Module - 5

Chapter - 9
Mixture of Ideal Gases
9.0 Introduction
A pure substance is defined as a substance having a constant and uniform chemical composition.
A homogeneous mixture of gases which do not react one another may be considered as a pure
substance. Ex: Air is a homogeneous mixture of nitrogen, oxygen and traces of argon, helium,
CO2 etc.,
The determination of properties of mixture is important in combustion calculation.
For analyzing the mixture of gases, the following assumptions are made
(i) Each individual gas in the mixture behaves as a perfect gas, (ii) The mixture also behaves as
a prefect gas
9.1 Definitions
(1) Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture
It is the pressure exerted by an individual gas when it alone occupies the mixture volume at the
mixture temperature.
Consider a mixture consisting of two gases A & B.
Let pA, pB are the partial pressures of gases A & B
V & T be the volume and temperature of mixture
From the definition of partial pressure, we get
pAV = mA RAT
pBV = mB RBT
(2) Partial volume of a gas in a mixture
It is the volume occupied by an individual gas at the mixture pressure and temperature
In the mixture of gases A & B, we get
pVA = mA RAT
pVB = mB RB T
(3) Mass fraction of a gas
It is the ratio of the mass of an individual gas to the mass of the mixture.
For the mixture of two gases A & B
mA
Mass fraction of gas=A m= fA = yA
mA + mB
mA
Mass fraction of gas=
B m=
fB = yB
mA + mB
m fA + m fB or y A + y B =
1
(4) Mole fraction of a gas
It is the ratio of the number of moles of an individual gas to the total number of moles of the
mixture,
 9.2 Basic Thermodynamics

For the mixture of gases A & B

nA
Mole fraction of gas =
A x=
A
nA + nB
nxBn
Mole fraction of gas =
B x=
B
nA + nB
xA + xB =
1
(5) Dalton's law of additive pressures (Partial pressure)
It states that the pressure of gas mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of individual
gasses in that mixture.
Let p be the pressure of the mixture
pA = Partial pressure of gas A
pB = Partial pressure of gas B
According to Dalton's law
p pA + pB
=
(6) Amagat's law of volume additives
This law states that the sum of the partial volume of the individual gases in a mixture is equal
to the total volume of mixture of perfect gases.
i.e., V = VA + VB
(7) Volume fraction
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the constituent gas to the total volume of the mixture
of the ideal gases.
i.e., For the mixture of gases A & B
VA
VfA = for gas A
VA + VB
VB
VfB = for gas B
VA + VB

9.2 Relation between partial pressure, partial volume and mole fraction
Let the mixture consists of two gases A & B
For gas A = pAV = nA RuT ---- (1)
RU = Universal gas constant
nA = Number of moles
For mixture
pV = nRuT ---- (2)
Dividing (1) by ( 2 ) , we get
pA n A
= = x= A mole fraction of A
p n
pB n B
Similarly = = x= B mole fraction of B
p n
Also, for the gas A
pVA n A R u T
= − − − ( 3)
For mixture
=pV nR u T − − − ( 4)
 pB n B
Similarly = = x=
B mole fraction of B
p n
Also, for the gas A
Mixture of Ideal Gases 9.3
pVA n A R u T
= − − − ( 3)
For mixture
=pV nR u T − − − ( 4)
Dividing ( 3) by ( 4 ) , we get
VA n A
= = x= A mole fraction of A
V n
VB n B
Similarly = = x= B mole fraction of B
V n

9.3 Gas constant and Molecular weight for the mixture in terms of mass fraction
For gas A, pA V = mA R A T
For gas B, pB V = mB R BT
Adding the two equations
pA V + pB V
= mA R A T + mB R BT
( pA + pB ) V = ( mA R A + mB R B ) T
By Dalton 's law
pA + pB = p
∴ pV
= ( mA R A + mBR B ) T − − − (1)
For mixture
pV mRT − − − − ( 2 )
=
Comparing (1) & ( 2 )
mR m A R A + m B R B
=
mA m
=R RA + B RB
m m
=R yA R A + yB R B
Ru
But molecular weight M =
R
Ru
∴M=
yA R A + yA R B

9.4 Gas constant and molecular weight of the mixture in terms of mole fraction
For a mixture of gases A & B
m mA + mB
=
nM n A M A + n B M B
=
nA n
=M MA + B MB
n n
=M x A M A + x BM B
Ru Ru
R
= =
M x A M A + x BM B
 A A B B

nA n
=M MA + B MB
n n
9.4 x
M Basic Thermodynamics
= A M A + x BM B

Ru Ru
R
= =
M x A M A + x BM B

9.5 Internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of a mixture of gases

Gibb's law: It states that the internal energy, enthalpy and entropy of a mixture of gases is equal
to the sum of the internal energies, enthalpies and entropies of individual gases evaluated at the
mixture temperature and mixture volume
i.e., for a mixture of gases A & B
U = U A + UB H = H A + HB S = S A + SB
9.6 Specific heats of a mixture of gases
Consider a mixture of two gases A & B
By Gibb's law
U = U A + UB
mu = mAuA + mBuB
For an ideal gas
u = CvT
∴ mC v T= m A CVA T + m BC vBT
mA m
=Cv C vA + B C vB
m m
C v YA CVA + YBC vB
=
Similarly,=
H HA + HB
mh m A h A + m B h B
=
mCp T m A CpA T + m BCpBT
=
mA m
=Cp CpA + B CpB
m m
Cp y A CpA + y BCpB
=

9.7 Adiabatic mixing of perfect gases

Insulated tank

Gas Gas
A+ B
A B

Diaphragm
Let two gases are separated from each other in a closed vessel by a thin diaphragm.
Let mA, nA, pA, TA, VA are the mass, no. of moles, partial pressure, temperature & volume of gas A,
mB, nB, pB, TB & VB are the corresponding values for gas B.
If diaphragm is punctured these gases mix each other. This mixing is called free expansios. Let
p & T are the pressure and temperature of mixture.
In a free expansion process E1 = E2
 Mixture of Ideal Gases 9.5

E1 =
n A C vA TA + n BC vBTB → Before mixing
E2 =( n A CvA + n BCvB ) T → After mixing
∴ n A C vA TA + n BC vBTB =( n A C vA + n BC vB ) T
Σn i C vi Ti =
TΣn i C vi where i =
1, 2, 3...........
Σn i C vi Ti
T=
Σn i C vi

9.8 Mixing of two streams of gas

mA, hA
(A)

Mixture
(B)

mB, hB
When two streams of gas mixed together enthalpy remains the same before and after mixing.
i.e., H1 = H2
m A CpA TA + m BCpBTB =( m A CpA + m BCpB ) T
TΣ ( mi Cpi )
or Σmi Cpi Ti =
Σmi Cpi Ti
or T =
Σmi Cpi
Cp = M
MC
Σn i Cpi Ti CpP
or T = m
Σn i Cpi M=
n
∴ nCp = m Cp

9.9 Psychrometry
It is the branch of engineering science which deals with the study of dry air mixed with water vapour.
It also includes the study of behaviour of air and water vapour under various sets of conditions.
9.9.1 Psychrometric properties
1) Dry air : The mixture of nitrogen and oxygen neglecting the water vapour and other gases is
known as dry air.
The volumetric composition of dry air is 77% of nitrogen and 23% of oxygen.
2) Moist air or saturated air : It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour.
The quantity of water vapour present in the air depends upon the temperature of air. When the
air is saturated with the water, the partial pressure of water vapour is equal to the saturation
pressure of water vapour.
3) Dry Bulb temperature (DBT) : The temperature of air measured by an ordinary thermometer
is known as Dry bulb temperature.
4) Wet Bulb temperature (WBT) : The temperature of air measured by a thermometer when
its bulb is covered with wet cloth and exposed to a current of air is known as Wet bulb
temperature.
 9.6 Basic Thermodynamics

5) Wet Bulb Depression (WBD) : The difference between DBT and WBT is known as Wet
Bulb depression. The wet bulb depression become zero when the air is saturated.
6) Dew point temperature (DPT) : It is the temperature at which moisture present in the air
begins to condense when the air is cooled. DPT depends on the saturation temperature of
water vapour in the mixture of air and water vapour.
7) Specific Humidity (SH) : It is the mass of water vapour present with one kg of dry air. It is
given in g/kg of dry air.
8) Absolute Humidity (AH) : The mass of water present in unit volume of dry air is known as
absolute humidity.
9) Relative humidity (RH) : It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume
of dry air to the mass of water vapour if the same volume of air is saturated at the same
temperature.
10) Degree of saturation : It is defined as the mass of water vapour in unit mass of dry air to
mass of water vapour in unit mass of dry air, when air is saturated at the same temperature.
11) Adiabatic saturation temperature : It is the temperature at which the water or ice can
saturate by evaporating adiabatically into it.
12) Enthalpy of moist air : It is the sum of enthalpy of dry air and enthalpy of water vapour
associated with dry air.
9.9.2 Psychrometric chart
It is a graphical representation of the various thermodynamic properties of moist air. It is very
useful for finding out the properties of air and eliminate lot of calculations.
Psychrometric chart is drawn for standard atmospheric pressure.
In this chart, DBT is taken as abscissa and specific humidity 'w' taken as ordinate.
re
tu
ra
pe
py

w
al

Te
th

t
Sa
En

s
or

ne
T

Li
DP

RH

on
r ati
t u e
Sa curv
SP

WB
VO

TL
ine
LL

s
ines

DBT
Fig 9.1 Psychrometric Chart
The saturation curve is drawn by plotting the various saturation points at corresponding DBT. The
saturation curve represents 100%. RH at various DBT. It also represent WBT and DPT.
This curve also possess WBT lines, enthalpy and specific volume lines.
 Mixture of Ideal Gases 9.7

