
Any natural process carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible process. All spontaneous
processes are irreversible.
5.1 Causes of irreversibility
The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.
1. Lack of equilibrium during the process.
a) Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
b) Lack of pressure equilibrium
c) Free expansion
2. Involvement of dissipative effects.
a) Friction
b) Paddle wheel work
c) Combustion
d) Flow of electricity through resistor.
1. Irreversibility due to lack of equilibrium
The lack of equilibrium between the system and its surroundings causes a spontaneous change
which is irreversible.
The following are the specific examples in this regard.
a. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
 5.2 Basic Thermodynamics

High temperature High temperature

Body T1 Body T1(Source)

Q Q1

Low temperature HP W
Body T2
Q2
fig . (i)
Low temperature
Thermal Reservoir fig . (ii)
(sink) T2
Consider the transfer of heat from a high temperature body to a low temperature body (fig
1). The only of reversing this process ie., transferring of heat from low temperature body to
high temperature body is by means of a heat pump (fig ii) which requires some external work.
Since, external force is applied to restore the initial condition of the system, the above process is
irreversible process.
Though, the system is restored to its initial state, there is a change in properties of the surroundings
due to extraction of work from it.
b. Lack of pressure equilibrium
When there exists a pressure difference between the system and surroundings, or with in the
system itself, then both the system and its surroundings or system alone will undergo a change of
state which will stop only when mechanical equilibrium is reached. The reverse of this process is
not possible spontaneously without producing any other effects. Thus it is an irreversible process.
c. Free Expansion :
Diaphragm

G a s Vaccum
A B

Consider an insulated container which is divided into two compartments A & B by a thin
diaphragm. Compartment A contains a mass of gas while compartment B is completely evacuated.
If the diaphragm is ruptured, the gas A will expand into B until the pressure in A and B equal.
This is known as free expansion. The reverse of this is not possible spontaneously, hence it is an
irreversible process(To restore the original state of system, external work supply is needed. It
causes the change in state of surroundings).
2. Irreversibility due to dissipative effects
It can be explained from the following examples
a. Friction :
Consider a body sliding on an inclined plane as shown in fig (i). When the wights are pulled
down, the block is pulled up over the inclined plane. A certain amount of work is required to do this.
 Reversibility 5.3

Q
Q

(i) (ii)
Some portion of work supplied is utilized to overcome the friction between the block and the
plane and some is required to increase the potential energy of the block. The block can be restored
to its initial position by removing some of the weights, thus allowing the block to slide down the
plane. No doubt some heat has to be transferred from the system to the surroundings to restore the
block to its initial temperature. Since the surroundings are not restored to their initial state, it can
be concluded that friction makes a process irreversible.
b. Paddle wheel work
Insulation

Gas

W
Work can be transferred to a system by means of stirrer. Since the vessel is insulated, the
stirring work will result in increase of the internal energy of the system. The reverse, ie the
conversion of this increase in molecular internal energy into work transfer is not possible. Thus it
is an irreversible process.
The other factors that make a process irreversible are c. Combustion. d. flow of electricity through
a resistor.
5.2 Reversed Carnot heat engine
High temperature High temperature
Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
T1 T1

Q1 Q1

HE W Reversed W
HE

Q2 Q2

Low temperature Low temperature

Thermal Reservoir Thermal Reservoir
T2 T2
Carnot Heat Engine Reversed Carnot Heat Engine
 5.4 Basic Thermodynamics

A Carnot heat engine is one which operates between the given high temperature and low
temperature reservoirs. It operates on a cycle in which every process is reversible.
If the cycle is reversed, the heat engine becomes a reversed heat engine. This reversed heat
engine can be called either a heat pump or a refrigerator depending on its applications.
When a reversible process is reversed, all the energy transfers associated with the process are
reversed in direction, but remain same in magnitude.
The reversed heat engine takes heat from a low temperature body and transfer it to high
temperature body receiving work from external means.

5.3 Impracticability of Carnot cycle

In a cycle, isothermal heat transfer can be achieved only if the piston moves very slowly to
allow more time so that the temperature remains the constant.
Adiabatic process can be achieved only if the piston moves as fast as possible, so that heat transfer
is negligible due to very short time available.
In Carnot cycle, the isothermal and adiabatic processes takes place during the same stroke and
therefore the piston has to move very slowly for the first part of the stroke and it has to move very
fast during the remaining part of the stroke. This variation of the piston movement during the
same stroke is not possible. Therefore, practically it is not possible to construct an engine working
on Carnot cycle.

5.4 Internal and external irreversibility

Internal irreversibility is caused by the internal dissipative effects like friction, turbulence,
electrical resistance, magnetic hysteresis etc., with in the system.
The external irreversibility refers to the irreversibility occurring at the system boundary like
heat interaction with the surroundings due to finite temperature gradient.
If the irreversibility of a process is due to the dissipation of work into the increase in internal
energy of a system of due to a finite pressure gradient, it is called mechanical irreversibility. If
irreversibility occurs on account of finite temperature gradient, it is thermal irreversibility. If it is
a finite concentration gradient, it is called chemical irreversibility.

5.5 Thermodynamic or Absolute temperature scale

It is fact that the efficiency of a reversible heat engine cycle depends only on the temperature of
the two reservoirs and thus making it possible to develop a scale of temperature which is independent
of any working substance. Such a scale is called thermodynamic absolute temperature scale.
 Reversibility 5.5

Source T1

Q1 Q1

W1 W3
HE1 HE3

Q2 Q3
T2
W2
HE2
Q3

Sink T3

Consider reversible heat engine HE1 receiving heat from the source at T1 and rejecting heat at T2
to HE2 which in turn rejects heat to the sink at T3 as shown in fig.
Now the efficiency of a reversible HE
W Q − Q2 Q
ηHE = net = 1 =1 − 2 .......... (1)
Q1 Q1 Q1
By II Law, it is necessary to have a temperature difference
(T2 − T1 ) to obtain work for any cycle
f ( T1 ,T2 ) .............. ( 2 )
ηHE =
From equation (1) and ( 2 )
Q2
1− f ( T1 ,T2 )
=
Q1
In terms of new function F
Q1
= F ( T1 , T2 ) .......... ( 3)
Q2
Now applying equation ( 3) for reversible heat engine HE1 and HE 2
Q1
= F ( T1 ,T2 )
Q2
Q2
= F ( T2 ,T3 )
Q3
HE1 and HE 2 together constitute another heat engine HE 3 operates
between T1 and T3
∴ For HE 3
Q1
= F ( T1 ,T3 )
Q3
Q1
Q1 Q3 F ( T1 ,T3 )
 3

HE1 and HE 2 together constitute another heat engine HE 3 operates

between T1 and T3
5.6 Basic Thermodynamics
∴ For HE 3
Q1
= F ( T1 ,T3 )
Q3
Q1
Q1 Q3 F ( T1 ,T3 )
Now = = F ( T1 ,T=
2) ....... ( 4 )
Q2 Q2 F ( T2 ,T3 )
Q3
Q1
The ratio of depends only on T1 and T2 and is independent of T3 .
Q2
So T3 will dropout from the equation ( 4 )
Q F ( T1 )
( T1 ,T2 )
ie., 1 F=
=
Q2 F ( T2 )
Since F ( T ) is an arbitary function and net f ( T ) = T, then
Q1 T1
=
Q 2 T2
This thermodynamic absolute scale is also called as the Kelvin scale.
In defining this scale, the tripple point of water is taken at the standard refernce point.
For a Carnot engine operating between reservoirs at temperatre T and Tt , Tt being the
tripple point of water assigned the value 273.16 K
Q T
∴ =
Q1 Tt
Q
T
= × Tt
Qt
Q
T = 273.16
Qt
Q is the thermetric property
 Chapter - 6
Entropy
6.0 Introduction
The first law of thermodynamics was shown that the cyclie integral of heat is equal to the
cyclie integral of work. When the first law was applied for thermodynamic process, the existence
of internal energy was found.
When the second law was applied to processes it lead to the definition of new property known
as entropy. If the first law is said to be the law of internal energy, then the second law may be
stated to be the law of entropy. In fact thermodynamics is the study of three 'E's, namely energy,
equilibrium and entropy.
6.1 Clausius Theorem
Reversible isotherms

Reversible adiabatic
T3
e f
b1 dQ3 Original reversible
p T1 cycle
a b
dQ1
a1 c g
T4
c1
T2 d d1 dQ2 dQ4

