Chapter 2

Analog Instruments
 Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students should be
able to:
 Describe the construction and operation of an
analog instrument
 Derive expressions related to deflection and
damping of analog instruments
 Understand the limitations of analog
instruments
 Introduction
• An analog instrument is defined as the
instrument whose output is the continuous
function of time, and have a constant relation
to the input.
• It can also be said as a transducer that detects
physical quantities such as voltage (or
current), pressure, temperature, humidity etc.
 Introduction (cont.)
There are two (2) types of moving-coil
instruments viz
Permanent magnet type – can be used for
D.C. (can also measure a.c if it is rectified first
using a rectifier).
Dynamometer type – can be used for both
A.C. and D.C.
D’arsonval Meter
 Derivation of deflection of a PMMCI

• Deflection is normally the movement of a

pointer through the angle theta,Ꝋ as the
result of current flowing through the coil.
• The deflection occurs due to the force
resulting from two magnetic fields
counteracting
 Derivation cont.
• A figure showing the dimensions of the
moving coil is given below:
 Derivation cont.
Deriving deflecting torque:
F  BIl
F = 2N B I l [N]
This force acts at a radius b/2
Deflecting Torque = Force * radius
= 2 N B I l * b/2
= N B I lb
= N B I A [Nm]
 Derivation cont.
Where,
• A = Area of the coil
• N = number of turns
• B = magnetic flux density in tesla
• The product of N, B, A is a galvanometer constant (for
displacement) given as
G = NBA
• Controlling torque exerted by the suspension at
deflection is given as

Tc= C
Where C is a spring constant and  is deflection
 Derivation cont.
• For steady deflection
GI = C
Then  = GI/C = (G/C)*I = K*I
 2.1.2 Galvanometer Constants

• The galvanometer has four constants known

as:-
• 1. Displacement constant, GI
• 2. Inertia constant, J
• 3. Damping constant, D
• 4. Control or restoration constant, C
 Continue
• Displacement Constant = GI [Nm/A]
b) Inertia Constant
• Owing to inertial of moving system, a retarding torque is
produced.
• This torque (T ) is dependent upon the moment of inertia of
moving system and the angular acceleration.
d 2
T = J. 2
dt

• Where, J = moment of inertia of moving system about axis

of rotation, Kg-M2

•  = Deflection at any time t/rad.

 Continue
c) Damping constant
• Damping is provided by friction due to motion of the coil in air and
also by induced electrical effects if a closed circuit is provided.

• Damping torque is usually assumed to be proportional to the

angular velocity of the system and may be expressed as:-
d
=D
dt
• Where D is Damping constant
• d) Control or restoration constant
= C
 2.1.3 Dynamic Response

• The deflecting torque (GI) causes the motion,

while the inertia torque, damping torque and
controlling torque oppose the motion
• the equation of motion is given as:-
Td  GI
response of second order systems

• Dynamic Response
 summary
• Under damped
• The pointer makes the number of oscillation
about the final position d before settling
down.
• Over damped
• System shows sluggish behavior.
• Critical damped is the used for damping
moving coil meters.
 Applications
These are used as ammeters and voltmeters
for D.C. and A.C.
2.2 MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS

• Moving-iron instruments are commonly used in

laboratories and switch boards at commercial
frequencies because they are very cheap and can
be manufactured with required accuracy.
• There are two types of moving iron instruments
viz:
• Attraction type moving iron meter
• Repulsion type moving iron meter
2.2.1 The Attraction type Moving Iron
Instrument
2.2.2 Repulsion-type Moving-Iron
Instrument
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument
• An expression for the torque of a moving iron
instrument is derived by considering the
energy relations when there is a small
increment in current supplied to the
instrument.
• When this happens there will be a small
deflection of the pointer and work will be
done.
 Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
Work done = deflecting torque*small deflection
 Td * d
Where Td
is the deflecting torque of the instrument
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• There will also be a change in the energy
stored owing to inductance.