PROBLEMS ON GAS MIXTURE

1. A cylinder of volume 1m3 is filled with a mixture of 1kg of CO2 and 2kg of N2 at 27oC.
Determine.
(i) Pressure of the mixture, (ii) Gas constant for the mixture, (iii) mole fraction of N2 and
CO2, (iv) Molecular wt. of the mixture.
Ans. V = 1m3, mco2 = 1kg, mN2 = 2kg, T = 300K, p = ?, R = ?, XN2 = ?, XCO = ?, M = ?
2
m co2 1
No. of moles of CO=2 n co2
= = = 0.0227kg mol
M co2 44
mN2 2
No. of moles of N=
2 n N=
2 = = 0.0714kg mol
M N 2 28
n co2 0.0227
( i ) Mole fraction
= X co2 = = 0.2412
n co2 + n N 2 0.0227 + 0.0714
n N2 0.0714
=XN2 = = 0.7587
n co2 + n N 2 0.0227 + 0.0714
( ii ) Molecular weight of the mixture
M = X co2 × M co2 + X N 2 M N 2
= 0.2412 × 44 + 0.7587 × 28
= 31.85kg / kg mol
( iii ) Gas constant of the mixture
R u 8.314
R
= = = 0.2609 kJ / kgK
M 31.85
( iv ) Pressure of the mixture
pV = mRT
p × 1 = (1 + 2 ) × 0.2609 × 300
p = 234.8kPa
2. A tank of 0.1m3 capacity contains 1kg of O2, 0.9kg of N2, 1.5kg of CO2 and 0.1kg of CO
at 30oC. Determine (i) The total pressure, (ii) mole fraction of each gas, (iii) Gas constant
and molecular weight of the mixture.
Ans. V = 0.1m3, mO2 = 1kg, mN2 = 0.9kg, mco2 = 1.5kg, mco = 0.1kg, T = 30oC, p = ?, R = ?,
M = ?, X02 = ?, XN2 = ?, XCO2 = ?, XCO = ?
m o2 1
No. of moles n= o2 = = 0.03125kg mol
M o2 32
0.9
n=
N2 = 0.03214kg mol
28
1.5
n co2
= = 0.03409kg mol
44
0.1
n=co = 0.00357kg mol
28
 0.9
n=
N2 = 0.03214kg mol
28
9.8 1.5 Basic Thermodynamics
n co2
= = 0.03409kg mol
44
0.1
n=co = 0.00357kg mol
28
Total no. of moles = 0.03125 + 0.03214 + 0.03409 + 0.00357
n = 0.10105 kg mol
Mole fraction
0.03125
= X o2 = 0.3092
0.10105
0.03214
= X N 2 = 0.318
0.10105
0.03409
= X co2 = 0.3373
0.10105
0.00357
= X co = 0.03532
0.10105
Molecular wt. of the mixture M =X o2 M o2 + X N 2 M N 2 + X co2 M co2 + X co M co
= ( 0.3092 × 32 ) + ( 0.318 × 28) + ( 0.3373 × 44 ) + ( 0.3532 × 28)
= 34.628kg / kg mol
Gas constant for the mixture
R u 8.314
R =
= = 0.24kJ / kg K
M 34.628
Pressure of the mixture
pV = mRT
p × 1 = (1 + 0.9 + 1.5 + 0.1) × 0.24 × 303
pp == 254.52
254.52KPa kPa
pp == 2.54
2.54bar bar
3. A mixture of perfect gases has the following composition by volume. N2 = 55%, O2 = 20%,
CH4 = 25%. If the partial pressure of CH4 is 0.5 bar, determine
(i) Partial pressure of N2 and O2
(ii) Mass proportions of the mixture
(iii) Gas constant and molecular weight of the mixture
Ans. Volume fractions VfN2 = 0.55, Vfo2 = 0.2, VCH4 = 0.25, pN2 = ? p02 = ? R = ? pCH4 = 0.5bar
We know that
Partial= pressure ratio volume= fraction mole fraction
p CH 4
i.e., = V=
fCH 4 X CH 4
p
0.5
= 0.25 ⇒ p= 2 bar
p
pN2
= 0.55 = XN2 , ⇒ pN2 =2 × 0.55 = 1.1bar
p
p O2
= 0.2 = X O2 ⇒ p 02 =×
2 0.2 = 0.4bar
p
 0.5
= 0.25 ⇒ p= 2 bar
p
pN2
Mixture p
=0.55 =XN2 , ⇒ pN2 =
of Ideal Gases
2 × 0.55 = 1.1bar 9.9
p O2
=0.2 =X O2 ⇒ p 02 =×2 0.2 = 0.4bar
p
Molecular weight of the mixture
M = X N 2 M N 2 + X O2 M O2 + X CH 4 M CH 4
= 0.55 × 28 + 32 × 0.2 + 16 × 0.25
= 25.8kg / kg mol
R u 8.314
Gas constant for the mixture=
R = = 0.322kJ / kgK
M 25.8
Mass fraction
m n × MN2 M 28
m fo2 = N 2 = N 2 =X N 2 × N 2 =0.55 × =0.5968
m nM M 25.8
M
Similarly m= fo2 X o2 × o2
M
32
=0.2 × =0.2480
25.8
M 16
m fCH 4 = X CH 4 × CH 4 =0.25 × =0.155
M 25.8
4. A mixture of gases has the following volumetric composition CO2 = 12%, O2 = 4%,
N2 = 82%, CO = 2%.
Calculate (i) the gravimetric composition, (ii) molecular weight of mixture, (iii) R for
mixture. VTU March 2007
Ans. Xco2 = Vfco2 = 0.12, Xo2 = Vfo2 = 0.04, XN2 = VfN2 = 0.82, Xco = Vfco = 0.02
Molecular wt. of the mixture
M = X co2 M co2 + X o2 M o2 + X N 2 M N 2 + X co M co
= 0.12 × 44 + 0.04 × 32 + 0.82 × 28 + 0.02 × 28
= 30.8kg / kg mol
R u 8.314
Gas constant=
R = = 0.276kJ / kg K
M 30.08
Gravimetric composition or mass fraction
M 44
m ffco2 =X co2 × co2 =0.12 × = 0.1755
M 30.08
M 32
m fo2 =X o2 × o2 =0.04 × =0.0425
M 30.08
M 28
m fN 2 =X N 2 × N 2 =0.82 × =0.764
M 30.08
M 28
m fco2 =X co × co =0.02 × =0.0186
M 30.08
∴ Gravimetric composition is
=CO 2 17.55%,
= O 2 4.25%,
= N 2 76.4%,
= CO 1.86%
 9.10 Basic Thermodynamics

5. A gas mixture consists of 6kg mol of H2, 4kg mol of N2. Determine the mass of each gas
and the gas constant of the mixture. VTU Jan 2004
Ans. nH2 = 6kg mol, nN2 = 4kg mol
Mass of each gases
Mass
m H 2 =of
n Heach gases
2 × M H 2 = 6 × 2 = 12kg m N 2 = n N 2 M N 2 = 4 × 28 = 112kg
m H 2 =fraction
Mole n H 2 × M Hof2 =each
6 × 2gases
= 12kg m N 2 = n N 2 M N 2 = 4 × 28 = 112kg
Mole fractionn H 2 of each 6 gases n N2 4
XH2
= = = 0.6 XN2
= = = 0.4
n
n H 2 +H 2n N 2 6 + 4 6 n
n H 2 +N 2n N 2 6 +4 4
XH2
= = = 0.6 XN2
= = = 0.4
=M X n
H 2HM2 +
H 2
n+ X
Molecular weight of mixture
N 2 N 2
6M+ N
42
n H 2 + n N2 6 + 4
=M = 0.6
X H 2×M2 H+2 0.4
+ X×N28 2M = N1.2
2 + 11.2
0.6 × 2 +/ kg
M = = 12.2kg 0.4mol
× 28= 1.2 + 11.2
M = 12.2kg / kg mol R u 8.314
Gas constant= R = = 0.6696kJ / kg K
R
Mu 8.314 12.2
Gas constant= R = = 0.6696kJ / kg K
M 12.2
6. A gaseous mixture consists of 1kg of O2 and 2kg of N2 at a pressure of 150kPa and a
temperature of 20oC, Determine
(i) the gas constant of the mixture, (ii) molecular weight of the mixture, (iii) specific heats
of the mixture, (iv) change in entropy of the mixture if the mixture is heated at constant
volume to a temperature of 100oC. VTU July 2004
Ans. m02 = 1kg, mN2 = 2kg, p = 150kPa, T1 = 20 C, T2 = 100 C, R= ?. M = ?, CP = ?, CV = ?, DS = ?
o o

( i ) Gas constant of the mixture

m O2 1
n=
o2 = = 0.03125
M O2 32
mN2 2
n N=
2 = = 0.07143
M N 2 28
n O2 0.03125
=X O2 = = 0.3044
n O2 + n N 2 0.03125 + 0.07143
n N2 0.07143
=XN2 = = 0.6957
n O2 + n N 2 0.03125 + 0.07143
=M X O2 M O2 + X N 2 M N 2
= 0.3044 × 32 + 0.6957 × = 28 29.24kg / kg mol
R u 8.314
R =
= = 0.2842kJ / kg K
M 29.24
Specific heats of the mixture
7 Ru
Specific heat of diatomic gas
= C=
p
2 M
7 R 7 8.314
∴ For O 2 → Cpo2 =× u =× = 0.909kJ / kg K
2 M O2 2 32
7 R 7 8.314
CPN 2 =× u =× 1.039kJ / kgK
=
2 MN2 2 28
 7 Ru
Specific heat of diatomic gas
= C=
p
2 M
7 R 7 8.314
∴ For O 2 → Cpo2 =× u =× = 0.909kJ / kg K
Mixture of Ideal Gases2 M 2 32 9.11
O2