V
Consider a closed curve representing a reversible cycle of a system.
The given cycle may be sub divided by a drawing a family of reversible adiabatic lines. Every
two adjacent adiabatic lines may be joined by two reversible isotherms. It is assumed that the heat
transferred during the isothermal process is the same as that of heat interaction during the original
path and the work interaction during the adiabatic process is same as that of work interaction
during original path.
i.e., Qa – b = Qa , Qc – d = Qc
1 – b1 1 – d1
and Wa – b = Wa1 – b1, Wc – d = Wc – d
1 1
Then a – b – c – d is a Carnot cycle which has two isothermals and two adiabatics
Let the original cycle is replaced by a large number of Carnot cycles
For the elemental cycle a – b – c – d
dQ1 dQ 2 Q T1
=  1
T1 T2 Q 2 T2
 6.2 Basic Thermodynamics

If heat supplied is taken as positive and heat rejected as negative then

dQ1 dQ 2
+ =0
T1 T2
Similarly for the elemental cycle e - f - g - h
dQ3 dQ 4
=
T3 T4
dQ3 dQ 4
+ 0
=
T3 T4
If similar cycles are written for all the elemental Carnot cycles, then for the whole original cycle
 dQ1 dQ 2   dQ3 dQ 4 
 + + +  + − − − − − =0
 T1 T2   T3 T4 
dQ
or ∫ =0 for a reversible cycle
T
This is known as Clausius theorem

6.2 Entropy
It is a function of a quantity of a heat which shows the possibility of conversion of that heat into
work
or
It is a property of the system which measures the degree of randomness or disorderedness.
Change in entropy is given by
dQ
ds =
T
dQ = Heat supplied to the system
T = Initial temperature of the system
The increase in entropy is small when heat is added at a high temperature and is greater when
heat addition is made at a lower temperature.
The unit of entropy is kJ / kg K.
6.2.1 Entropy - Property of a system

Re
v.
A
2
Property (1) B
v.
Re
1 v.
C
Re

Property (2)
Consider a closed system undergoing a reversible process 1 - 2 along path A.
Let the cycle be completed by a reversible process from 2 - 1 along path B,
For the reversible cycle 1 - A - 2 - B - 1 applying Clausius theorem
 Entropy 6.3

We get,
22 1 1
dQ  dQ   dQ 
∫= ∫11  T AA ∫22  T=
  + =
 00 − −− −−((11)
T  BB
If the cycle be completed by another reversible process from 2 − 1
along path c then
22 1
dQ  dQ 
1
 dQ 
∫
= ∫1  T AA ∫2  T=
  + =
 00 − −− −− −−((22)
We get, T 1 2 CC
Comparing (dQ 1) & ((222)) dQ  1
 dQ 
2  ∫dQT ∫1 11 TdQ A ∫2 22 T=
= +  01 − − − (1)
2
     dQ
 dQ 
B
1
dQ
 dQ 

 dQ  ∫ 
1
dQ   + ∫  = ∫   ++ ∫  
− 2−(1T)  BBby another
T  A ∫2  T  B 1 
 +  If = the cycle0 T be  A−completed
11 
 TT AAreversible
22
 TT process
CC
from 2 − 1
along path 1 c then 11 dQ 
 dQ  process 
pleted by another reversible ∫  TdQ =2 ∫2 dQ
  from
T 
 1 2dQ
 
−1

2 =B
∫ 1T ∫1 2 T 12 A CC+ ∫2  T=  0 − − − − ( 2)
1 C
2
1  dQ   dQ   dQdQ 
dQ   dQ  i.e., ∫= ( 2−) − ∫(=  ∫   etc etc
(
 )  ) 
T  A ∫2  T  C
 +  Comparing
=  0 1 −&− 2
 T CC 21  TT  DD
2  T B 21 
2 1 2 1
 dQ  the integral dQ   dQquantity
  dQ  all reversible paths between states 1 and 2
) This shows ∫1  T  A ∫2  T  B ∫1  T  A ∫2  T for
 that
 +   =of the
  +
1 2 1 C
 dQ  is same.  dQ Hence  dQ = ds
∫2  T  B ∫1  T  A  ∫2dQ
= 1
+     dQ 
1 is a point function and therefore a property of the system.

∫2  T T B =C ∫2  T  C
1
 dQ  6.3 Clausius1Inequality2
∫2  T  C Statement:i.e.,It states  dQ   dQ 
2
 dQ 
∫2  T that
=
B
∫ =
whenever

T
 a ∫system 
T
etc
 undergoes a cyclic change, the algebraic sum of the

2 interactions
 dQ 
2
 dQ  divided by the1
absolute C
temperature
1 D at which the heat interactions are taking place

B
∫1  T over
=  the ∫1  entire etc
T  D cycle is less than or equal to zero.

Proof:
C

ble
e v ersi cs
R bati
a
T=C adi

Reversible
process
T A B
dQ Irreversible
process
C
D
dQ2
V
Consider a cycle ABCD. Let AB be a general process either reversible or irreversible while the
other processes in the cycle are reversible.
Let the cycle be divided into a number elementary cycles as shown in fig.
 6.4 Basic Thermodynamics

For one of these elementary cycle

dQ 2
η= 1−
dQ
Where, dQ = Heat supplied at temperature T
dQ2 = Heat rejected at temperature T2
Now the efficiency of a general cycle will be equal or less than efficiency of a reversible cycle.
dQ 2  dQ 2 
i.e., 1− ≤ 1 − 
dQ  dQ Rev
dQ 2  dQ 2 
≤ 
dQ  dQ rev
 dQ 2  T2
But   =
 dQ rev T
dQ T
∴ 2≤ 2
dQ T
dQ T
≤
dQ 2 T2
dQ dQ 2
or ≤ → for any process AB reversible or irreversible
T T2
For a reversible process
dQ 2
ds =
T2
Hence for any process AB
dQ
≤ ds
T
Then for any cycle
dQ
∫ T ≤ ds
Since entropyis a property and the cyclicintegralof any propertyis zero
dQ
∴ We get ∫ ≤0
T
The above equation is known as Clausiusinequality
dQ
If ∫ T
= 0, The cycle is reversible

dQ
∫ T < 0, The cycle is irreversible and possible
dQ
∫ T > 0, The cycle is impossible since it violates the II law.
 Entropy 6.5

6.4 Principle of Entropy Increase

For any process undergone by a system
dQ dQ
≤ ds or ds ≥
T T
For an isolated system which does not undergo any energy interactions with the surrounding.
dQ = 0
.
. . For an isolated system
ds ≥ 0
For a reversible isolated process
ds = 0
For an irreversible process
ds > 0
Thus entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. It always increases and remain constant
only when the process is reversible. This is known as the principle of entropy increase.
6.5 Entropy change is an irreversible process
For any process undergone by a system
dQ
≤ ds
T v.
A
2
Re
dQ v.
B
or ds ≥ T Re
T 1 Irv
.C
Consider a cycle as shown is figure
A and B are reversible processes C is an irreversible process
For the reversible cycle of A & B S
2 1
 dQ   dQ   dQ 
∫  T  R ∫1  T  A ∫2  T  B
 =   +   =0
2 1
 dQ   dQ 
or ∫1  T A = − ∫2  T B − − − (1)

For the irreversible cycle consisting of A & C, by the inequality of Clausius.

