Types of Mixtures

Homogeneous mixtures are uniform throughout. The composition is the same in all directions
in the substance. The types of particles observed in one direction are the same that are
observed in all others. A solution of sugar in water is homogeneous.
Heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform. There are pockets of one substance surrounded by
pockets of different substances. A mixture of soil in water to make "mud" is heterogeneous.
Likewise a mixture of oil and water in salad dressing is heterogeneous.

Types of Homogeneous Mixtures

Solutions
Particle sizes distinguish one homogeneous mixture from another. Solutions are mixtures
with particle sizes at the molecule or ion level. The particles have dimensions between 0.1 to
2 nanometers. Typically solutions are transparent. Light can usually pass through the
solution. If the solute is able to absorb visible light then the solution will have a color. A blue
liquid transmits blue light and absorbs the other colors of the spectrum.

A mixture of water H2O and ethanol CH3CH2OH is homogeneous.

The particles are individual molecules of H2O and CH3CH2OH. The two molecules are spread
uniformly throughout the solution.

A mixture of water and sodium chloride is homogeneous by chemistry standards. The

particles in the mixture are molecules of H2O and hydrated sodium cations, Na+, and chloride
anions, Cl1-.

Solutions are transparent. You can see through them. The mixture remains stable and does
not separate after standing for any period of time. The particles are so small they cannot be
separated by normal filtration.

A solution may have a "color" but it will still be transparent.

Colloids
Colloids are mixtures with particle sizes that consist of clumps of molecules. The particles
have dimensions between 2 to 1000 nanometers.

The colloid looks homogeneous to the naked eye. Fog and milk are examples of colloids.

Colloids frequently appear "murky" or "opaque". The particles are large enough to scatter
light. You have experience with the way fog interacts with the light from car headlights.
Colloids generally do not separate on standing. They are not separated by filtration.
Suspensions
Suspensions are homogeneous mixtures with particles that have diameters greater than
1000 nm, 0.000001 meter. The size of the particles is great enough so they are visible to the
naked eye. Blood and aerosol sprays are examples of suspensions.

Suspensions are "murky" or "opaque". They do not transmit light. Suspensions separate on
standing. The mixture of particles can be separated by filtration.
Examples of solutions
Solutions are mechanical combinations of materials. The physical state for the materials in
the solutions is surprisingly varied. The combinations of states of matter that form solutions
 are listed below.

States of matter in solution Example

gas in gas air ( N2, O2 , Ar, CO2 , other gases)
gas in liquid soda pop (CO2 in water)
liquid in liquid gasoline (a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds)
solid in liquid sea water ( NaCl and other salts in water)
gas in solid H2 in platinum or palladium
liquid in solid dental amalgams ( mercury in silver)
solid in solid alloys ( brass, (Cu/Zn), solder (Sn/Pb)

Acids, Bases and Salts

Acids and Bases

Acid  A substance which ionizes to form H+ (H+ is a product).

Examples

HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

HCl(aq)  H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Base  A substance that accepts (reacts with) H+.

Examples

OH-(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)

NH3(aq) + H+(aq)  NH4+(aq)

Note that to obtain hydroxide ions (OH-) we start with an ionic compound
that dissolves in water to form hydroxide ions, such as the alkali metal
hydroxides, LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, etc.

Since both acids and bases dissolve in water to form ions, they are both
electrolytes. However, most acids and bases do not completely dissociate
to form ions, those that do are called strong acids or strong bases.
 • Strong acid/base  Completely ionizes in solution
• Strong acid/base  Strong electrolyte
• Weak acid/base  Partially ionizes in solution
• Weak acid/base  Weak electrolyte

The list of examples of strong acids and bases is given below.

Strong Acids

Perchloric acid HClO4

Chloric acid HClO3

Hydrochloric acid HCl

Hydrobromic acid HBr

Hydroiodic acid HI

Nitric acid HNO3

Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Strong Bases

Group 1A metal hydroxides LiOH, NaOH, KOH,

RbOH, CsOH

Heavy group 2A metal hydroxides Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2,

Ba(OH)2

We expect an acid when hydrogen combines with either a non-metal or a

polyatomic anion.

Examples

H2S, H3PO4, HF, HCl, HClO, HC2H3O2 etc.

How can I recognize a base?