7 R 7 8.314
CPN 2 =× u =× 1.039kJ / kgK
=
2 MN2 2 28
Mass fractions
m 02 1
m=f 02 = = 0.333
M 1+ 2
mN2 2
m fN 2= = = 0.666
m 3
For the mixture
= C p m fO2 C po2 + m fN 2 C PN 2
= 0.333 × 0.909 + 0.666 × 1.039
= 0.9946kJ / kg K
C v = Cp − R = 0.9946 − 0.2842 = 0.71047kJ / kg K
Change in entropy during constant volume heating
T
DS =mC v log e 2
T1
373
3 × 0.71047 × log e
=
293
DS =0.5145kJ / K
7. A gaseous mixture consists of 1kg of O2 and 2kg of N2 is initially at a pressure of 150kPa
and a temperature of 20oC. It is heated at constant pressure until its temperature reaches
100oC. Determine (i) change in enthalpy, (ii) change in entropy, (iii) change in internal
energy. VTU jan 2005
Ans. mO2 = 1kg, mN2 = 2kg, p1 = p2 = 150kPa, T1 = 20 + 273 = 293K, T2 = 100 + 273 = 373K
To find Cp , C v and R for the mixture
7 R 7 8.314
CpO2 = u = × 0.909kJ / kg K
=
2 M O2 2 32
7 8.314
Cp N 2 = × =1.039kJ / kg K
2 28
m O2 1
=m fO2 =
m O2 + m N 2 3
mN2 2
=m fN 2 =
m O2 + m N 2 3
∴
= Cp m fO2 CpO2 + m fO2 Cp O2
1 2
= × 0.909 + × 1.039 = 0.9959
3 3
m O2 1
n O2 M O2 32
=X O2 = = = 0.3043
n O2 + n N 2 m O2 + m N 2 1
+
2
M O2 M N 2 32 28
mN2 2
MN2 28
 O2 1
n O2 M O2 32
= X O2 = = = 0.3043
n O2 + n N 2 m O2 + m N 2 1
+
2
9.12 M O2 M N 2 32 28 Basic Thermodynamics
mN2 2
MN2 28
XN2
= = = 0.6956
m N 2 m O2 2 1
+ +
M N 2 M O2 28 32
=M X O2 M O2 + X N 2 M N 2
= 0.3043 × 32 + 0.6956 × 28= 29.21kJ kg /kg mol
R u 8.314
R =
= = 0.2846 kJ / kg K
M 29.21
C v = Cp − R = 0.9959 − 0.2846 = 0.711kJ / kg K
DH mCp ( T2 − T1 )
Change in enthalpy of mixture=
3 × 0.9959 (100 − 20 ) =
= 238.96 kJ
Change in internal energy of mixture
DE = mC v ( T2 − T1 ) = 3 × 0.711 (100 − 20 ) = 170.64 kJ
Change in entropy DS
 T    100 + 273  
m Cp log e 2  =
= 3 × 0.9959log e   = 0.7212 kJ / K
 T1    20 + 273  

8. A mixture of ideal gases contains 3kg of N2, 5kg of CO2. The partial pressure CO2 in the
mixture is 155 kPa. Find
(i) Partial pressure of N2, (ii) Gas constant for the mixture (iii) Molecular weight of the
mixture. VTU Jan 2006
Ans. mN2 = 3kg, mco2 = 5kg, pco2 = 155kPa, pN2 = ?, R = ?, M = ?
of molesof moles
Number
mN2 3
n N=
2 = = 0.107142
M N 2 28
m co2 5
n co2
= = = 0.113636
M co2 44
n= 0.1074 + 0.113636 = 0.220736
Mole fractions
n N 2 0.10742
X=N2 = = 0.4854
n 0.220736
n co2 0.113636
X=
co2 = = 0.5147
n 0.220736
p
Now X CO2 = CO2
p
155
0.5147= ⇒ p= 291.43kPa
p
Partial pressure of N 2= p N 2= p − p CO2
= 291.43 − 155
= 141.43kPa
Molecular wt. of the mixture
 p
155
0.5147= ⇒ p= 291.43kPa
p
Mixture of Ideal Gases 9.13
Partial pressure of N 2= p N 2= p − p CO2
= 291.43 − 155
= 141.43kPa
Molecular wt. of the mixture
=M X N 2 M N 2 + X co2 M co2
= 0.4854 × 28 + 0.5147 × 44= 36.23kg / kg mol
Gas constant of the mixture
R u 8.314
R =
= = 0.2294kJ / kg K
M 36.23
9. A gas mixture consists of 0.5kg of carbon monoxide and 1kg of CO2. Determine
(i) Mass fraction of each component, (ii) Mole fraction of each component, (iii) Average
molecular wt. (iv) Gas constant of the mixture.
Ans. mco = 0.5kg, mco2 = 1kg, mfC0 = ?, mfC02 = ?, XC0 = ? XC02 = ? M = ? R = ?
Massfractions
0.5
m fco
= = 0.333
0.5 + 1
1.0
m fco2 = 0.666
=
0.5 + 1
Number of moles
m co 0.5
n=
co = = 0.017857
M co 28
m co2 1
n co2
= = = 0.02273
M co2 44
Molefractions
n co 0.017857
X=
co = = 0.4399
n 0.017857 + 0.02273
n co2 0.02273
X=
co2 = = 0.5601
n 0.017857 + 0.02273
Molecular weight
M X co M co + X co2 M=
= co2 0.4399 × 28 + 0.5601× =
44 36.96 kg / kg mol
R u 8.314
R
= = = 0.2247kJ / kg K
M 36.96
10. A gaseous mixture contains 21% by volume of N2, 50% by volume H2 & 29% by volume
CO2. If the mixture is at 1 bar, 10oC calculate.
(i) Gas constant of the mixture (ii) specific heat ratio of the mixture
If 0.085m3 of this mixture undergoes a polytropic process according to pV1.2 = C, to a final
volume of 1/5th initial volume, determine (i) work transfer, (ii) heat transfer, (iii) change
in entropy.
Ans. VfN2 = 0.21, VfH2 = 0.5, Vfco2 = 0.29, p1 = 1 bar, T1 = 10 + 273 = 283K, V1 = 0.085m3
 M = X N 2 M N 2 + X H 2 M H 2 + X CO2 M CO2
= 0.21× 28 + 0.5 × 2.0 + 0.29 × 44 = 196
9.14 R u 8.314
Basic Thermodynamics
Gas constant=
R = = 0.423kJ
M 19.6
From Thermodynamicdata book
Specific heat of gas mixture
M N 2 28,
= = M H 2 2,=
M co2 44
m n M M
=CPN 2 1.039kJ
= / kg K, CPH 2 14.15kJ= m fN/ 2kg=K N 2 = N 2 N 2 = X N 2 N 2 = 0.2
/ kg K, Cpco2 0.818kJ
m nM M
X=
N2 V=fN 2 0.21 m 2
m fH 2 =X H 2 × H 2 =0.5 × =0.0513
X=
H2 V=fH 2 0.5 M 19.6
X= V= 0.29 m 44
co2 fco2 m fco2 = X co2 × co2 = 0.29 × = 0.649
M = X N 2 M N 2 + X H 2 M H 2 + X CO2 M CO2 M 19.6
C p = m fN 2C p N 2 + m fH 2C pH 2 + m fco2 C pco2
= 0.21× 28 + 0.5 × 2.0 + 0.29 × 44 = 196kg / Kg mol
R u 8.314 = 0.2993 × 1.039 + 0.0513 × 14.5 + 0.6
Gas constant= R = = 0.423kJ / kg K C v = Cp − R = 1.582 − 0.423 = 1.1589 kJ
M 19.6
Specific heat of gas mixture Cp 1.582
Specific heat ratio=
γ = = 1.3
mN2 n N2M N2 M 28 C v 1.1589
m fN 2 = = = X N 2 N 2 = 0.21× = 0.2993
m nM M 19.6 For polytropic process
m 2
m fH 2 =X H 2 × H 2 =0.5 × =0.0513 1× 100 × 0.085 − 6.9 ×
M 19.6 p1V1 − p 2 V2
W= =
m 44 n −1 1.2 − 1
m fco2 = X co2 × co2 = 0.29 × = 0.6494
M 19.6 γ−n 1.37 − 1.2
Q= ×W = × ( −16.15 ) =−
C p = m fN 2C p N 2 + m fH 2C pH 2 + m fco2 C pco2 γ −1 1.37 − 1
= 0.2993 × 1.039 + 0.0513 × 14.5 + 0.6494 × 0.818 = 1.582kJ / kg K  T
Change in entropy
= DS m C v log e 2 +
C v = Cp − R = 1.582 − 0.423 = 1.1589 kJ / kg K  T1
Cp 1.582 p 2 V2 = mRT2
Specific heat ratio= γ = = 1.37
C v 1.1589 0.085
6.9 × 100 × = 0.071× 0.423 × T2
For polytropic process 5
0.085 T2 = 390.6K
1× 100 × 0.085 − 6.9 × × 100
p1V1 − p 2 V2 5
W= = = −16.15
∴D kJS = 0.071 1.158 log  390.6  + 0.432
n −1 1.2 − 1  e
  283 
γ−n 1.37 − 1.2
Q= ×W = × ( −16.15 ) =−7.42 kJ p1V1 = mRT1
γ −1 1.37 − 1
1× 100 × 0.085 =m × 0.423 × 283
 T2 V2 
Change in entropy
= DS m C v log e + R log e  m = 0.071kg
 T1 V1 
p1V11.2 = p 2 V21.2
p 2 V2 = mRT2 1.2
 0.085 
1× ( 0.085 ) =
1.2
0.085 p2 ×  
6.9 × 100 × = 0.071× 0.423 × T2  5 
5
p 2 = 6.9bar
T2 = 390.6K
  390.6  1
∴DS = 0.071 1.158 log e   + 0.432 log e  = −0.02285 kJ / K
  283  5
p1V1 = mRT1
1× 100 × 0.085 =m × 0.423 × 283
 Mixture of Ideal Gases 9.15