2 1
 dQ   dQ   dQ 
∫ =
 
 T  IR
∫1  T A + ∫2  T C < 0
Substituting condition (1) in the above eqn.
1 1
 dQ   dQ 
−∫   + ∫  <0
2
T  B 2  T C
1 1
 dQ   dQ 
or ∫2  T B > ∫2  T C − − − ( 2)

Since the path B is reversible

1 1
 dQ 
2
∫ T  B ∫2
 = ds

Since entropy is a property, entropy change for the paths B & C

would be the same.
1 1
  T  B 2  T C
2

Since the path B is reversible

1 1
 dQ 
6.6 ∫2  T B
= ∫ ds
2
Basic Thermodynamics

Since entropy is a property, entropy change for the paths B & C

would be the same.
1 1
∴ ∫ ( ds )B =
∫ ( ds )C
2 2

∴ Eqn ( 2 ) becomes
1 1
 dQ 
∫ ( ds )C > ∫ 
2 2

T C
Thus, for any irreversible process
dQ
ds >
T
For a reversible process
dQ
ds =
T
In general
dQ
ds ≥
T
2
dQ
. S11 ≥ ∫
or S22–S
1
T
The equality sign holds good for a reversible process and inequality sign for an irreversible
process.
6.6 Entropy change during various thermodynamic processes

(1) Constant volume process

T
2 2
p
1
Q
1
S
V S1 S2
Let 1 kg of gas being heated at constant volume
S1, S2 are the initial and final entropies
Heat supplied during constant volume
Q = Cv (T2 – T1)
For a small increment
dQ = C v dT
Dividing both sides by T, we get
dQ dT
= Cv
T T
dQ
But = ds
T
 dQ = C v dT
Dividing both sides by T, we get
dQ
Entropy = C v
dT 6.7
T T
dQ
But = ds
T
dT
∴ ds = Cv
T
Integrating
2 2
dT
∫ ds = Cv ∫
1 1
T
T2
S2 − S1 =
C v log e
T1

(2) Constant pressure process

T
2
p
1 2 1
Q

S
V S1 S2
Let 1 kg of gas being heated at constant pressure
Heat supplied during constant pressure process
= Q Cp ( T2 − T1 )
For a small increment
dQ = Cp dT
Dividing both sides by T
dQ dT
= Cp
T T
dT
ds = Cp
T
Integrating both sides
2 2
dT
∫ ds = Cp ∫
1 1
T
T2
S2 − S1 =
Cp log e
T1
 6.8 Basic Thermodynamics

(3) Isothermal Process

P T
2
1 2
Q
1
S
V S1 S2
Let 1 kg of gas being heated at constant temperature
For isothermal process T1 = T2
∴DE = 0
Heat supplied during isothermal process
V
Q
= W = p1V1 log e 2
V1
But=
Q area under 1 − 2 in T − S diagram
= T ( S2 − S1 )
V2
∴ T ( S2 − S1 ) =
p1V1 log e
V1
V2
T ( S2 − S1 ) =
mR T1 log e (
= T1 ) m 1kg
T=
V1
V2
S2 − S1 =
R log e
V1
 p1V1 = p 2 V2 
p1 
or S2 − S1 =
R log e  V2 p1 
p2  = 
 V1 p 2 

(4) Adiabatic or isentropic process

p
1 1
T

2
2
V S
During an adiabatic process heat is neither supplied nor rejected
i.e., dQ = 0
dQ
=0
T
ds = 0
∴ S2 − S1 = 0
 Entropy 6.9

(5) Polytropic Process

Let 1 kg of gas being expanded according to
pV n = C
For a small increment of heat transfer
=dQ C v dT + pdV
Dividing by T on both sides
dQ dT dV
= Cv +p.
T T T
dQ p R
But
= ds,
= pV RT = or 1 1
T T V
dT dV pV = C
n
T
∴=ds C v . + R. p 2
T V
2 Q
Integrating on both sides
2 2 2
dT dV
∫ ds Cv ∫
=
1 1
T
+ R∫
1
V
V S

T  V 
S2 − S1 C v log e  2  + R log e  2 
= − − − (1)
 T1   V1 
n −1
T V 
But 2 =  1 
T1  V2 
− ( n −1)
T2  V2 
or = 
T1  V1 
− ( n −1)
V  V 
∴ S2 − S1 C v log e  2 
= + R log e  2 
 V1   V1 
− R ( n − 1) V  V   R
= log e  2  + R log e  2   CV = γ − 1
γ −1  V1   V1  
 − ( n − 1)  V 
=  + 1 R log e  2 
 γ −1   V1 
γ−n V2
S2 − S1 =
  R log e
 γ −1  V1
n −1
T p  n
Again We know that 2 =  2 
T1  p1 
1 1
−
V  p1  n  p 2  n
& 2 =
=   
V1  p 2   p1 
 6.10 Basic Thermodynamics

Eqn (1) becomes

n −1 1
−
R p  n p  n
S2 − S1
= log e  2  + R log e  2 
γ −1  p1   p1 
 R  n −1   p2  1  p2 
   log e   − R log e  
 γ −1 n   p1  n  p1 
 n −1 1 p 
=  −  R log e  2 
 n ( γ − 1) n   p1 
 ( n − 1) − ( γ − 1)   p2 
=  R log e  
 n ( γ − 1)   p1 
 n−γ   p2 
S2 − S1 =
  R log e  
 n ( γ − 1)   p1 
1
V  T  n −1
Again We know that 2 =  1 
V1  T2 
∴ Eqn (1) becomes
1
T   T  n −1
S2 − S1 C v log e  2  + R log e  1 
=
 T1   T2 
1
−
R T  T  n −1
= log e  2  + R log e  2 
γ −1  T1   T1 
R T  R T 
= log e  2  − log e  2 
γ −1  T1  n − 1  T1 
 1 1  T 
=  −  R log e  2 
 γ − 1 n − 1  T1 
n −1− γ +1 T 
= R log e  2 
( γ − 1)( n − 1)  T1 
n−γ T 
S2 − S1 = R log e  2 
( γ − 1)( n − 1)  T1 

(6) Throttling process (Free expansion)

Throttling process occurs when a gas is expanded through a restricted narrow opening or
partly opened valve in the line of flow. In this process the enthalpy of the fluid remain constant
and its is a slow process.
 Entropy 6.11

Free expansion of a gas occurs when a fluid is allowed to expand suddenly into a vacuum
chamber through an orifice. In this process the internal energy of the fluid remain constant and it
is a non-flow process. The change in entropy can be calculated by
V
S2 − S1 = m R log e 2
V1

6.7 Calculation of Entropy change

For the calculation of entropy change, the following factors are considered
dQ
(i) ds = for reversible process
T
(ii) Entropy is a state function. The entropy change of a system is determined by its initial and final
states only, irrespective of how the system has changed its state.
(iii) For analysing irreversible process, an imaginary reversible process is assumed and its entropy
change is evaluated. This entropy change becomes equal to the entropy change of irreversible
process.
The calculation of entropy is demonstrated by considering the following elementary process.
(a) Transfer of heat through a finite temperature difference
System
Q boundary
T1 T2
T1 > T2
Reservoir A Reservoir B
Let Q be the heat transfer from reservoir A at T1 to reservoir B at T2
For an isolated system consisting reservoirs A & B
Entropy =S SA + SB
DSuniv = DSA + DSB
Q Q  − sign indicate that heat is 
DSuniv =− + flowing out of the reservoir A 
T1 T2  
 T − T2 
= Q 1 
 T1T2 

(b) Mixing of two fluids

Insulation

(1) (2)
T1 T2

T1 > T2
Consider a rigid and insulated container is divided into two compartments by a partition.
Let for compartment (1)
 6.12 Basic Thermodynamics

m1 = mass of gas present

p1 = pressure of gas
T1 = temperature of gas
Cp1 = Specific heat of gas
For compartment (2)
m2 = mass of gas present
p2 = pressure of gas
T2 = temperature of gas
Cp2 = Specific heat of gas
If the partition is removed and the gases are allowed to mix, there will be a change in entropy.
After energy interaction, the system being isolated.
Let Tf = final temperature of mixture
∴ Q1 = Q2
m1Cp1 ( T1 −=
Tf ) m 2 Cp2 ( Tf − T2 )
m1Cp1T1 + m 2 Cp2 T2
Tf =
m1Cp1 + m 2 Cp2
Now DSuniv = DS1 + DS2
Tf Tf
dQ dT
DS=
1 ∫T T= ∫mC
T1
1 p1
T
1

T 
m1C p1 log e  f  ( This will be − ve because Tf < T1 )
 T1 
Tf
dT
m 2 C p2 ∫
Similary DS2 =
T2
T
T   It is + ve because 
= m 2 C p2 log e  f   
 T2   Tf > T2 
Tf Tf
∴DSuniv m1Cp1 log e
= + m 2 Cp2 log e
T1 T2