At the moment we will only concern ourselves with two types of bases:

• ionic compounds where hydroxide is the anion

• ammonia (NH3)

Examples

KOH, LiOH, NH3, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH, etc.

Neutralization Reactions and Salts

Neutralization Reaction  A reaction between an acid and a base.

If the base is a metal hydroxide then one of the products is water while
the other product is a salt.

Example

HNO3(aq)  H+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

NaOH(aq)  OH-(aq) + Na+(aq)

When we combine HCl and NaOH solutions the H+ and OH- ions combine to
form water and a salt solution:

HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq)  H2O(l) + NaNO3(aq)

(acid) + (base)  (water) + (salt)

Salt  Any ionic compound whose anion comes from an acid and whose
cation comes from a base.
 PH SCALE

Introduction and Definitions:

Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property of chemicals. Mixing
acids and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is neither
acidic nor basic is neutral.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A
pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.

The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more
acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and
100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7,
each of which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole
value. For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10)
more alkaline than pH 8.

Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become either
acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Lye, milk of
magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.

Practice:

HNO3 + KOH -->

H3PO4 + 3 NaOH -->
Ionization of Water:

Water molecules exist in equilibrium with hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.

H2O <--> H+ + OH-

The water equilibrium constant is written as:

Kw = [H+] [OH-]

Experimentally, it has been found that the concentration of:

H+ = OH- = 10-7

Therefore: Kw = [10-7][ 10-7] = [10-14]

(To multiply exponential numbers - simply add the exponents.)

The values for Kw, H+, OH- concentration all indicate that the equilibrium favors the reactant
(water molecules). In other words, only very small amounts of H+ and OH- ions are present.

Effect of Acids and Bases on Water Equilibrium:

If an acid (H+) is added to the water, the equilibrium shifts to the left and the OH- ion
concentration decreases.

Water Equilibrium: H2O <--> H+ + OH-

If base ( OH-) is added to water, the equilibrium shifts to left and the H+ concentration decreases.

Water Equilibrium Principle: The multiplication product (addition of exponents) of H+ and

OH- ion concentration must always be equal to 10-14.

BOTH H+ and OH- ions are ALWAYS PRESENT in any solution. A solution is acidic if the
H+ are in excess. A solution is basic, if the OH- ions are in excess.

Number Representation and Logarithms

Number Exponent Notation Log of the Number
3
1000 10 3
100 102 2
1
10 10 1
0
1 10 0
-1
0.1 10 -1
-2
0.01 10 -2
0.001 10-3 -3
0.0001 10-4 -4
Solve for any of the others given one
+ -
H OH pH pOH
0.001
0.00001
6
4

Definition of pH, pOH, and pKw:

The concentrations of hydrogen ions and indirectly hydroxide ions are given by a pH
number. pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. The
equation is:

pH = - log [H+]
similarly, pOH = - log [OH-]
and p Kw = - log [Kw] .

Logarithms of numbers that are multiples of ten are merely the exponents of the number
including the sign. See the table on the left for a review. The method to find logs of numbers that
are not multiples of ten are found by using a calculator. The method is not discussed here.

Example: If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.0001 M, find the pH.

Solution:
First convert the number to exponential notation, find the log, then solve the pH equation.

H+ = 0.0001M = 10-4; log of 10-4 = -4;

pH = - log [ H+] = - log (10-4) = - (-4) = +4 = pH

The purpose of the negative sign in the log definition is to give a

positive pH value.
Example:
If the base has an OH- concentration of 0.001M, find the pH.
Solution:

First find the pOH, (similar to finding the pH,) then subtract the pOH from 14.
OH- = 0.001M = 10-3;

pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (10-3) = +3 = pOH

pH = 14 - pOH; pH = 14 - 3 = 11 = pH

pH Principle: pH and pOH must always equal pKw (14).

pH Scale:

The pH scale, (0 - 14), is the full set of pH numbers which indicate the concentration of H+ and
OH-ions in water.

pH Scale Principle:
H+ ion concentration and pH relate inversely.
OH- ion concentration and pH relate directly.