11. A vessel is divided into three compartments which contain 0.1m3 of H2, 0.2m3 of N2 and
0.05m3 of CO2. All the three compartments are at a pressure of 2 bar and at a temperature
of 15oC, When the gases are mixed by rupturing the partitions determine
(i) Molecular wt. and gas constant for the mixture, (ii) Partial pressure of each gas, (iii)
Reversible adiabatic index, (iv) Entropy change due to diffusion.
Ans. VH2 = 0.1m3, VN2 = 0.2m3, Vco2 = 0.05m3
p=
H2 p=
N2 p=
co2 2bar
TH 2 =TN 2 =Tco2 =15 + 273 =288K
8.314
R H3
= = 4.124kJ / kg K
2
8.314 0.297kJ / kg K
R N2 =
=
28
8.314
R co2 = 0.189 kJ K
=
44
p H 2 VH 2 2 × 100 × 0.1
mH 2 =
= = 0.0168kg
R H 2 TH 2 4.124 × 288
2 × 0.2 × 100
=mN2 = 0.468kg
2.97 × 288
2 × 0.05 × 100
m co2 = = 0.184kg
1.89 × 288
m = 0.0168 + 0.468 + 0.184 = 0.6688kg
V = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.05 = 0.35m3
0.0168
m fH 2 = 0.025
=
0.6688
0.468
m fN 2 = 0.7
=
0.6688
0.184
m fco2 = 0.275
=
0.6688
Gas constant of the mixture
R =R H 2 × m fH 2 + R N 2 m fN 2 + R co2 m fco2
= 4.124 × 0.025 + 0.297 × 0.7 + 0.189 × 0.275
= 0.363kJ / kg K
R u 8.314
M =
= = 22.9kg / kg mol
R 0.363
Mole fractions
M 22.9
X H 2 =m f 2 × =0.025 × =0.284
MH2 2
22.9
X N 2 =0.7 × =0.572
28
22.9
X co2 = 0.275 × = 0.144
44
 M 22.9
X H 2 =m f 2 × =0.025 × =0.284
MH2 2
22.9
X N 2 =0.7
9.16 × =0.572 Basic Thermodynamics
28
22.9
X co2 = 0.275 × = 0.144
44
Partial pressures
m H 2 R H 2 T 0.0168 × 4.124 × 288
=pH 2 = = 0.57bar
V 0.35
0.468 × 0.297 × 288
pN2 = = 1.144bar
0.35
0.184 × 0.198 × 288
=p co2 = 0.286 bar
0.35
Specific heats
C v = mf H 2 C vH 2 + m fN 2 C vN 2 + m fco2 C vco2
From thermodynamic
From tables data book
=C vH 2 10.122,
= C vN 2 0.743,
= C vco2 0.275
∴ C v= 0.025 × 10.122 + 0.7 × 0.743 + 0.275 × 0.644
= 0.95025kJ / kg K
Cp = C v + R = 0.95025 + 0.363 = 1.313kJ / kg K
Cp 1.313
=
γ = = 1.382
C v 0.95025
Entropy change due to diffusion
DS = DSH 2 + DSN 2 + DSco2
V V V
= m H 2 C vH 2 log e + m N 2 C vN 2 log e + m co2 C vco2 log e
VH 2 VN 2 Vco2
0.35 0.35 0.35
= 0.0168 × 10.122log e + 0.468 × 0.743 log e + 0.184 × 0.275log e
0.1 0.2 0.05
= 0.6382kJ / K
12. A mixture of ideal gases consists of 3kg of N2 and 5kg of CO2 and at a pressure of 300kPa
and temperature of 20oC. Find (i) Mole fraction of each constituent, (ii) equivalent gas
constant of the mixture, (iii) Equivalent molecular wt. (iv) partial pressures and volumes.
Ans. mN2 = 3kg, mco2 = 5kg, p = 300kPa, T = 20oC + 273 = 293K
X
= N22
H ?, X=
CO2 ?,=R ?,= M ?, = p N 2 ?, p= CO2 ?, V= N2 ?, V=CO2 ?
( i ) Mole fractions Number of moles
n N2 0.1071 mN2 3
X N=
2 = = 0.485 n N=
2 = = 0.1071kg mol
n N 2 + n CO2 0.1071 + 0.1136 M N 2 28
n CO2 0.1136 m CO2 5
X CO2
= = = 0.5146 =
n CO2 = = 0.1136 kg mol
n N 2 + n CO2 0.1071 + 0.1136 M CO2 44
( ii ) Molecular wt of the mixture
M= X N 2 M N 2 + X CO2 M CO=
2 0.485 × 28 + 0.5146 × 44= 36.22 kg / kg mol
( iii ) Gas constant of the mixture
R u 8.314
R
= = = 0.2295kJ / kg K
 n N2 0.1071 mN2 3
X N=
2 = = 0.485 n N=
2 = = 0.1071kg mol
n N 2 + n CO2 0.1071 + 0.1136 M N 2 28
n 0.1136 m CO2 5
X CO2of IdealCO2
=
Mixture = = 0.5146 n CO2
= = = 0.1136 kg mol 9.17
n N 2 + nGCO2
ases
0.1071 + 0.1136 M CO2 44
( ii ) Molecular wt of the mixture
M= X N 2 M N 2 + X CO2 M CO=
2 0.485 × 28 + 0.5146 × 44= 36.22 kg / kg mol
( iii ) Gas constant of the mixture
R u 8.314
R
= = = 0.2295kJ / kg K
M 36.22
( iv ) Partial pressures and Partial volumes
pN2
X N 2= ⇒ p N 2= X N 2 × p= 0.485 × 300 =
145.5kPa
p
p
X CO2
= CO2 ⇒ p CO2 = X CO2 ×= p 0.5146 × 300
= 154.38kPa
p
Volumeof mixture
pV = mRT
300 × V = ( 5 + 3) 0.2295 × 293
V =1.7931m3
Partial volumes
VN 2 V
VfN 2 =X
CN2
N2 = ⇒ 0.485 = N 2
V 1.7931
3
VN 2 = 0.8696m
V V
VfCO
C fCO2 =X CO2 = CO2 ⇒ 0.5146 = CO2
2
V 1.7931
3
VCO 2 = 0.9227m
13. A mixture of ideal gases contain 5 kg of N2 and 8 kg of CO2. The partial pressure of N2 in
the mixture is 120 kPa. Find (i) Mole fraction of N2 and CO2 (ii) Partial pressure of CO2.
(iii) Molecular weight of the mixture.  (VTU June/July 2017 CBCS)
Ans. mN2 = 5kg, mCO = 8kg, p = 120 kPa, X = ?, X = ?, pCO = ?, M = ?
2 N2 N2 CO2 2
(i) Mole fraction
n N2 0.17
= XN2 = = 0.483
n N 2 + n CO2 0.17 + 0.182
mN2 5
n N=
2 = = 0.17 kg mol
M N 2 28
m CO2 8
n co= = = 0.182 kg mol
2
M CO2 44
n CO2 0.182
X CO2
= = = 0.517
n N 2 + n CO2 0.17 + 0.182
 9.18 Basic Thermodynamics

(ii) Partial pressure of CO2

p CO2 p CO2
X CO2 = ⇒ 0.517 = ⇒ p CO2 = 0.517 p
p p
p pN2 120
But X N 2= N 2 ⇒ p= =
p X N 2 0.483
p = 248.45kPa
∴ p CO2 = 0.517 × 248.45 = 128.47 kPa
(iii) Molecular weight of the mixture
M = XN2 MN2 + XCO MCO
2 2
= 0.486 × 28 + 0.517 × 44
= 36.27 kg/kg mol
14. A mixture of gases comprises 30% CO, 15% CO2 and 55% H2. Find the gravimetric
analysis specific gas constant and molecular weight of the mixture.
 (VTU June/July 2018 CBCS)
Data :
= X co 0.3,= X co2 0.15,=X H 2 0.55,
= m fco ?,=
m fco2 ?,=
mf H 2 ?
Molecular weight of the mixture
M =X CO M CO + X CO2 M CO2 + X H 2 M H 2 =0.3 × 28 + 0.15 × 44 + 0.55 × 2 =16.1kg / kg mol
R u 8.314
Gas constant=
R = = 0.516 kJ / kg K
M 16.1
Gravimetric composition
M 28
m fco =X co × co =0.3 × =0.522
M 16.1
M 44
m fco2 = X co2 × co2 = 0.15 × = 0.4099
M 16.1
M 2
m fH 2 = X H 2 × H 2 = 0.55 × = 0.0683
M 16.1
 Chapter - 10
Real Gases
10.0 Introduction
An ideal gas is an imaginary substance which obeys the relation pV=RT.
In deriving the ideal gas equation the following assumptions were made.
1. There is little or no attraction between the molecules of the gas.
2. The volume occupied by the molecules themselves is negligibly small compared to the
volume of gas.
3. Any finite volume of a gas consists of a very large number of molecules.
At very low pressure relative to the critical pressure or at very high temperature relative to
the critical temperature, the intermolecular attraction and the volume of the molecule compared
to the total volume of gas are not of much significance. At this condition, the real gas obeys very
closely the ideal gas equation. But at higher pressures, the intermolecular force of attraction and
repulsion increase and also the volume of the molecules become appreciable compared to the total
gas volume. Because of this, the real gas does not obey the ideal gas equation. To analyse real gas
at this condition, numerous equations of state have been developed.
10.1 VanderWaal's equation of State
An equation that relates pressure, temperature and specific volume is called an equation of state.
VanderWaal's equation of state mainly used to analyse real gases.
Two forms of Vanderwaal's equation are
1. In terms of Molar volume
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =R mT
 vm 
Total volume V
=v m molor
= volume =
no. of molecules n
2. In terms of specific volume
 a 
 p + 2 ( v − b) =RT
 v 
V
v Specific
= volume of gas
mass
p = Pr essure in kPa,
T = temperaturein K.
R = Gas cons tan t
a = cons tan t, kNm 4 / ( kg mol )
2