(c) Entropy change of an ideal or perfect gas

If an ideal gas under goes a change of state from p1, V1, T1 to p2, V2, T2 the change in entropy
can be calculated by dividing a reversible path connecting the two given end sates.
From the I law of Ther mod ynamics
dQ
= dE + pdV − − − (1)
dh ( pV ) + pdV
[Link] =− (h = dE + d ( pV ) )
E + pv or dh =
= dh − [Link] − [Link] + [Link]
[Link]= dh − Vdp − − − ( 2)
For an ideal gas
dE = C v .dT
dh = Cp .dT
 dh − ([Link]
==−
[Link] pV ) +−pdV
[Link] + [Link] (h = dE + d ( pV ) )
E + pv or dh =
[Link]
= dh − Vdp
= [Link] − [Link] − − ( 2)
+ −[Link]
Entropy
For=an dh
ideal gas 6.13
[Link] − Vdp − − − ( 2)
dE = C .dT
For an ideal
v gas
dh
dE == C
[Link]
.dT
pV = RT
dh = C .dT
p
From eqn (1)
pV = RT
=From eqn
[Link] C v dT(1) + p dV
T
p
=[Link] C v dT + dV dV
= ds C v +TR.
T
dT V
dV
= ds C
Integrating v + R .
T V
Integrating T  V 
= S2 − S1 C v log e  2  + R log e  2 
T1 
 T V1 
 V
= S2 − S1 C v log e  2  + R log e  2 
From eqn ( 2 )  T1   V1 
dh [Link]
From
= eqn
ds − ( 2)
T
dh [Link] T
ds
= −dT dp
= CTp . TR
−
T
dT p
dp
= C .
Integrating
p − R
T p
Integrating T  p2
S
= 2 − S1 C p log e  2  + R log e
T1 
 T pp1
S
= − =1 Cpp − C ve  T  + R log e
S C log 2 2
But
2 R p1
 1
But R= C −C T  p 
S2 − S1 Cpp logve  2  + ( Cp − C v ) log e  2 
=
 T T1   pp1 
S2 − S1 Cp log e  2  + ( Cp − C v ) log e  2 
=
 TT  p  p p
= Cp log e 12  + Cp log e  2  − C1v log e 2
 TT1   pp1  pp1
= Cp logpe V  p+ V
2
Cp log e  2  − C v log e 2
From gas eqn 1  1T1= 2 2  p1  p1
T
p1V 1 T
pV2
FromT2 gaspeqn V
1
= 2 2
or = 2 × 2 T1 T2
T p
T12 p 12 V12 V
or = ×
 p 2 V2  p p
∴=S2T−1 S1 p1 Cp V
log
1
e  ×  − Cp log e 2 + C v log e 2
 pp1 VV1  pp1 pp1
∴=S2 − S1 Cp log e p 2 × 2  − CVp log e 2 + Cpv log e 2 p
= Cp log e  p2 1+ CVp1log e 2 − Cp plog 1
e
2
+ C v plog
1
e
2

pp 1 V
V 1 p
p 1 p
p 1
= Cp log e 2 + Cp log e 2 − Cp log e 2 + C v log e 2
V p2 1
=S2 − S1 Cp log e 2p1+ C v log e V p1 p1
V
V1 p
p1
=S2 − S1 Cp log e 2 + C v log e 2
V1 p1
 6.14 Basic Thermodynamics

(d) Maximum work obtainable from two finite bodies at temperatures T1 & T2
Body (1)
T1

Q1

HE W = Q1 – Q2

Q2

Body (2)
T2
Let us consider two identical finite bodies of constant heat capacity at temperatures T1 & T2,
T1 > T2.
If a heat engine is operated between two bodies, W amount of work is produced.
As work is delivered by the heat engine, the temperature of body (1) will be decreasing and
that of body (2) will be increasing. When both the bodies attain the final temperature Tf the heat
engine will stop operating. Let the bodies remain at constant pressure and under go no change of
phase.
Total heat with drawn from body (1)
Q1 Cp ( T1 − Tf )
=
Total heat rejected to body ( 2 )
Q 2 Cp ( Tf − T2 )
=
W
= Q1 − Q 2
= Cp ( T1 + T2 − 2Tf )
Entropy change for body (1)
Tf
dT T 
DS1
= ∫ C=
T1
.
T
p Cp log e  f 
 T1 
From body ( 2 )
Tf
dT T 
DS2
= ∫ C=
T2
T
p Cp log e  f 
 T2 
Since the working fluid operating in the heat engine cycle does not under go any entropy
change, its entropy change ∆Sfluid = 0.
Applying entropy principle
DSuniv ≥ 0
( DS1 + DS2 ) ≥ 0
 T T 
i.e.,  Cp log e f + Cp log e f  ≥ 0
 T1 T2 
2
Tf
Applying entropy principle
DSuniv ≥ 0
( DESntropy
1 + DS2 ) ≥ 0
6.15

 T T 
i.e.,  Cp log e f + Cp log e f  ≥ 0
 T1 T2 
2
T
Cp log e f ≥ 0
T1T2
For Tf to be minimum
Tf2
Cp log e =0
T1T2
Tf2
or log e =0
T1T2
Tf2
= eo
T1T2
Tf2
=1
T1T2
Tf = T1T2 is the condition for maximum work

(
Cp T1 + T2 − 2 T1T2
∴ Wmax = )
C ( )
2
Wmax
= p T1 − T2

(e) Maximum work obtainable from a finite body and TER

Body T

HE W

Q-W

TER
T0
Consider a heat engine working between a finite body at T and TER at T0 such that T > T0.
Let Cp be the thermal capacity of finite body
As heat is drawn from the finite body, its temperature decreases. The temperature of TER
remains unchanged at T0. The engine would stop working when the temperature of the body
reaches T0. During this period, the amount of work delivered is W and the heat rejected to TER is
Q-W.
 6.16 Basic Thermodynamics

Now
dQ
To
dT ds =
∫ Cp .
DSbody =
T
T
T dQ = Cp dT
T0
= Cp log e
T
DSHE = ∫ ds = 0
Q−W
DSTER =
T0
DSuniv = DSbody + DSHE + DSTER
T0 Q−W
= Cp log e +0+
T T0
T0 Q − W
= Cp log e +
T T0
From the entropy principle
DSuniv ≥ 0
T0 Q − W
Cp log e + ≥0
T T0
T0 ( W − Q )
Cp log e − ≥0
T T0
T0 W − Q
Cp log e ≥
T T0
W−Q T
or ≤ Cp log e 0
T0 T
T0
W ≤ Q + T0 Cp log e
T
For max. work
T0
Wmax= Q + T0 Cp log e
T
T
= Cp ( T − T0 ) − T0 Cp log e
T0
 T
Wmax= Cp ( T − T0 ) − T0 log e 
 T0 
 Entropy 6.17

PROBLEMS ON ENTROPY

1. 1 kg of ice at –5oCis exposed to the atmosphere which is at 20oC. The ice melts and comes
into themal equilibrium with the atmosphere (a) Determine the entropy increase of the
universe (b) What is the minimum amount of work necessary to convert the water back to
ice at –5oC. Take Cp for ice = 2.093kJ/kg K, the latent heat of fusion of ice is 333.3kJ/kg.
Ans. (a) Entropy change of universe
Atm,
20oC