• Let
I = Initial Current
L = Inductance of the instrument, and
 = Deflection
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
If I, increases by dI,
then deflection will change by
d
and inductance by dL.
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
In order to effect an increment in dI, there
must be an increase in applied voltage and
this is given by
d ( LI ) dL dI
Applied voltage, e  dt  I dt  L dt

The electrical energy supplied is

eIdt  I dL  ILdI
2
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• The stored energy changes from
1 2
2
I L to
1
I  dI  L  dL
2

2
Hence the change in stored energy is
 I  dI  L  dL  I L
1 2 1 2
2 2

2
 2

 I  2IdI  dI L  dL  I L
1 2 1 2
2
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
Neglecting second – and higher – order terms
in small quantities, this reduces to
1 2
ILdI  I dL
2
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• Invoking the principle of conservation of
energy, we have:
Electrical energy supplied = increase in stored
energy + mechanical work done.
1 2
I dL  ILdI  ILdI  I dL  Td .d
2

2
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
Simplifying yields,

1 2
Td .d  I dL
2
1 dL
Or Td  I 2

2 d

Where, Td is in Nm, I in amps, L in Henry, and 

in radians.
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• The moving system is provided with control
springs and in turn the deflecting torque Td is
balanced by controlling torque, Tc = c
• Where c is the control spring constant in
(Nm/rad) and  is the deflection in (rad).
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• At steady deflection states:
Tc = Td
or c = 1 I 2 dL
2 d
1 2 dL
= I
2 cd
2

=
1 I dL
rad 
2 c d
Deflection Torque of a moving iron
Instrument(continue)
• It is evident from the above equation that the
deflection is proportional to square of the
rm s value of the operating current.
• The deflecting torque is therefore,
unidirectional whatever may be the polarity of
the current
 Deflecting Torque in moving-iron
instruments
• In moving iron instruments deflecting torque
is proportional to the square of the current, so
long as the iron is working below saturation.
Td  I2
Deflecting Torque in moving-iron
instruments
• Td = k I2
• Where k is a constant for a given instrument, I
is the r.m.s value of current.
• Thus the moving-iron instrument can be used
to measure both direct current and
alternating current, and in the latter case, the
instrument gives the r.m.s value of the
current.
• Owing to the deflecting torque being
proportional to the square of the current, the
scale divisions are not uniform, being cramped
at the beginning and open at the upper end of
the scale.
 2.2.4 Applications

These are used as ammeters and voltmeters

for D.C. and A.C.
These instruments can easily constructed for
rangers of 0.1A to 30A without the use of
shunts.
 2.3.3 Application

(i) Ammeters – By using low resistance shunts

(ii) Voltmeters – By using high resistance
multipliers
(iii) Flux meters – By eliminating the control
spring
(iv) Ballistic galvanometers – By making control
springs of large moment of Inertia
 2.3.4 Dynomometer type moving
Coil Meter
• In this type of instrument the operating
field is produced by another fixed coil and not
by permanent magnet.
• These instruments are employed as A.C.
voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of
power frequencies and lower part of audio
frequency range. They are also used as watt-
meters, var-meters and with some
modifications as power factor meters and
frequency meters.
Construction and Operation
 Construction and
Operation(continue)
• The main components of the instrument are:
– Field system (fixed coil).
– Moving system (moving coil).
– Control system (hair spring)
– Damping system (air friction damping)
– Shielding
– Cases and scales
 Deflecting Torque
• The deflecting torque is due to interaction of
magnetic fields produced by currents in the
fixed and moving coils
• Deflection torque,

Td I1 * I 2
Td  kI1I 2
• Where, K is a constant.
 Deflecting Torque(continue)
• Since the instrument is spring controlled, the
restoring or control torque (Tc) is proportional
to the angular deflection θ.
Tc  θ or Tc = k’θ
Td = Tc
kI1I2 = k’θ
θ I1I2
θ  I2 since I1  I and I2  I
 Expression for torque in terms of mutual
inductance M between fixed and moving coils:

• The total energy stored in the magnetic field

of the fixed coil and moving coil,
1 1
E  L1I1  L2 I 2  I1I 2 M
2 2

2 2
Where, L1 and L2 are the self inductances of
the fixed coil and moving coil respectively.
 Expression for torque in terms of mutual
inductance M between fixed and moving coils

The interaction of these currents give rise to a

deflecting torque, Td that sets the moving coil
in a position for which the energy in the
magnetic field attains maximum value. Hence,
Deflecting torque,
dE 1 dL1 2 1 dL2 2 dM
Td   I1  I 2  I1I 2
d 2 d 2 d d
Where, dθ is the increase in angular deflection
at which the field energy increases by dE.
 Expression for torque in terms of mutual
inductance M between fixed and moving coils