b = cons tan t, m3 / kg mol

Ru = Universal gas constant = 8.314 kJ/kg mol
 10.2 Basic Thermodynamics

The coefficient 'a' was introduced to account for the existence of mutual attraction between the
molecules. The unit of 'a' is kNm4/(kg/mol)2. The term a/v2 is called the force of cohesion.
The coefficient 'b' was introduced to account for the volumes of the molecules and known as
co-volume. The unit of 'b is m3/(kg mol).
Vander Waal's equation is not obeyed by a real gas in all ranges of pressure and temperatures.
Evaluation of Vander Waals Constant
Vander Waals equation is given by
 a 
 p + 2  ( v − b) = RT
 v 
RT a
p= − 2 → (1)
v−b v
a a a
or pV − pb + 2 × v − 2 × v − 2 × b − RT = 0
v v v
a ab
pv − pb + − 2 − RT = 0
v v
pv3 − ( pb + RT ) v 2 + av − ab =
0 ------(1)
Thus the Vander Waal's equation being a cubic in v, has three roots, which may either all real,
or two imaginary and one real as imaginary roots always occur in pairs.
p

Critical State
pC

T=
T
C

V
VC
Usually at low temperature three +ve real roots exists. As the temperature increases the three
real roots approach one other and at the critical temperature they become equal.
Above this temperature only one real root exists for all values of p. The critical isotherm has
zero slope at the critical state but also its slope changes at the critical state so that the first and
second derivatives of p with respect to V at T = Tc are each equal to zero. (at critical point V=Vc)
∂p  RTC 2a
i.e   =
− + 3= 0 → ( 2-------(2)
)
( vc − b ) vc
2
 ∂V T = Tc
p
 ∂ 2P 2RTC 6a
and  2 
= 0 ( 3-------(3)
− 4 =→ )
 ∂ V T = Tc ( v c − b )
2
vc
By re − arranging ( 2 ) & ( 3) we get
RTc 2a
= → ( 4-------(4)
)
( vc − b ) vc
2 3

2RTc 6a
& = → ( 5)
( vc − b ) vc
3 2
 By re − arranging ( 2 ) & ( 3) we get
RTc 2a
Real Gases= → ( 4) 10.3
( vc − b ) vc
2 3

2RTc 6a
& = → ( 5 ) -----(5)
( vc − b ) vc
3 2

Dividing Equation ( 4 ) by Equation ( 5 )

RTc 2a
( vc − b )
2
v2
= c
2RTc 6a
( vc − b ) vc 4
2

vc − b vc
=
2 3
3v c − 3b =2v c
v c = 3b
vc
or b =
3
Substituting b in eqn ( 4 )
RTc 2a
2
=
 vc  vc3
 vc − 3 
 
8a
or R =
9Tc v c
Substituting b and R in Vander Waals equation (Taking p, v,T at critical state)
 a  vc  8a
 p c + 2   v c − = × Tc
 vc   3  9Tc v c
 a   2v c  8a
 pc + 2   =
 v c   3  9 v c
a 4a
p c + 2 =2
vc 3v c
4a a  4−3 a
pc = 2
− 2 = a 2 
= 2
3v c vc  3v c  3v c
or a = 3p c v c 2
a
× vc
pc vc 3v c2 9 3
= = =
RTc 8a
× Tc 3 × 8 8
9Tc v c
 10.4 Basic Thermodynamics

10.2 Reduced Properties

The ratios of pressure, temperature and specific volume of a real gas to their corresponding
critical values are called reduced properties.
i.e.
T
Re duced Temperature Tr =
Tc
p
Re duced Pr essure p r =
pc
v
Re duced Volume v r =
vc

10.3 Law of corresponding States

If any two gases have equal values of reduced pressure and reduced temperature, then they
have same values of reduced volume.
i.e. vr = f(Tr,pr) for all gases
The above law is called as law of corresponding states. It reduces the properties of all gases
to one formula. VanderWaal's equation in the form of reduced properties is given by
 3 
 p r + 2  ( 3 v r − 1) =
8Tr
 vr 
In the above equation, the individual coefficient a,b & R for a particular gas have disappeared,
so this equation is an expression of the law of corresponding states.
10.4 Compressibility Factor
Compressibility factor of any gas is a function of only two properties, usually
temperature and pressure ie., compressibility factor Z = f(pr,Tr)
It is also defined as the ratio of the actual volume to the volume predicted by the ideal law at a
given pressure and temperature.
Actual Volume v act p.v act
= Z = =
Volume Predicted by ideal gas law RT RT
p
If the gas behaves like an ideal gas, then Z = 1, at all temperatures and pressures. Thus to
quantify the deviation of real gas behaviour from the ideal gas behaviour compressibility factor is
used.
10.5 Generalized Compressibility Chart
The general compressibility chart is plotted with Z versus pr for values of Tr. This is constructed
by plotting the known data of one or more gases and can be used for any gas.
This chart provides one of the best means of expressing deviation from ideal behaviour and
gives result with an accuracy of with in 5%. A gas which has a compressibility factor less than
unity is more compressible than a perfect gas.
 Real Gases 10.5

1.2 5.0 3.0

2.0
1.0 1.6
1.4

Z = RTact
0.8
pV
1.2
0.6
Tr=1.0
0.4

0.2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reduced Pressure pr
The following observations can be made from the generalized compressibility chart.
1. At all temperatures z→1 as pr → 0
[Link] the temperature equal to twice the critical temperature (Tr = 2) and above, z=1 over a wide
range of pressures upto five times the critical pressure (pr = 5).
3. The compressibility factor at the critical point
pv
Zc = c c is called critical compressibility and is found to be equal to
RT
0.275 for all subs tan ces

10.6 Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state

It is given by
R u T (1 − e ) A
= p 2 ( Vm + B ) − 2
Vm Vm
Where p = pressure
 a 
=A A0  1 −
 Vm 
 b 
=B B0  1 −
 Vm 
C
e=
Vm T 3
The factors A0, a, B0, b are constants.
They are different for different gases.
Beattie-Bridgeman equation is used for substances at pressure less than critical pressure. This
equation is accurate enough when the volumes involved are greater than twice the critical value.
It fits the data of fourteen gases down to the critical point and over a wide range of pressure with
in ±0.5% error. However, it is inaccurate near critical point.
 10.6 Basic Thermodynamics

10.7 Redlich-Kwong equation of state

It is given by
RuT a
= p − y2
Vm − b T Vm ( Vm + b )
2
 m3  y2 m3
Where a and b are constant and their units are bar   K and respectively.
 kg mol  kg mol
Vm = Molar specific volume
Ru = Universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg mol K

Redlich-Kwong equation gives good results at high pressures and is fairly accurate for temperatures
above the critical value.

The constant a & b has the values interms of critical properties as follows
R 2 TC 2.5
a = 0.4275
pC
RT
b = 0.0867 C
pC
 Real Gases 10.7

PROBLEMS ON REAL GASES

1. 1 kg of CO2 has a volume of 1m3 at 1000 C Compute the pressure by

[Link] Waal's equation
ii. Perfect gas equation
Data : CO2 V=1m3, T=100 +273=373K p=?
From thermodynamic Hand book we get Vander Waal's Constants for CO2
362850 Nm 4 / ( kg − mol )
2
a= Molecular wt of CO 2 =
44
b = 0.0423 m3 / [Link]
R u = 8314 Nm / [Link]
m 1
Number of moles=
n =
M 44
Total Volume 1
Molar specific volume V= = = 44 m3 / kg mol
m
n 1
44
( i ) U sin g Vander Waals equation
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =
RuT
 vm 
 R T a 
=p  u − 2
 v m − b Vm 
 8314 × 373 362850 
=  − 
 44 − 0.0423 442 
= 70361
= N / m 2 0.7036 bar
( ii ) U sin g Perfect gas equation
pv m = R u T
R u T 8314 × 373
=p = = 70480 N / m 2
vm 44
p = 0.704 bar
2. A container of 3 m3 capacity contains 10kg of CO2 at 270C. Estimate the pressure exerted
by CO2 using
i. Perfect gas equation ii. Vander Waal's equation
Data : V = 3m3, m=10 kg, T=27+273=300 K, M=12+16 x 2 = 44
[Link] Perfect gas equation
R u 8314
=R = = 188.95 Nm / kg K
M 44
pv = mRT
mRT 10 × 188.95 × 300
= p = = 188950 N= / m 2 1.889 bar
v 3
 R u 8314
R =
= = 188.95 Nm / kg K
M 44
10.8 Basic Thermodynamics
pv = mRT
mRT 10 × 188.95 × 300
= p = / m 2 1.889 bar
= 188950 N=
v 3
ii. Vander Waal's equation
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =
R uT
 vm 
Number of moles
m 10
n =
=
M 44
V 3
v m= = = 13.2 m3 / [Link]
n 10
44
From Thermodynamic data book
For CO 2 , a = 362850 Nm 4 / ( [Link] )
2