Ice
–5oC

Heat absorbed by the ice from the atmosphere

=Q m Cpice ( 0 − ( −5 ) ) + m × Lice + mCpw ( 20 − 0 )
= 1 × 2.093 ( 0 + 5 ) + 1 × 333.3 + 1 × 4.2 × 20
Q = 427.5kJ / kg
Entropy change of atmosphere (infinite temperature body)
−Q −427.5
DSatm = = = −1.46kJ / kgK ( −indicates heat loss for atmosphere )
T 20 + 273
Entropy change of ice system, ( finite temp. body ) as it gets heated from − 5o C to 0o C
273
dT
DS1 =∫ m Cp
268
T
273 273
m Cp log e
= = 1 × 2.093 log e = 0.0389kJ / kgK
268 268
Entropy change of system as ice melts at 0o C
L 333.2
DS2 = ice = = 1.22kJ / kgK
T 273
Entropy change of water as it gets heated from 0o C to 20o C
293
dT 293
=DS3 ∫ m=
273
C
T
pw m Cpw log e
273
293
1 × 4.2 log e
= = 0.296kJ / kg K
273
Total entropy change for ice system
( DS)system = DS1 + DS2 + DS3
= 0.0389 + 1.22 + 0.296= 1.555kJ / kg K
 273
T 273
293
1 × 4.2 log e
= = 0.296kJ / kg K
273
6.18 Basic Thermodynamics
Total entropy change for ice system
( DS)system = DS1 + DS2 + DS3
= 0.0389 + 1.22 + 0.296= 1.555kJ / kg K
Entropy increase of universe
DSuniv = ( DS)syst + DSatm = 1.555 − 1.46 = 0.0949 kJ / kg
( b ) Work required to convert water at 20o intoice at − 5o C
Entropy change for atmosphere
Q+W
DSatm =
T
Entropy change of system
DSsys =−1.555 kJ / kg K
DSatm + DSsys
DSuniv =
Q+W
= − 1.555
T
From the principle of increase of entropy
DSuniv ≥ 0
Q+W
i.e., − 1.555 ≥ 0
T
Q+W
≥ 1.555
T
Q + W ≥ 1.555 × T
W ≥ 1.555 × T − Q
For minimum work to be supplied
W
= 1.555 × T − Q
=1.555 × ( 293) − 427.5
W = 28.5kJ
2. Three identical finite bodies of constant heat capacity are at temperatures 300, 300 and
100K. If no work or heat is supplied from outside what is the highest temperature to
which any one of the bodies can be raised by the operation of heat engine or refrigerator.
Ans. Let us operate a heat engine and refrigerator between three bodies as shown in fig.
Let Tf be the final temperature of A & B
Tf1 final temp. of C
Tf
Now, DSA =
C log e
300
T
DSB = C log e f
100
T1
DSC = C log e f
300
DSHE = 0 & DSRef = 0
Since DSuniv ≥ 0
 Tf
DSB =
C log e
100
T1
Entropy DSC = C log e f 6.19
300
DSHE = 0 & DSRef = 0
Since DSuniv ≥ 0
 Tf T T1  A C
 C log e + C log e f + C log e f  ≥ 0
300K 300K
 300 100 300 
For minimum value of Tf Q1 Q4
2 1
T .T
C log e f
=0 f
W Ref
300 × 100 × 300 HE
2 1
T .T Q2
f f
= e0
6 Q3
9 × 10
Tf2 . Tf1 =1 × 9 × 106 B
2 1
T .T = 9 × 10 6
− − − (1) 100K
f f

Q1 C ( 300 − Tf )
Now,=
Q 2 C ( Tf − 100 )
=
Q 4 C ( Tf1 − 300 )
=
Again, Q1 = Heat removed from body A
= Heat discharged to bodies B and C
= Q2 + Q4
C ( 300 − Tf )= C ( Tf − 100 ) + C ( Tf1 − 300 )
T
=1
f 700 − 2Tf − − − ( 2 )
Substituting ( 2 ) in (1)
Tf2 ( 700 − 2Tf ) =
9 × 106
Tf = 150K
1
T=
f ( 700 − 2 × 150=) 400K
3. A system has a heat capacity at constant volume Cv = AT2, Where A = 0.042J/k3. The
system is originally at 200K and a thermal reservoir at 100K is available. What is the
maximum amount of work that can be recovered as the system is cooled down to the
temperature of the reservoir.
Ans. Heat removed from the system
T2 T2

∫= ∫ 0.042T
2
=Q1 C v dT . dT
T1 T1

Q1 = 0.042
=−98 × 103 J
( −indicates heat lost by thesystem )
100
dT
( DS)sys =
∫ Cv 200
T
100
dT
∫ 0.042T
2
=
 Q1 = 0.042
=−98 × 103 J
6.20 Basic Thermodynamics
(−indicates heat lost by thesystem )
100
dT
( DS)sys =
∫ Cv 200
T
100 System
dT Tf = 100K
= ∫
200
0.042T 2
T
T1 = 200K

100
 T2 
100 Q1
= ∫= 0.042T . dT 0.042  
 3  200
200
HE W
0.042
= 1002 − 2002  = −630J /K
2 Q1 – W
Q − W 98 × 103 − W
( DS)reser= 1 =
T2 100 Reservoir
DSHE =
0 T2 = 100K
DSuniv = DSsys + DSrese
98 × 103 − W
−630 +
=
100
But DSuniv ≥ 0
98 × 103 − W
i.e., − 630 + ≥0
100
W
980 − − 630 ≥ 0
100
W W
≥ −350 or ≤ 350
100 100
Wmax = +350 × 100 =35kJ
4. 3 kg of water at 80oC is mixed with 4 kg of water at 15oC in an isolated system. Calculate
the change of entropy due to mixing process.
Ans. Applying I law of Thermodynamics to the isolated system

3kg 4kg
80oC 15oC

i.e., Total energy before mixing = Total energy after mixing

3Cpw ( 80 − 0 ) + 4Cpw (15=
− 0 ) 7Cpw ( t m − 0 )
t m = 42.85o C
Initial entropy of the system
 80 + 273   15 + 273 
= 3Cpw log e   + 4Cpw log e   = 0.9848Cpw
 273   273 
Final entropy of the system
42.85 + 273 
= ( 3 + 4 ) Cpw log e   = 1.0205 Cpw
 273 
 Initial entropy of the system
 80 + 273   15 + 273 
= 3Cpw log e   + 4Cpw log e   = 0.9848Cpw
 273   273 
Entropy
Final entropy of the system 6.21

42.85 + 273 
= ( 3 + 4 ) Cpw log e   = 1.0205 Cpw
 273 
Net change in entropy
=DS 1.0205 Cpw − 0.984 Cpw
= 0.0357
= Cpw 0.0357 × 4.2
DS =0.1498 kJ /K
5. 1 kg of water at 0oC is brought into contact with a heat reservoir at 90oC. When the
water has reached 90oC find (i) entropy change of water, (ii) entropy change of reservoir,
(iii) entropy change of universe, (iv) If water is heated from 0oC to 90oC by first bringing
it in contact with reservoir at 40oC and then with a reservoir at 90oC, what will be the
entropy change of the universe?
Ans. (i) Entropy change for water system
T2
dT T Reservoir
= DSsys ∫ m C=pw m Cpw log e 2
T1
T T1 90oC
 90 + 273 
=1 × 4.2 × log e  =1.193kJ / K Q
 273 
( ii ) Entropy change of reservoir Water
−Q 0oC
DSrese =
90 + 273
Heat given out by the reservoir = Heat gained by the water
Q =m Cpw ( 90 − 0 ) =×
1 4.2 × ( 90 − 0 ) =376.8kJ
−376.8
∴DSuni = = −1.038kJ / K
90 + 273
( iii ) Entropy change of universe
DSuniv = DSsys + DSres = 1.193 − 1.038 = 0.155kJ / K
( iv ) When water is heated with two reservoirs
313 363
dT dT
DSsys
= ∫
273
m Cpw + ∫ m Cpw
T 313 T
 From 0 to 40and 40 to90o C 

 313 363 
=1 × 4.2  log e + log e  = 1.1928kJ / K
 273 313 
−Q − m w Cpw ( 313 − 273)
DSres I =1 = = −0.535 × J / K
T1 313
−Q −1 × 4.2 ( 363 − 313)
DSres II =2 = −0.576kJ / K
=
T2 363
DSuniv = DSsys + DSres I + DSres II = 1.1928 + ( −0.535 ) + ( −0.576 ) = 0.0818kJ / K
 6.22 Basic Thermodynamics

6. A mass m of fluid at temperature T1 is mixed with an equal mass of the same fluid at T2.
 T1 + T2 
Prove that the resultant change in entropy of the universe is 2mc loge  2  . Also
 T1T2 

Prove that it is always positive.