The following statements may be made about the pH scale

numbers. Complete some of them.

a. Increasing pH means the H+ ions are decreasing.

b. Decreasing pH means H+ ions are increasing.
c. Increasing pH means OH- ions are
d. Decreasing pH means OH- ions are

Most H+ ions: pH = 4; or pH = 5.
Most OH- ions: pH = 10; or pH = 13.
Least H+ ions: pH = 12; or pH = 13.
Least OH- ions: pH = 8; or pH = 9.
 If acid was added to a solution of pH 4, the pH would increase or
decrease?
If acid was removed from a solution of pH 3, the pH would inc. or
dec.?
If base were added to a solution of pH 9, the pH would inc. or
dec.?
If base were added to a solution of pH 2, the pH would inc. or
dec.?
If acid were added to a solution of pH 13, the pH would inc. or
dec.?
If base were removed from a solution of pH 12, the pH would inc.
or dec.?

Buffer Solutions
A buffer solution is one in which the pH of the solution is "resistant" to small
additions of either a strong acid or strong base. Buffers usually consist of a weak acid
and its conjugate base, in relatively equal and "large" quantities. Calculations are
based on the equation for the ionization of the weak acid in water forming the
hydronium ion and the conjugate base of the acid. "HA" represents any weak acid
and "A-" represents the conjugate base.

HA(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + A-(aq)

Ka = [H3O+][A-]

[HA]

A buffer system can be made by mixing a soluble compound that contains the
conjugate base with a solution of the acid such as sodium acetate with acetic acid or
ammonia with ammonium chloride. The above equation for Ka can be rearranged to
solve for the hydronium ion concentration. By knowing the Ka of the acid, the
amount of acid, and the amount of conjugate base, the pH of the buffer system can be
calculated.

[H3O+] = Ka[HA]
[A-]
pH = -log[H3O+]
Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution

In order to calculate the pH of the buffer solution you need to know the amount of
acid and the amount of the conjugate base combined to make the solution. These
amounts should be either in moles or in molarities. The Ka of the acid also needs to
be known.

Example: A buffer solution was made by dissolving 10.0 grams of sodium acetate in
200.0 mL of 1.00 M acetic acid. Assuming the change in volume when the sodium
acetate is not significant, estimate the pH of the acetic acid/sodium acetate buffer
solution. The Ka for acetic acid is 1.7 x 10-5.

• First, write the equation for the ionization of acetic acid and the Ka expression.
Rearrange the expression to solve for the hydronium ion concentration.

CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

[H3O+] = Ka[CH3COOH]

[CH3COO-]

• Second, determine the number of moles of acid and of the conjugate base.

(1.00 M CH3COOH)(200.0 mL)(1 L/1000 mL) = 0.200 mol CH3COOH

(10.0 g NaCH3COO)(1 mol/82.03 g) = 0.122 mol NaCH3COO

• Substitute these values, along with the Ka value, into the above equation and
solve for the hydronium ion concentration. Convert the hydronium ion
concentration into pH.

[H3O+] = (1.7 x 10-5)(0.200/0.122) = 2.79 x 10-5

pH = 4.56

Example: Calculate the ratio of ammonium chloride to ammonia that is required to

make a buffer solution with a pH of 9.00. The Ka for ammonium ion is 5.6 x 10-10.

• First, write the equation for the ionization of the ammonium ion in water and
the corresponding Ka expression. Rearrange the equation to solve for the
hydronium ion concentration.
 NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)

Ka = [H3O+][NH3]

[NH4+]

[H3O+] = Ka[NH4+]

[NH3]

• Second, convert the pH back into the hydronium ion concentration and then
substitute it into the above equation along with the Ka. Solve for the ratio of
ammonium ion to ammonia.

[H3O+] = 1 x 10-9 M

1 x 10-9 = 5.6 x 10-10(NH4+/NH3)

(NH4+/NH3) = 1.786/1

A ratio of 1.768 moles of ammonium ion for every 1 mole of ammonia or 1.768 M
ammonium ion to 1 M ammonia.

Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of

Acid

When a strong acid (H3O+) is added to a buffer solution the conjugate base present in
the buffer consumes the hydronium ion converting it into water and the weak acid of
the conjugate base.

A-(aq) + H3O+(aq) --> H2O(l) + HA(aq)

This results in a decrease in the amount of conjugate base present and an increase in
the amount of the weak acid. The pH of the buffer solution decreases by a very small
amount because of this (a lot less than if the buffer system was not present). An
"ICE" chart is useful in determining the pH of the system after a strong acid has been
added.