b = 0.0423 m3 / [Link]
 362850 
Now  p +  (13.2 − 0.0423) =
8314 × 300
 13.22 
=p 187479.5
= N / m 2 1.875 bar
3. One kg mol of oxygen undergoes a reversible non-flow isothermal compression and the
volume decreases from 0.2 m3/kg to 0.08 m3/kg and the initial temperature is 600C . If
the gas obeys Vander Waal's equation find
i. the work done during the process. ii. the final pressure.
Data : V1 = 0.2 m3/kg, V2 = 0.08 m3/kg, T1 = 60+273 = 333K, W = ?, p2 = ?
From thermodynamic data book
For oxygen
a = 139250 Nm4/([Link])2
b = 0.0314 m3/[Link]
Ru = 8314 J/[Link]/K
M=32
mass 1
= n =
M 32
v 0.2
v m1 = V1 = = 0.2 × 32 = 6.4 m3 / kg mol
n 1
32
ly
|||
Similarly m2v = 0.08 × 32 = 266 m3 / [Link]
2  RuT 2 a 
=
1
W ∫=
p dV ∫
1
 − 2  dV
 vm − b vm 
 vm − b   1 1 
= R u T log e  2 +a − 
 vm − b   v m2 v m1 
 1 
 2.56 − 0.0314   1 1 
= 8314 × 333 × log e   + 139250  − 
 6.4 − 0.0314   2.56 6.4 
 =W ∫=
p dV ∫
1
 − 2  dV
 vm − b vm 
1

 vm 2 − b   1 1 
= R
Real Gases T log   + a  −  10.9
u e
 vm − b   v m2 v m1 
 1 
 2.56 − 0.0314   1 1 
= 8314 × 333 × log e   + 139250  − 
 6.4 − 0.0314   2.56 6.4 
W = −2.524723 Nm / [Link]
Final Pr essure
RuT a 8314 × 333 139250
p 2= − 2
= −
v m2 − b v m2 2.56 − 0.0314 2.562
= 1073651
= N / m 2 10.73 bar
4. Calculate the density of N2 at 260 bar and 150 C by using compressibility chart.
Data : p = 260 bar, T=15+273=288K ρ=?
From Thermodynamic data book, for N2
pc =33.94 bar, Tc = 126.2 K
p 260
p=r = = 7.6
p c 33.94
T 288
T=
r = = 2.28
Tc 126.2
From the compressibility chart=
at p r 7.6,
= Tr 2.28, we get
Z = 1.08
[Link] p
Now
= Z =
RT ρRT
p 200 × 105  R u 8314
=
ρ = R
= =
ZRT 1.08 × 8314 × 288 M 28
28
3
ρ =281.6 kg / m
5. A 250 lit tank contains N2 gas at 6 MPa and 150K. Calculate the mass of N2 using
i. Ideal gas equation ii. Generalized compressibility chart.
Data : V = 250 lit = 250×10-3m3, p = 6 MPa = 6000kPa
( i ) U sin g ideal gas equation
pV = mRT
pV  R u 8314
m
= R =
=
RT M 28
6000 × 250 × 10−3
=
8314
× 150
28
m = 33.69 kg
( ii ) Generalized Compressibility Chart
From Thermodynamic data book, for N 2
=p c 3.349
= MPa, Tc 126.2K
p 6
Now p=
r = = 1.77
pc 3.349
 28
m = 33.69 kg
( ii ) Generalized Compressibility Chart
10.10 Basic Thermodynamics
From Thermodynamic data book, for N 2
=p c 3.349
= MPa, Tc 126.2K
p 6
Now p=
r = = 1.77
pc 3.349
T 150
T=
r = = 1.19
Te 126.2
From the generalized compressibility chart
= at p r 1.77
= and Tr 1.19 we get
Z = 0.6
pVact p Vact
Now =
Z ⇒m =
mRT ZRT
−3
6000 × 2.50 × 10
= m = 56.15 kg
8.314
0.6 × × 150
28
6. It is necessary to store 1 kg mol of methane at a temperature of 300K, pressure of
60MPa. Determine the volume of the cylinder that is required for storage by each of the
following (i) Ideal ga law (ii) Vander waal's equation
Data : T = 300K, p = 60 MPa = 60,000kPa, V = ?
R u 8.314
=R =
M 16
( i ) Ideal gas law
pV = mRT
8.314
60,000 × V =1 × × 300
16
V = 0.0416m3
( ii ) Vanderwaals equation
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =
RuT
 vm
From Thermodynamic hand book, for methane
a = 228.5 kPa ( m3 / kg mol )
2

N m6
228.5 × 1000 Nm 4 / ( kg mol )
2
228.5 × 1000
= × =
m 2 ( kg mol )2
b = 0.0427 m3 / kg mol
 228.5 × 1000 
 ( v m − 0.0427 ) = 8314 × 300
6
 60 × 10 +
 vm 2 
Solving we get
v m = 0.0644 m3 / kg mol
V
= 0.0644
n
V
= 0.0644
  ( v m − 0.0427 ) = 8314 × 300
6
 60 × 10 +
 vm 2 
Solving we get
Real Gases 10.11
v m = 0.0644 m3 / kg mol
V
= 0.0644
n
V
= 0.0644
1
16
0.0644
= V = 0.004025 m3
16
7. Determine the specific volume of H2 gas when its pressure is 60 bar and temperature is
100 K using
i. Compressibility chart and factor ii. Vander Waal's equation.
Take for H2
Tc = -239.76oC Pc = 12.92 bar
a = 0.25105 x 105 Nm4/(kg . mol)2 b = 0.0262 m3/[Link] VTU Feb -2003
Data : p = 60 bar T = 100 K Tc = –239.76+273 = 33.24 K
T 100
T=r = = 3.008
Tc 33.24
p 60
p=
r = = 4.65
p c 12.92
From compressibility chart
= at p r 4.65
= & Tr 3.008
we get Z = 1.035
p.v act  R u 8.314 
Now=
Z =R =
RT  M 2 
60 × 100 × v out
1.035 =
8.314
× 100
2
v act = 0.0717 m3 / kg
( ii ) Vander Waal's equation
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) = RuT
 vm 
 0.25105 
 ( v m − 0.0262 ) = 8314 × 100
5
 60 × 10 +
 vm 2 
Solving we get
v m = 0.14 m3 / kg mol
v v
v m= =
n m
M
v
0.14 = ⇒ v = 0.07 m3 / kg
1
2
Note : Solution for cubic equation
 v m = 0.14 m / kg mol
v v
v m==
n m
10.12 Basic Thermodynamics
M
v
0.14 = ⇒ v = 0.07 m3 / kg
1
2
Note : Solution for cubic equation
y3 + py 2 + qy + r =0
Substitute y= x − P / 3
This gives x 3 + ax + b =0
1
=a
3
( 3q − p 2 )

1
b = ( 2P3 − 9Pq + 27r )
27
−b
Put cos φ =
 −a 3 
2  y2
 27 
−a
g=2
3
φ p
=y1 g cos −
3 3
φ  p
y=
2 g cos  + 120  −
3  3
φ  p
y=
3 g cos  + 240  −
3  3
8. Determine the pressure in a steel vessel having a volume of 15 lit and containing 3.4 kg
of N2 at 4000C using
i. ideal gas equation ii. Vander Waals equation.
Also calculate the compressibility factor by using the answer obtained from the vander
waals equation of state. VTU Feb 2002
Data : V = 15 lit = 15 x 10-3 m3 m = 3.4 kg T = 400 + 273 = 673 K, Gas : N2
( i ) Ideal gas equation
R u 8.314
M 28,=
= R = = 0.2969 kJ / kg K
M 28
pV = mRT
p × 15 × 10−3 = 3.4 × 0.2969 × 673
p = 45295.46 kPa
( ii ) Vander Waal's equation
For N 2 , a = 136.4 k Nm 4 / ( kg mol )
2

b = 0.0386 m3 / kg mol
Molor specific volume
v 15 × 10−3
v m= = = 0.1235 m3 / kg mol
 p = 45295.46 kPa
( ii ) Vander Waal's equation
RealFor
GasesN 2 , a = 136.4 k Nm 4 / ( kg mol )
2 10.13

b = 0.0386 m3 / kg mol
Molor specific volume
v 15 × 10−3
v m= = = 0.1235 m3 / kg mol
n 3.4
28
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =
RuT
 vm
 136.4 
2 (
p +  0.1235 − 0.0386 ) =
8.314 × 673
 ( 0.1235) 

p = 56961.91 kPa
Compressibility Factor
p v act v 0.015
V m3
Z
= v
= = = 0.0044
RT m 3.4 kg
56961.91 × 0.0044
=
0.2969 × 673
Z = 1.25
9. 1 kg of propane(C3H8) is at a pressure of 7MPa and a temperature of 1500C. The critical
properties of propane are pc = 4.26 MPa, Tc = 370K, Vc = 0.00454 m3/kg. Compressibility
factor = 0.54. Calculate
(i) reduced properties (ii) specific volume of propane using ideal gas equation.
 VTU Feb 2006
Data : m=1 kg, C3H8, p=7 MPa=7000 kPa, T=150+273=423 K, pc=4.26 MPa, Tc=370K,
VC = 0.00454 m3/kg, Z=0.54
Reduced Properties
p 7 p.v act
p=r = = 1.648 =Z
p c 4.26 Rt
T 423 7000 × Vact
T= = = 1.143 0.54
=
r
Tc 370 8.314
× 423
39
v 0.0062
v=
r = = 1.366 vVact
= 0.0062 m3 / kg
act = v
vc 0.00454
From ideal gas equation
pV = mRT
8.314
7000 × V =1 × × 423
39
V = 0.115 m3 / kg
 10.14 Basic Thermodynamics