Ans. The temperature of mixture
m1Cp1T1 + m 2 Cp2 T2
Tm =
m1Cp1 + m 2 Cp2
=m1 m=
2 , C p1 Cp2
m1Cp1 ( T1 + T2 )
∴ Tm =
2m1 Cp1
T1 + T2
Tm =
2
Change in entropy
Tm T
dT 2
dT
DS mc ∫
= − mc ∫
T1
T Tm
T
Tm T
= mc log e − mc log e 2
T1 Tm
Tm2
= mc log e
T1T2
2
 T1 + T2 
 
2 
= mc log e 
T1T2
2
 T + T2  T + T2
= mc
= log e  1  2 mc log e 1
 2 T1T2  2 T1T2
T1 + T2
Since the arithematic mean is greater than Geometric mean T1T2 .
2
DS is always positive.
7. A lump of steel weighting 30kg at a temperature of 427oC is dropped in 150kg of oil at
27oC. The specific heats of the steel and oil are 0.5kJ/kg K and 2.5kJ/kg K respectively.
Estimate the entropy change of the steel, the oil and the system consisting of oil and lump
of steel. VTU March 2001
Ans. Energy lost by the lump of steel = Energy gained by the oil
( mCp DT ) = ( mCp DT )
steel oil

ms Cps ( Ts −=
Tf ) m o Cpo ( Tf − To )
30 × 0.5 ( 700 − Tf ) = 150 × 2.5 ( Tf − 300 )
Tf = 315K
 ( mC DT )p steel
= ( mCp DT )
oil
Entropy
mC ( Ts −=
Tf ) m o Cpo ( Tf − To ) 6.23
s ps

30 × 0.5 ( 700 − Tf ) = 150 × 2.5 ( Tf − 300 )

Tf = 315K
Entropy change in steel
Tf
dT T 315
∫ ms Cps
DSsteel =
Ts
T
ms Cps log f =
=
Ts
30 × 0.5 log e
700
−11.95kJ / K
=

Entropy change of oil

Tf
dT Tf 315
DSoil
= ∫m =
To
C
T
o po m o Cpo log e
To
150 × 2.5 log e
=
300
18.75kJ / K
=

Entropy change of system ( oil steel )

( DS)sys =
−11.95 + 18.75 =
6.796kJ / K
8. A heat engine receives 300kJ/min of heat for cycle from a source at 327oC and rejects heat
to a sink at 27oC. Three hypothetical amounts of heat rejection are given below.
(i) 200kJ / min, (ii) 150kJ / min, (iii) 100kJ/min
From these results state which of these cases is a reversible cycle, irreversible cycle or an
impossible one.
Ans. T1 = 327 + 273 = 600K Source
T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K T 1
= 327oC
Q = 300kJ / min
Q1
( i ) When Q2 = 200kJ / min
δQ Q1 Q 2 300 200 HE W
∫ T = − = −
T1 T2 600 300
−0.1666
=
Q2
δQ
Since ∫ < 0, the cycle is irreversible
T
Sink
( ii ) When Q2 = 150kJ / min T2 = 27oC
δQ Q1 Q 2 300 150
∫ T
= − = −
T1 T2 600 300
=0

δQ
Since ∫ = 0 the cycle is reversible
T
( iii ) When Q2 = 100kJ / min
δQ 300 100
∫ =
T
−
600 300
= 0.1666

δQ
Since ∫ > 0, it violates II law. Hence the cycle is impossible
T
 6.24 Basic Thermodynamics

9. A reversible cycle engine as shown in fig. draws 100kJ of heat from the reservoir at 225K
and does 200kJ of work.
(i) Find the magnitude and direction of heat interactions with the other two reservoirs
(ii) Evaluate the entropy change due to each of the interactions with the engine.
Ans.
112K 165K 225K

QC QB QA

HE
W = 200kJ

(i) Assume that heat is flowing from B and C to engine

For a reversible engine
δQ
∫ T = 0
Q Q Q
i.e., A + B + C = 0
TA TB TC
1200 Q B QC
= + + 0 − − − − (1)
225 165 112
W = Q A + Q B + QC
200 = 1200 + Q B + QC
Q B + QC = −1000 kJ − − − − ( 2)
Solving (1) & ( 2 )
QB =
−1257.14kJ, QC =
257.1kJ
Since Q B is − ve, its direction is opposite to that assumed
( ii ) Entropy change in each reservoir
Q A 1200
dS
=A = = 5.33kJ / K
TA 225
Q B −1257.14
dSB = = = −7.619kJ / K
TB 165
QC 275.14
dS
=C = = 2.255kJ / K
TC 112
Total change in entropy =5.33 − 7.619 + 2.255 =0
 Entropy 6.25

10. 0.12m3 of air at 1 bar and 120oC is compressed to 1/10th of the original volume and a
pressure of 35 bar. Heat is then added at constant pressure until the volume is doubled.
Determine the change of entropy during each of these process. Take Cp = 1.005kJ / kg K,
Cv = 0.7165kJ/kg K, R = 0.287kJ/kg K.
Ans.
3 1
= V1 0.12m = , V2 V
=1 , V3 2V
=2 , p1 1 bar,
= p 2 35 bar,
10
T1 =120 + 273 = 393K
2 3
p1V1 1 × 100 × 0.12
= m = = 0.1064kg
RT1 0.287 × 393 p
V2 1
=
V1 10
1
()i Change in entropy during the process 1 − 2
 V p  V
S2 − S1 m Cp log e 2 + CV log e 2 
=
 V1 p1 
 1  35  
= 0.1064 1.005 log e   + 0.7165 log e   
  10   1 
S2 − S1 =
0.2597 kJ / K
( ii ) Change in entropy during the process 2 − 3
T3
S3 − S2 =
mCp log e
T2
p3 V3 p 2 V2 V T
= ⇒ 3 = 3 =2
T3 T2 V2 T2
∴ S3 −=
S2 0.1064 × 1.005 log e 2
S3 − S2 =
0.0740kJ / K
11. 0.5kg of air initially at 27oC is heated reversibly at constant pressure until the volume is
doubled and is then heated reversibly at constant volume until the pressure is doubled.
For the total path, find the work transfer, the heat transfer and the change of entropy.
V2 p
Ans. =2, 3 =2, m =0.5kg,T1 =27 + 273 =300K.
V1 p2
( i ) Change in entropy during the process 1 − 2 p
T2 3
S2 − S1 =
mCp log e
T1
V V2
=But 1 = [ p1 p2 ]
T1 T2
1 2
T2 V2
or =
T1 V1 V
∴ S2 − S1 = 0.5 × 1.005 log e 2 = 0.3483kJ / K
( ii ) Change in entropy during the process 2 − 3
 T2
S2 − S1 =
mCp log e
T1
V V2
= But 1
6.26 = [ p1 p2 ] Basic Thermodynamics
T1 T2
T2 V2
or =
T1 V1
∴ S2 − S1 = 0.5 × 1.005 log e 2 = 0.3483kJ / K
( ii ) Change in entropy during the process 2 − 3
T3 p
S3 − S2 =
mCV log e = mC v log e 3
T2 P2
0.5 × 0.7165 log e 2 =
= 0.2483kJ / K
Change in entropy for the total path
= S3 − S1 = 0.34837 + 0.2483 = 0.5966kJ / K
( iii ) Work transfer for the total path
W
=1− 3 W1− 2 + W2 −3
= p ( V2 − V1 ) +=
0 p ( 2V1 − V=
1) pV1
= 0.5 × 0.287 ( 300 ) =
mRT1 = 43.5kJ
( iv ) Heat transfer for the total path
Q1−3 = Q1− 2 + Q 2 −3 = Cp ( T2 − T1 ) + C v ( T3 − T2 )  × m
V2
T2 = T1 × = 300 × 2 = 600K
V1
p3
T3 = T2 × = 600 × 2 = 1200K
p2
Q1−3 =0.5 1.005 ( 600 − 300 ) + 0.7165 (1200 − 600 ) 
Q1−3 = 365.7kJ
12. A perfect gas of mass 1.7kg and volume 1.5m3/kg are compressed reversibly and
polytropically from pressure 1 bar to 7.5 bar in a cylinder, the index of compression
being 1.25, R = 0.540kJ/kgK, Cv = 1.687 kJ/kg K. Calculate the work done, heat transfer
and change in entropy.
Data : m = 1.7kg, v1 = 1.5m3/kg, p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa, p2 = 7.5bar = 750 kPa, n = 1.25
(i) Work done
 p v − p2 v2 
W1− 2 =  1 1 m
 n −1 
mp1v1  p 2 v 2 
= 1 − × 
n − 1  p1 v1 
 1
  n −1

mp1v1  p 2  p1  n  mp1v1   p 2  n 
= 1− × =  1 −  
n − 1  p1  p 2   n − 1   p1  
   
 1.25 −1

1.5   75  1.25 
=1.7 × 100 × 1−  
1.25 − 1   1  
 
W = −506.2kJ
  1 1 

 1
  n −1

mp1v1  p 2  p1  n  mp1v1   p 2  n 
= 1− × =  1−  
Entropy n − 1  p1  p 2   n − 1   p1   6.27
   