Example: 50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl was added to a buffer consisting of 0.025 moles
of sodium acetate and 0.030 moles of acetic acid. What is the pH of the buffer after
the addition of the acid? Ka of acetic acid is 1.7 x 10-5.

• First, write the equation for the ionization of acetic acid in water and the related
Ka expression rearranged to solve for the hydronium ion concentration.
 CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)

[H3O+] = Ka[CH3COOH]

[CH3COO-]

• Second, make an "ICE" chart. Let "x" represent the hydronium ion
concentration once equilibrium has been re-established. We will assume that
all of the added acid is consumed.

CH3COOH(aq) H3O+(aq) CH3COO-(aq)

Initial Amount 0.030 moles (0.0500 L)(0.100 M) = 0.0050 moles 0.025 moles
Change in Amount + 0.005 moles -0.005 moles - 0.005 moles
Equilibrium Amount 0.035 moles x 0.020 moles

• Substitute into the Ka expression and solve for the hydronium ion
concentration. Convert the answer into pH.

[H3O+] = (1.7 x 10-5)(0.035/0.020) = 2.975 x 10-5

pH = 4.53

Calculation of the pH of a Buffer Solution after Addition of a Small Amount of

Strong Base

When a strong base (OH-) is added to a buffer solution, the hydroxide ions are
consumed by the weak acid forming water and the weaker conjugate base of the acid.
The amount of the weak acid decreases while the amount of the conjugate base
increases. This prevents the pH of the solution from significantly rising, which it
would if the buffer system was not present.

OH-(aq) + HA(aq) --> H2O(l) + A-(aq)

The process for finding the pH of the mixture after a strong base has been added is
similar to the addition of a strong acid shown in the previous section.

Example: Calculate the pH of a buffer solution that initially consists of 0.0400 moles
of ammonia and 0.0250 moles of ammonium ion, after 20.0 mL of 0.75 M NaOH has
been added to the buffer. Ka for ammonium ion is 5.6 x 10-10.

• First, write the equation for the ionization of the ammonium ion and the related
Ka expression solved for the hydronium ion concentration.
 NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + NH3(aq)

[H3O+] = Ka[NH4+]

[NH3]

• Second, make an "ICE" chart. Let "x" be the concentration of the hydronium
ion at equilibrium. The change in the amount of the ammonium ion will be
equal to the amount of strong base added (075 M x 0.0200 L = 0.0015 mol).

NH4+(aq) H3O+(aq) NH3(aq)

Initial Amount 0.0250 moles * not needed 0.0400 moles
Change in Amount - 0.0015 moles * not needed + 0.0015 moles
Equilibrium Amount 0.0235 moles x 0.0415 moles

• Third, substitute into the Ka expression and solve for the hydronium ion
concentration. Convert the answer into pH.

[H3O+] = (5.6 x 10-10)(0.0235/0.0415) = 3.17 x 10-10

pH = 9.50

Calculation of the Buffer Capacity

The buffer capactity refers to the maximum amount of either strong acid or strong
base that can be added before a significant change in the pH will occur. This is
simply a matter of stoichiometry. The maximum amount of strong acid that can be
added is equal to the amount of conjugate base present in the buffer. The maximum
amount of base that can be added is equal to the amount of weak acid present in the
buffer.

Example: What is the maximum amount of acid that can be added to a buffer made
by the mixing of 0.35 moles of sodium hydrogen carbonate with 0.50 moles of sodium
carbonate? How much base can be added before the pH will begin to show a
significant change?

• First, write the equation for the ionization of the weak acid, in this case of
hydrogen carbonate. Although this step is not truly necessary to solve the
problem, it is helpful in identifying the weak acid and its conjugate base.