10. Determine the specific volume of Helium at 200 kPa and 300 K using the Vander waals
equation and the ideal gas equation of state.
Data : Helium, p = 200 kPa, T = 300 K
( i ) Ideal gas equation
pv = RT For Helium, M = 4
8.314 R u 8.314
200 ×=
v × 300 R =
=
4 M 4
v = 3.117 m3 / kg
( ii ) U sin g Vander Waals equation From Thermodynamic data book for helium
a = 3.4 kNm4/(kgmol)2
 a 
 p + 2  ( vm − b ) =R uT b = 0.0234 m3/kgmol
 vm  M=4
 3.4 
 200 + 2  ( v m − 0.0234 ) =
8.314 × 300
 Vm
v m = 12.5 m3 / kg mol
V
vm =
n
v
v
= m
12.5 =
M 1
4
v = 3.125 m3 / kg
11. The gas Neon has a molecular weight of 20.183 and its critical temperature, pressure
and volume are 44.5 K, 2.73 MPa and 0.0416 m3/[Link]. Reading from compressibility
chart for a reduced pressure of 2 and a reduced temperature of 1.3, the compressibility
factor is 0.7. What are the corresponding specific volume, pressure, temperature and
reduced volume.
Data : Tc=44.5K, pc=2.73 MPa, Vc=0.0416 m3/[Link], pr=2, Tr=1.3, z=0.7, v=?, p=?, T=?, Vr=?
T
Tr =
Tc
T = Tr .Tc = 1.3 × 44.5 = 57.85 K
p
pr =
pc
p
2
= ⇒= p 5.46 MPa
2.73
p.v act
Now, Z =
RT
5.46 × 103 × v act
2=
8.314
× 57.85
20.183
V
=act 3.05 × 10−3 m3 / kg
 p
2
= ⇒= p 5.46 MPa
2.73
p.v act
RealNow,
GasesZ = 10.15
RT
5.46 × 103 × v act
2=
8.314
× 57.85
20.183
V
=act 3.05 × 10−3 m3 / kg
Vact 3.05 × 10−3 3.05 × 10−3
Re duced volume
= =Vr = = 1.42
Vc 0.0416 0.0415
M 20.183
12. Determine the mass of Nitrogen contained in a 35 m3 vessel at 200 bar and 200 K by
using
(i) the ideal gas equation
(ii) Generelized compressibility chart. VTU July 2008
Data : N2, V=35m , p=200 x 100 kPa
3

( i ) Ideal gas equation

From Thermodynamics hand book, for N 2 , we get
=M 28,
= R u 8.314 kJ / kg mol K
R u 8.314
pV
= mRT R
= = = 0.2969 kJ / kg K
M 28
200 × 100 × 35 = m × 0.2969 × 200
m = 11788.48kg
( ii ) Generalized compressibility chart
From Thermodynamic data book, for N 2
=p c 33.94
= bar,Tc 126.2o C
p 200 T 200
p=
r = = 5.89,T=
r = = 1.58
p c 33.94 Tc 126.2
From compressibility chart
at p r 5.89
= = Tr 1.58we get
Z = 0.9
p v act 200 × 100 × v act
Z= ⇒ 0.9=
RT 0.2969 × 200
3
v act = 0.002672 m / kg
V 35
m
= = = 13098.312 kg
v act 0.002672
13. A container of 3m3 capacity contains 10kg of CO2 at 27oC. Estimate the pressure exerted
by CO2 using
i) Perfect gas equation ii) Vander Waal's equation iii) Beattie-Bridgman equation
Data: V = 3m3, m = 10kg, T = 27 + 273 = 300K
 10.16 Basic Thermodynamics

(i) Using perfect gas equation

R u 8314
=R = = 188.95 J / kg K
M 44
pV = mRT
mRT 10 × 188.95 × 300
= p = = 188.95= kPa 1.89 bar
V 3
(ii) Using vanderwaal's equation
From thermodynamic data book, for CO2, Vanderwaal's constants are
a = 362850 Nm4/(kg-mol)2
b = 0.0423 m3/(kg-mol)
 a 
We have  p + 2  ( Vm − b ) =
RuT
 Vm 

V × M 3 × 44
Vm
= = = 13.2 m3 / kg − mol
m 10
 362850 
∴ p +  (13.2 − 0.0423 )= 8314 × 300
 13.22 
=p 187.4
= kPa 1.87 bar
(iii) Using Beattie-Bridgeman equation
From thermodynamic data book,
The Beattie-Bridgeman constants are
A0 = 507.2836, a = 0.07132
B0 = 0.10476, b = 0.07235
C = 66 × 104
 a   0.07132 
Now A = A 0  1 −  = 507.2836  1 − 13.5  = 504.5
 Vm 

 b   0.07235 
B = B0  1 −  = 0.10476  1 −  = 0.1042
 Vm   13.2 
C 66 × 104
=e = = 0.001852
Vm T 3 13.2 × ( 300 )3
We have Beattie − Bridgeman equation
R u T (1 − e ) A
=p 2 ( Vm + B ) − 2
Vm Vm
8314 × 300 (1 − 0.001852 ) ( 504.5
= 2
13.2 + 0.1042 ) − = 190 kPa= 1.9 bar
13.2 13.22
14. The gas neon has a molecular weight of 20.183 and its critical temperature pressure
and volume are 44.5k, 2.73 MPa and 0.0416 m3 / kg mol. What are the corresponding
specific volume, pressure temperature and reduced volume if th reduced pressure and
reduced temperature are 2 and 1.3 respectively.
Ans. M = 20.183 , TC = 44.5 K pC = 2.73 MPa, Vc = 0.0416 m3 / kg mol, V = ?, p = ?, T=?, Vr =
?, pr = ?, Tr = 1.3
 Real Gases 10.17

From generalized compressibility chart, at pr = 2 and Tr = 1.3 we get z = 0.7

We have
p p
pr = ⇒ 2= ⇒ p = 5.46 MPa
pc 2.73
T T
Tr = ⇒ 1.3 = ⇒ T = 57.85K
TC 44.5
Again p.V = Z RT
8.314
5.46 × 103 × V = 0.7 × × 57.85 × 103
20.183
V 3.05 × 10−3 m3 / kg
=
V 3.05 × 10−3 × 20.183
Reduced volume V
=r = = 1.48
VC 0.0416
15. Assume that 20kg of steam is required at a pressure of 600 bar and a temperature
of 750o C in order to conduct a particular experiment. A 140 lit heavy duty tank is
available for storage. Predict if this is an adequate storage capacity using
i. The ideal gas model
ii. The compressibility chart
iii. The Vander Waals equation with a = 5.454 (lit)2 atm/ (g mol)2 , b = 0.03042 lit/g mol
for steam
iv. The steam tables
Ans. m = 20kg, p = 600 bar = 600 x 102 kPa, T = 750 + 273 = 1023K, Vtank = 140 lit = 0.140m3
i. Ideal gas equation
R u 8.314
= R = = 0.4615kJ / kg K
M 18
p.V = mRT
600 × 100 × V = 20 × 0.4615 × 1023
V = 0.15754 m3
Steam volume is more than tank volume (0.140m3). Therefore, the tank is not adequate to
store the steam.
ii. Use of compressibility chart
From thermodynamic data book for water we get
= p C 22.09
= MPa,TC 647.3K
p
Reduced pressure p r =
pe
600 × 100
= = 2.716
22.09 × 103
T
Reduced temperature Tr =
TC
1023
= = 1.58
647.3
From compressibility chart
= at p r 2.716,T
= r 1.58 we get
 600 × 100
= = 2.716
22.09 × 103
T
10.18Reduced
temperature
Tr = Basic Thermodynamics
TC
1023
= = 1.58
647.3
From compressibility chart
= at p r 2.716,T
= r 1.58 we get
z = 0.833
pv
pV 600 × 100 × v
Now z = ⇒ 0.833 =
RT 0.46115 × 1023
3
v = 0.00655m / kg
= 6.555lit / kg
Total volume V = mV =× 20 6.555 = 131.1lit
This volumeis less than the tank volume.
Therefore, tank volume is adequate to store the gas.
iii. Vanderwaal’s equation :
We have
= a 5.454 × 1.0132
= 5.526 ( m3 / kg mol ) bar
2

5.526
= = 0.017 m 6 bar / kg 2
18
0.03042
=b = 0.0017 m3 / kg = [M 18for steam ]
18
From vander − Waal's equation
2
 a 
 p + 2  ( v − b) = RT
 v 
 0.017
 600 × 10 + 2 ( v − 0.0017=
5
)  0.46115 × 1023
 v 
3
=v 0.00625m
= / kg 6.25lit / kg
V= mv = 20 × 6.25 =125lit
It is less than tank volume
Therefore, tank volume is adequate to store the gas.
iv. Steam tables
From steam table, at p = 600 bar and tsup = 750o C, for superheated steam, we get
v = 0.00685 m3 / kg = 6.85 lit/kg
V = mv = 20 x 6.85 = 137.3 lit
It is less than tank volume
Therefore, tank volume is adequate to store the gas.
 Real Gases 10.19