 1.25 −1

1.5   75  1.25 
=1.7 × 100 × 1−  
1.25 − 1   1  
 
W1− 2 = −506.2kJ
( ii ) Heat transfer
γ−n R Cv + R
Q1− 2 
=  W1− 2 = Cv or γ
= = 1.32
 γ −1  γ −1 Cv
1.32 − 1.25 
Q1−3 = +  ( −506.2 )
 1.32 − 1 
Q1− 2 = −126.55kJ
( iii ) Change in entropy
 n −1

 n−γ  p2  n 
S2 − S1 = m R ln  
 ( n − 1)( γ − 1) 
  p1  
 
 1.25 −1

1.25 − 1.32  7.5  1.25
= 1.7  × 0.54 ln  
 = −0.3699kJ / K
 (1.25 − 1)(1.32 − 1)  1  
 
13. 2 kg of air is first compressed from state (1) at 13.75N/m2 and 5oC to state (2) at 48N/m2
at 283oC. It is then throttled to state (3) until its pressure is again 13.75N/m2 finally it is
cooled at constant pressure to state (4) until its volume is 1/2 of that before the cooling
process. Determine the change in entropy
Ans. m = 2kg, p1 = 13.75N/m2, T1 = 5 + 273 = 278K, p2 = 48N/m2, T2 = 283 + 273 = 556K
 T p 
( i )=
S2 − S1 Cp log e 2 − R log e 2  m
 T1 p1 
 556 48 
= 1.005 × log e − 0.287 log e × 2 0.67kJ / K
=
 276 13.75 
( ii ) Throttling process is an isothermal process
p2 p
S3 − S2 =
mR log e
p3 2
48
2 × 0.287 × log e
=
13.75 Throttling
S3 − S2 =
0.72kJ / K pVn = C
( iii ) During the process 3 − 1 p=C
1 3
T4
S4 − S3 = mCp log e V
T3
V4
mCp log e
= 2 × 1.005 × log e 1/ 2 =
= −1.39kJ / K
V3
Net change in entropy = 0.67 + 0.72 − 1.39 = 0
 3 2

( iii ) During the process 3 − 1

T
S4 − S3 = mC
6.28 p log e
4
Basic Thermodynamics
T 3

V4
mCp log e
= 2 × 1.005 × log e 1/ 2 =
= −1.39kJ / K
V3
Net change in entropy = 0.67 + 0.72 − 1.39 = 0
14. One kg of air is compressed in a reversible steady flow poly tropic process from 1.93 bar
and 40oC to 10.3 bar following the law pV1.25 = C, find the work required, heat transferred
and change in entropy for the above process. Take ∆KE = 0, ∆PE = 0.
Ans. m = 1kg, p1 = 1.93bar, T1 = 40 + 273 = 313K, p2 = 10.3bar, n = 1.25, W = ?, Q = ? ∆S = ?
n −1 1.25 −1
T2  p 2  n
 10.3  1.25
=   T2 313 
⇒= 
T1  p1   1.03 
T2 = 496K
 n 
( i ) Work required
= W   R ( T1 − T2 )
 n −1
 1.25 
=  × 0.287 ( 313 − 496 )
 1.25 − 1 
= −262.6kJ Work is done on the air.
( ii ) Heat transfer
Applying SFEE for the flow process
 C2 Zg   C2 
m  h1 + 1 + 1  + = Q m  h 2 + 2 + Z2 g  + W
 2000 1000   2000 
m = 1kg, DKE = 0, DPE = 0
∴ h1 + Q = h 2 + W
Q = ( h 2 − h1 ) + W
= Cp ( T2 − T1 ) + W
= 1.005 ( 496 − 313) − 262.5
Q = −78.6kJ
( iii ) Change in entropy
T2 p
S=
2 − S1 Cp log e − R log e 2
T1 p1
496 10.3
= 1.005 log e − 0.287 log e
313 1.03
S2 − S1 =−0.1982kJ / kg K
 Entropy 6.29

15. 2 kg of water at 80oC is mixed adiabatically with 3 kg of water at 30oC in a constant

pressure process at 1 atm. Find the increase in entropy of the total mass of water due to
mixing process. VTU Aug 2003
Ans. Final temperature of mixture
m1Cp1t1 + m 2 Cp2 t 2 2 × 4.2 × ( 80 + 273) + 3 × 4.2 × ( 30 + 273)
=t m= 1C p1 t1 + m 2 C p2 t 2 2 × 4.2 × ( 80 + 273) + 3 × 4.2
= × ( 30 + 273) 323K
=t ff =
m1Cp1 + m 2 Cp2 2 × 4.2=+ 3 × 4.2 323K
m1Cp1 + m 2 Cp2 2 × 4.2 + 3 × 4.2
Entropy change in 2kg of water
Entropy change in 2kg of water
T  323323  =
DSS1 =
D =m log eTf f=×
m1CCp1log 2 2 4.24.2
=× × log
× log e −0.7461kJ
− 0.7461kJ /K /K
T e 80273 =
+ 273
 80 +  
1 1 p1 e
T1 1
Entropychange
Entropy changeinin3kg
3kgofofwater
water
TT
DSS22 =
=
mm22CCp2p2log
loge e f f
T2T2
  323 323  
4.2log
== 33××4.2 loge e 273 + 30  =0.8054 kJ /kJ
= 0.8054 K/ K
  273 + 30  
Entropy
Entropychange
changeinintotal mass
total of of
mass water
water
= DS1 + DS2 = −0.7461 + 0.8054 = 0.05929 kJ / K
= DS1 + DS2 = −0.7461 + 0.8054 = 0.05929 kJ / K
16. A system maintained at constant volume is initially at a temperature T1 and a heat
reservoir is available at a low temperature To. Show that the maximum work recoverable
as the system is cooled to To is given by
  T 
= C v ( T1 − T0 ) − To log e  1  
Wmax
  To  
Ans. W = Q1 − Q 2
But
= Q1 C v ( T1 − To )
( DS)universe = ( DS)Sus + ( DS)HE + ( DS)Res T1
Source
δQ dQ
=
T ∫
+0+∫
System
reservor T Q1
dT 1
= ∫ C + ∫ dQ HE W
System v T To reservoir
To Q 2 Q2
( DS=
)uni C v log e +
T1 To T0
According to the principle of increase of entropy ( DS)univ ≥ 0 Reservoir
For maximum work output
( DS)univ =
0
To 1 Q 2
∴ C v log e + 0
=
T To To
T1
or Q 2 = C v To log e
T0
∴ Wmax =Q1 − Q 2
To
= C v [ T1 − To ] − C v To log e
T1
 ( DS)univ =
0
T 1 Q
∴ C v log e
6.30
o
+ 2
0
= Basic Thermodynamics
T To To
T1
or Q 2 = C v To log e
T0
∴ Wmax =Q1 − Q 2
To
= C v [ T1 − To ] − C v To log e
T1
 T 
= C v ( T1 − To ) − To log e  1 
  To  

17. Air enters a compressor at ambient conditions of 96 kPa and 17oC with a low velocity
and comes out at 1MPa, 327o C and 120 m/s. The compressor is cooled by ambient air at
17oC at a rate of 1500 kJ/min. The power input to the compressor is 300kW. Determine
the mass flow rate and the rate of entropy generation.
Ans. p1 = 96 kPa, T1 = 17 + 273 = 290K, c1 = 0, p2 = 1MPa, T2 = 327 + 273 = 600 K, C2 = 120
m/s, Q = 1500 kJ/min, Ta = 17 + 273 = 290K, Wc = 300kW, m = ?
Applying SFEE at compressor in let and outlet
 C2   C2 
Wc + m  h1 + 1  = m  h 2 + 2  + Q
 2000   2000 
 C2   C2 
Wc + m Cp T1 + 1  + m Cp T2 + 2  + Q
 2000   2000 
 1202  1500
300 + m [1.005 × 290 + 0] + m 1.005 × 600 + +
 2000  60
m = 0.758kg / s
Applying the principle of entropy to the compressor
Q Q  T p 
S = + m ( S2 − S1 ) = + m Cp log c 2 − R log e 2 
Ta To  T1 p1 
1500
 600 1400 
=60 + 0.758 1.005 × log e + 0.287 log e 
290  290 96 
= 0.1302 kW / K
18. A 5 kg of copper block at 200o C is dropped to an insulated tank with 100 kg of oil at
30oC. Find the increase in entropy of the universe. Take Cp = 0.4 kJ/kg K, Cp = 2.1 kJ/
oil
kg K. (VTU Jan 2017 (CBCS))
Ans. mc = 5 kg, Tc = 200o C, mo =100 kg, To = 30o C, DS = ?
Energy lost by the copper block = Energy gained by the oil
 Entropy 6.31