• Since coil inductances L1 and L2 are constant,

therefore dL1 is equal to zero and dL2 is equal
to zero, then Td is given by:
dM
Td  I1 I 2
d
• Where, I1 and I2 are currents in fixed coils and
moving coil respectively.
 Expression for torque in terms of mutual
inductance M between fixed and moving coils
• The above expression shows that the
deflecting torque depends in general both on
currents and and position of the moving coil
with respect to the fixed one.
• The dependence of the rate of change of
mutual inductance on the angular deflection
of the moving coil

 f  
dM
d
is determined by the shape of coils and their
relative positions.
• Deflecting torque rotates the moving coil
through an angle , at which restoring torque
of springs is equal to Td
 Td  Tc  C
• where C is spring restoring constant in
(Nm/rad.)
• or, I1I 2 dM = C
d
I1 I 2 dM
• or, Deflection, = .
C d
• For alternating current:
• When the coils carry alternating currents and
the instantaneous deflecting torque,

Td   i1i2 dM
d
• The average deflecting torque over a complete
cycle,
T
Td av.   Tdi dt
1
To
T
Or, Td av.  dM 1
 i1i2 dt
d T o

• Here, T = Time period for one complete cycle.

• If currents are sinusoidal and are displaced by
a phase angle , i.e.,
i1  I max.1 sin t , and , i2  I max.2 sin(t   )
then the average deflecting torque,
T
Td av.  dM 1
 i1i2 dt
d T o
 2
dM 1
 
d 2 o
I max .1 sin t.I max .2 sin(t   )d (t )

I max.1.I max.1 dM dM
 cos  I1I 2 cos
2 d d

• Where, I1 and I2 are r.m.s values of current

flowing in the coils. At steady deflection state,
Td  Tc
• Deflection,
I1I 2 dM
 cos.
C d
• From the above discussion it is obvious that
for sinusoidal alternating currents, the
deflecting torque and the deflection are
determined by the product of r.m.s. values of
coil currents and the cosine of the phase angle
between them. It is clear that the
dynomometer type of instruments can be
used on both D.C. and A.C.
2.4 ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS
• The underlying principle of operation of
electrostatic instruments is the force of
attraction between electric charges on
neighboring plates between which potential
difference is maintained. This force gives rise
to deflecting toque. Unless the p.d. is
adequately large, the force is small. Hence
such instruments are used to measure very
high voltages.
 Force and Torque Equation
• Linear motion

• Fig. 2.9 Theory of Linear Motion of

electrostatic instruments
• Let a voltage V be applied between two
parallel plates as shown in fig. 2.9. The
capacitance between two parallel plates is C
and the energy stored is ½ CV .
• If the voltage V is increased by dV, the force of
attraction (F) will increase and the movable
plate will move by dt.
 dq d cv  dv dc
i  C V
dt dt dt dt

• The energy input is

vidt  v 2 .dc  [Link]

• The change in energy stored in electric field

 c  dcv  dv  cv
1 2 1 2
2 2

2
 2

 c  dc v  2vdv  dv  cv
1 2 1 2
2
1 2
2
 2 2
 2 1 2
 cv  cvd  cdv  v dc  2vdvdc  dc  v  cv
2
1 2
 v dc  [Link]
2
• Neglecting, the higher order terms as they are
small quantities and invoking law of
conversion of energy, we have:
• Energy input = increase in energy stored +
mechanical work done
• Or, 2 1 2
v .dc  [Link]  v .dc  [Link]  F .dx
2
• or, Force, F = 1 2 dc
v [N ]
2 dx
Theory of rotational motion of
electrostatic instrument
 Rotational Motion
• If the motion is rotational the deflecting
torque is given as: 1 dc
Td  v2
2 d
When the instrument is spring controlled.
• Control torque, TC=k 
• Where k = spring constant and
•  = Deflection
• At steady deflection state, Td=TC
• Therefore,

1 2 dc
V  k
2 d

• or, deflection
1 V 2 dc
 
2 k d
• Because the deflection is proportional to
the square of voltage to be measured, the
instrument can be used on both A.C. and D.C.
• Since the instrument exhibits a square law
response, therefore, the scale is non-uniform
and is compressed at lower end.
• - The instruments are used as voltmeters in
laboratory rather than in industrial. Such
meters may be used with the help of external
components to measure current and power.
•
End