16. Determine the specific volume of refrigerant 134a at 1 MPa 50o C using
i. The ideal gas equation of state
ii. The generalized compressibility chart. Compare the values obtained to the actual
value of 0.0271 m3/kg and determine the error involved in each case. Assume for the
refrigerant the following.
R = 0.0815 kPa, m3 / kg K, pc = 4.067 MPa, Tc = 374.3 K
Ans. p = 1 MPa = 1000 kPa, T = 50 + 273 = 323 K
1. Ideal gas equation
pV = RT
1 × 103 =
× v 0.0815 × 323
v = 0.02632 m3 / kg
 0.02632 − 0.0271 
= %error   × 100
 0.0271 
= 21.2%
ii. Compressibility chart
p 1
p=r = = 0.246
p c 4.067
T 323
T
=r = = 0.863
TC 374.3
From compressibility chart,at
=p r 0.246and
= Tr 0.863, we get
Z = 0.84
pv 1 × 103 × v
Z = ⇒ 0.84 =
RT 0.0815 × 323
3
v = 0.02211m / kg
0.02211 − 0.0271
= %error = 1.84%
0.0271
17. Determine the pressure exerted by CO2 in a container 1.5m3 capacity, when it contains
5 kg at 27o C, using
i. ideal gas equation
ii. Vander - Waal’s equation
Take Vander -Waal’s constants
a = 364.3 kN m4 /(kg - mol2), b = 0.0427 m3 / kg mol (VTU Jan 2017 (CBCS)
Ans. V = 1.5 m3 , T = 27 + 273 = 300K, m = 5 kg
i. Ideal gas equation
Ruu 8.314
=R = = 188.95J / kg K
M 44
mRT 10 × 188.95 × 300
pV
= mRT ⇒= p = = 377.9 kPa
= 3.78bar
V 1.5
( ii ) Using Vander − waal's equation
 a 
We have  p + 2  ( v m − b ) =
RuT
 vm 
 Ru 8.314
R
= = = 188.95J / kg K
M 44
mRT 10 × 188.95 × 300
10.20 pV
= mRT
⇒= p = = 377.9 kPa 3.78bar
= Basic Thermodynamics
V 1.5
( ii ) Using Vander − waal's equation
 a 
We have  p + 2  ( v m − b ) = RuT
 vm 
V × M 1.5 × 44
vm =
= = 13.2 m3 / kg − mol
m 5
 364.3 
∴  p=+  (13.2 − 0.0427=
) 8.314 × 300
 13.22 
p = 3.8 × 102 kPa = 3.8bar
18. 1 kg of CO2 has a volume of 0.86 m3 at 120°C. Compute the pressure using
(i) Ideal gas equation.
(ii) Vander Waal’s equation.
Take Vander Waal’s constants for CO2 (VTU June/July 2017 (CBCS))
4 3
kNm m
a 365.6
= and b 0.0423
( kgmol )
2
kgmol
Ans. V = 1m3, T = 120 + 273 = 393K,
m 1
Number of moles of CO2 = n = =
M 44
(i) Using ideal gas equation
pv m R= uT Where R u 8.314 kJ / kg mol
RuT V 0.86
p
= v m= = = 37.84 m3 / kg mol
vm n 1
44
8.314 × 393
= = 86.35kN / m 2
37.84
(ii) Vander waal’s equation
 a 
 p + v2  ( vm − b ) =
RuT
 m 

 365.6 
p +  ( 37.84 − 0.0423) =
8.314 × 393
 37.842 
p = 86.18kN / m 2
19. 10 kg of Carbon dioxide is enclosed in a container at a temperature of 100°C and pressure
of 1 bar. Compute the volume of the container by
i) Ideal gas equation
ii) Vander Walls equation
iii) Compressibility chart.  (VTU June/July 2018 (CBCS))
Data : m = 10 kg, T = 100 + 273 = 373 k, p = 1 bar = 100 kPa, V = ?
From thermodynamic data book for CO2 , M = 44
 Real Gases 10.21

Nm 4 / ( kg mol ) , b 0.0423m3 / kg mol

2
a 362850
=
i. Ideal gas equation :
pV = mRT For CO 2
mRT 10 × 0.189 × 373 R u 8.314
V
= = = 7.048m3 R
= = = 0.189 kJ / kg k
p 100 M 44
ii. Vandeswaal’s equation
 p + aa  ( V − b ) = R
 p + 22  ( Vmm − b ) =
V R uu T
T
 Vm 
m 
 362850 
362850
+ V 22  (( V 0.0423))== 8.314
5
11 × × 10
105 + Vmm −− 0.0423 × 373
8.314 × 373
 Vmm 
 362850 
362850
+ V 22  (( V 0.0423)) =
5
11 ×
× 10
105 + Vmm −− 0.0423 =3101.12
3101.12
 Vmm 
Solving
Solving we we get,
get,
3
V
Vm = 30.75m3 // kg
= 30.75m kg mol
mol
m
m 10
m 10
[Link]
[Link] moles
moles of
of CO
CO 22== nn== M== 44== 0.227
0.227 mol
mol
M 44
3
Volume
Volume of
of CO =V
CO 22 =V= =nn ××V
Vmm =
=0.227 × 30.75
0.227 × 30.75 =
= 6.98m
6.98m3
Compressibility factor
From thermodynamic data book critical properties of CO2 are
o
=TC 304.2
= C, p e 73.85
T 373 p 1
=Tr = = 1.23 =p r = = 0.0135
TC 304.2 p C 73.85
From compressibility chart
= at Tr 1.23
= & p r 0.0135
We get Z = 0.98
pv 100 × v
Now z = ⇒ 0.98 = =0.701m3 / kg
RT 0.189 × 373
For mass of 10 kg
V =× 7.01m3
10 0.701 =
 10.22 Basic Thermodynamics

Review Questions
1. State Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
2. State and explain Amagat’s law of additive volumes.
3. Define the following
i. DBT, ii. WBT, iii. DBD, iv. RH, v. SH, vi. DPT , viii. AH, ix. Enthalpy of moist air
4. Write a note psychrometric chart
5. Write Vanderwaal’s equation of state
6. What are reduced properties
7. Write a note on compressibility factor and chart.
8. With usual notations, write the following equations of state
i. Redlich-kwong equation
ii. Beattie - Bridgeman equation
9. What is law of corresponding states.
10. Estimate the pressure of 5 kg of CO2 gas which occupies a volume of 0.70 m3 at 75oC, using
the Beattic-Bridgeman equation of state.
Compare this result with the value obtained using the generalized compressibility chart. Which
is more accurate and why?
For CO2 with units of atm, litres/g mol and K, A0 = 5.0065, a = 0.07132, B0 = 0.10476, b =
0.07235, C × 10–4 = 66.0.
11. Measurements of pressure and temperature at various stages in a adabiatic air turbine show
that the states of air lie on the line pv1.25 = constant. If kinetic and gravitational potential
energy are neglected, prove that the shaft work per kg as a function of pressure is given by the
following relation.
  p 1/5 
=W 3.5 p1v1 1 −  2  
  p1  
Take γ for air as 1.4.
12. Air flow steadily into a compressor at a temperature of 17oC and a pressure of 1.05 bar and
leaves at a temperature of 247oC and a pressure of 6.3 bar. There is no heat transfer to or from
the air as it flows through the compressor, changes in elevation and velocity are negligible.
Evaluate the external work done per kg of air, assuming air as an ideal gas for which R =
0.287 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4. Evaluate the minimum external work required to compress the air
adiabatically from the same initial state to the same final pressure and the isentropic efficiency
of the compressor.
Ans. – 225 kJ/kg, –190 kJ/kg, 84.4%
 Real Gases 10.23

13. A slow speed reciprocating air compressor with a water jacket for cooling approximates a
quasistatic compression process following a path pv1.3 = const. If air enters at a temperature of
20oC and a pressure of 1 bar, and is compressed to 6 bar at a rate of 1000 kg/h determine the
discharge temperature of air, the power required and the heat transferred per kg.
 Ans. 443k, 51.82 kW, 36 kJ/kg
14. A single acting two stage reciprocating air compressor with complete intercooling delivers 6 kg/
min at 15 bar pressure. Assume an intake condition of 1 bar and 15oC and that the compression
and expansion processes are polytropic with n = 1.3. Calculate (a) the power required (b) the
isothermal efficiency.
Ans. (a) 26.154kW (b) 85.6 %
15. A two stage air compressor receives 0.238 m /s of air at 1 bar and 27oC and discharge it at 10
3

bar. The polytropic index of compression is 1.35. Determine (a) the minimum power necessary
for compression (b) the power needed for single stage compression to the same pressure, (c)
the maximum temperature for (a) and (b) and (d) the heat removed in the intercooler.
 Ans. (a) 63.8 kW, (b) 74.9 kW, (c) 404.2 k, 544.9 k, (d) 28.9 kW
16. A mass of an ideal gas exists initially at a pressure of 200 kPa, temperature 300K, and specific
volume of 0.5m3/kg. The value of γ is 1.4. (a) Determine the specific heats of the gas. (b)
What is the change in entropy when the gas is expanded to pressure 100 kPa according to
the law pv1.3 = const? (c) What will be the entropy change if the path is pv1.5 = const. (by the
application of a cooling jacket during the process)? (d) What is the inference you can draw
from this example?
Ans. (a) 1.166, 0.833 kJ/kg K, (b) 0.044 kJ/kg K, (c) –0.039 kJ/kg K,
(d) Entropy increases when n < γ and decreases when n > γ.
17. (a) A closed system of 2 kg of air initially at pressure 5 atm and temperature 227oC, expands
reversibly to pressure 2 atm following the law pv1.25 = const. Assuming air as an ideal gas,
determine the work done and the heat transferred.
 Ans. 193 kJ, 72kJ
(b) If the system does the same expansion in a steady flow process, what is the work done by
the system?
 Ans. 241 kJ
18. Air contained in a cylinder fitted with a piston is compressed reversibly according to the law
pv1.25 = const. The mass of air in the cylinder is 0.1 kg. The initial pressure is 100 kPa and the
initial temperature 20oC. The final volume is 1/8 of the initial volume. Determine the work and
the heat transfer.
Ans. – 22.9 kJ, – 8.7 kJ
19. One kg - mol of oxygen undergoes a reversible non - flow isothermal compression and the
volume decreases from 0.15 m3 / kg to 0.06 m3/kg and the initial temperature is 50o C. The
gas obeys Van der Waal’s equation during the compression. Find :
i. The work done during the process
ii. The final pressure. [Ans (i) - 6706500 Nm/ kg - mol, ii 13.825 bar]
 10.24 Basic Thermodynamics

20. Determine the compressibility factor for O2 at

i. 100 bar - 70o C and
ii. at 5 bar and 30o C. [Ans. (i) 0.71, (ii) 0.98]
21. Determine the pressure of air at 205o C having a specific volume of 0.00315 m3/kg by means
of :
i. Ideal gas equation
ii. Van der Waal’s equation
iii. Beattie - Bridgeman equation. [Ans . (i) 435.7 bar, (ii) 557.3 bar, (iii) 525.8 bar]