(( mC
mC DT )
DT )
p
p
= m C DT (
=( m CppDT ) oil
copper
copper oil
)
5 × 0.4 × ( 200
( − T ) = 100
5 × 0.4 × 200 − T = 100 × 2.1
f
f
×
) 2.1×× (TTf−−30
30 )
( f )
1.9 −− 9.52
1.9 9.52××10 =((TTf −−30
10−−33TTf = 30))
f f
1.0095T=
1.0095T =
f 30++1.9
30 1.9
f

T 31.9oo C
Tf == 31.9 C
f
Entropychargein
Entropy chargeincopper
copperblock
block
dT T
dT loge eTf f
Tf
∫TT mmccCCp=
T
( DDSS)=
= p= mmc cCCpcpclog
f

TT TT
copper
copper cc
cc
cc

 31.9 + 273 
=×
=× 55 0.4 logee31.9 + 273  
0.4××log
200++273
 200 273 
5.393kJ//KK
== −−5.393kJ
changeof
Entropy change ofoiloil
TTff dT
dT
( DS)oiloil =
=∫TToo mmooCCpopo.. TT
TT
== mmooCCpopolog
logee f f
TToo
31.9
31.9++273
273 = 1.312 kJ / lg K
== 100
100××2.1
2.1××log
logee   = 1.312 kJ / lg K
 30 + 273
30 + 273  
Entropy
Entropychangeif system((copper
changeifsystem copperand oil) )
andoil
(( D
DSS))univ = ( DS)copper + ( DS)oil
univ = ( DS )copper + ( DS )oil
−−5.393
=
= 5.393++1.312
1.312=−−4.081kJ
= 4.081kJ/ K
/K
19. 1.5 kg of air is heated reversibly at constant pressure from 300 K. to 600 K and is then
cooled reversibly at constant volume back to initial temperature of 300 K. If initial
pressure is 1 bar, calculate the entropy change during each process and net change in
entropy. Sketch the processes on T-S diagram. Take CP = 1.005 KJ/kgK and Cv = 0.718
KJ/kgK.  (VTU June/July 2017 CBCS)
Ans. m = 1.5kg, T3 = T1 = 300K, T2 = 600K, p1 = p2 = 1bar = 100 kPa, S2 – S1 = ?,
S3 – S2 = ?, (DS)net = ?
CP = 1.005 kJ/kg K, CV = 0.718 kJ/kg K p 1 2
For the process 1 – 2
T 600
S2 − S1 = m Cp log e 2 = 1.5 × 1.005 × log e = 1.045kJ / K
T1 300
For the process 2 − 3
3
T 300
S3 − S2 = mC v log e 3 =1.5 × 0.718 × log e −0.7465kJ / K.
= V
T2 600
Net changein entropy
( DS)net = ( S2 − S1 ) + ( S3 − S2 ) = 1.045 − 0.7465 = 0.298kJ / K.
 6.32 Basic Thermodynamics

20. Water is heated from 25°C to 90°C as it flows at a rate of 0.5kg/s through a tube that is
immersed in a hot bath at 100°C. Calculate heat transfer, entropy change for water, oil
bath and universe.  (VTU June/July 2018 CBCS)
Data :
Tw1 =25o C,Tw 2 =90o C, m =0.5kg / s,Toil =100o C, DSw =?, DSoil =?,
DSuniverse =
?,Q =?
Heat transfer from oil bath to water
=Q m w Cgw ( Tw 2 − Tw1 )
Q =0.5 × 4.2 ( 90 − 25 ) =136.5kJ / s
Entropy change for water
Tw 2
dT T  90 + 273 
DSw = mCpw ∫
Tw1
T
= mCpw log e w 2 = 0.5 × 4.2 × log e 
Tw1
 = 0.414 kJ / ks
 25 + 273 
Entropy change for oil bath
−Q −136.5
DSoil = = =−0.3659 kJ / Ks
Toil 100 + 273
−sign indicates that oilloosesits heat to water
Entropy change for universe
DSuniverse = DSwater + DSoil = 0.414 − 0.3659 = 0.048kJ / Ks
 Entropy 6.33

Review Questions
1. Define reversible heat engine.
2. Clearly explain the factors that make a process irreversible.
3. Explain impracticability of Carnot engine
4. Write a note on internal and external irreversibility
5. State and prove Clausius inequality
6. Show that entropy is a property
7. What is the principle of increase entropy?
8. Two bodies of equal heat capacities C and temperatures T1 and T2 form an adiabatically
closed system. What will the final temperature be if one lets this system come to equilibrium
a. Freely? b. Reversibly?
c. What is the maximum work which can be obtained from this system?
9. A resistor of 30 ohms is maintained at a constant temperature of 27o C while a current of 10
amperes is allowed to flow for 1 sec. Determine the entropy change of the resistor and the
universe. [Ans. (DS)resistor = 0, (DS)univ = 10 J/K]
If the resistor initially at 27o C is now insulated and the same current is passed for the same
time, determine the entropy change of the resistor and the universe. The specific heat of the
resistor is 0.9 kJ/kg K and the mass of the resistor is 10 g. [Ans.(DS)univ = 6.72 J/K]
10. An adiabatic vessel contains 2 kg of water at 25 C. By paddle - wheel transfer, the temperature
o

of water is increased to 30o C. If the specific heat of water is assumed constant at 4.187 kJ/kg
K, find the entropy change of the universe. [Ans. 0.139 kJ/K]
11. A copper rod is of length 1m and diameter 0.01m. One end of the rod is at 100oC, and the
other at 0o C. The rod is perfectly insulated along its length and the thermal conductivity of
copper is380 W/mK. Calculate the rate of heat transfer along the rod and the rate of entropy
production due to irreversibility of this heat transfer. [Ans. 2.985 W, 0.00293 W/K]
12. A body of constant heat capacity C and at a temperature Ti is put in contact with a reservoir at
a higher temperature Tf. The pressure remains constant while the body comes to equilibrium
with the reservoir. Show that the entropy change of the universe is equal to
 T − Tf  T − Tf  
Cp  i − ln 1 + i 
 Tf  Tf  
Prove that this entropy change is positive.
13. An insulated 0.75 kg copper calorimeter can containing 0.2 kg water is in equilibrium at a
temperature of 20o C. An experimenter now places 0.05 kg of ice at 0o C in the calorimeter
and encloses the latter with a heat insulating shield.
a. When all the ice has melted and equilibrium has been reached, what will be the temperature
of water and the can? The specific heat of copper is 0.418 kJ/kg K and the latent heat of
fusion of ice is 333 kJ/kg.
b. Compute the entropy increase of the universe resulting from the process.
c. What will be the minimum work needed by a stirrer to bring back the temperature of
water to 20o C? [Ans. a. 4.68oC, b. 0.00276 kJ/K, c. 20.84 kJ]
14. Show that if two bodies of thermal capacities C1 and C2 at temperature T1 and T2 are brought
to the same temperature T by means of a reversible heat engine, then
 6.34 Basic Thermodynamics

C1 ln T1 + C2 ln T2
ln T =
C1 + C2
15. Two blocks of metal, each having a mass of 10kg and a specific heat of 0.4 kJ/kg K, are at a
temperature of 40o C. A reversible refrigerator receives heat from one block and rejects heat
to the other. Calculate the work required to cause a temperature difference of 100o C between
the two blocks.  [Ans. 32 kJ]
16. A block of iron weighing 100 kg is immersed in 50 kg of water at a temperature of 20o C.
What will be the change of entropy of the combined system of iron and water? Specific heats
of iron and water are 0.45 and 4.18 kJ/kg K respectively.
 [Ans. 1.24 kJ/K]
17. 36g of water at 30o C are converted into steam at 250o C at constant atmospheric pressure.
The specific heat of water is assumed constant at 4.2 J/gK and the latent heat of vaporization
at 100o C is 2260 J/g. For water vapour, assume pV = mRT where R = 0.4619 kJ/kg K, and
cp
=a + bT + cT 2 , where a =3.634
R
= b 1.195 x10−3 K −1 and
= c 0.135 × 10−6 K −2
Calculate the entropy change of the system. [Ans. 273.1 J/K]