HCO3-(aq) + H2O(l) --> H3O+(aq) + CO32-(aq)

 • Second, added strong acid will react with the conjugate base, CO32-. Therefore,
the maximum amount of acid that can be added will be equal to the amount of
CO32-, 0.50 moles.
• Third, added strong base will react with the weak acid, HCO3-. Therefore, the
maximum amount of base that can be added will be equal to the amount of
HCO3-, 0.35 moles

BONDING
Chemical bond can be defined as :
" the force of attraction between two atoms or ions that hold them
together in a unit is called Chemical Bond".
Actually chemical bond is the main factor that makes molecules and compounds. By the
interaction of outer electrons, great forces of attraction are developed between two atoms.
This force of attraction is called chemical bond.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL BOND
There are three types of chemical bonds:
Ionic bond or Electrovalent bond
Covalent bond
Coordinate Covalent bond
IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT BOND
Chemical bond formed between two atoms due to transfer of electron(s) from one atom
to the other atom is called "Ionic bond" or "electrovalent bond".
EXPLANATION
In ionic bond formation one atom looses electron(s) and the other picks it up. The atom
that looses the electron acquires positive charge and the other atom which gains the
electron becomes a negatively charged particle. Due to opposite charge an electrostatic
force of attraction is setup between them.
This force hold these atoms together in a unit. This force of attraction is referred to as
"IONIC BOND".
FORMATION OF IONIC BOND BETWEEN Na & Cl
Electronic arrangement of Na (Z=11) is K = 2 , L = 8, M = 1
Electronic configuration of Na is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
It has one valence electron.
The loss of the valence electron from Na-atom 495 KJ/mole energy is needed.

Due to low ionization potential value, Na-atom loses its valence electron
 Electronic arrangement after losing an electron is K = 2, L = 8 , M = 0
Electronic configuration after losing an electron is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6 .This shows that its
octet is complete.

Na ➔ Na+ + e- : H = 495 KJ/mole

Due to loss of one electron Na becomes Na+ -ion.
Electronic arrangement of Cl (Z=17) is K = 2, L = 8, M = 7
Electronic configuration of Cl is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2 3p5.
Cl-atom needs one electron to complete its octet.
The gain of one electron by chlorine atom releases 348 KJ/mole energy.

Electron lost by Na atom is picked up by Cl atom.

Electronic arrangement after acquiring an electron: K = 2, L = 8, M = 8

Electronic configuration of Cl is 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6 . This shows that its octet is also
complete.
Cl + e- ➔ Cl- : H = -348 KJ/mole
Chlorine atom is now converted into Cl-_ion. We know that positive and negative ions
attract each other, therefore an electrostatic force of attraction is set up between Na+ & Cl-
ions. This force unites these ions in a unit. In this way ionic bond is formed between Na and
Cl atoms which results in the formation of sodium chloride.
In the above two steps we clearly observe that there is a difference of energy i.e.

This shows formation of one mole of NaCl increases the energy of system by 147 KJ
/mole.
There arises a question "How this difference of energy is compensated?"
The answer to this question is that when oppositely charged ions i.e. Na+ ions & Cl - ions
attract each other and arrange themselves to form crystal lattice of NaCl which consists of
very closely packed positive & negative ions. In NaCl crystal each Na+ ion is surrounded by
six Cl- ions. Similarly each Cl- ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions. The force of attraction
between these ions in the crystal lattice decreases the energy of the system and making it
stable.
Na+(g) + Cl-(g) ➔ Na+Cl- (s) H = -788 KJ/mole
From above description, we conclude that for the formation of ionic bond the sum of
energies released in step-2 and step-3 must be larger than that required in step-1.
IMPORTANT:
To form a stable ionic compound , there must be a decrease in net energy.
Electronic Concept of Oxidation and Reduction (Modern
Concept)
The process in which any substance (atom, ion or molecule) loses one or
more electrons is called oxidation. Thus, it is a deelectronation process. The
substance which loses electrons is said to be oxidised.

E. g.

The above reactions are known as oxidation half-reactions. In these

reactions are oxidised to, , respectively.

The process in which any substance (atom, ion or molecule) gains one or
more electrons is called reduction. Thus it is an electronation process. The
substance which gains electrons is said to be reduced.

E. g.

The above reactions are known as reduction: half-reactions. In these

reactions are reduced to , respectively.

In brief, oxidation involves following things.

(i) Addition of oxygen or other electronegative element.

[Mg is oxidised here]

(ii) Removal of or other electropositive element.

(iii) Increase of oxidation no.

(iv) Loss of electrons.

• During oxidation acidic nature increases.

• Burning of coal, rusting of iron and combustion reactions involve
oxidation.
• Just reverse process occurs during reduction.

Oxidising and Reducing agents

A substance which oxidises others but itself undergoes reduction is known as

oxidising agent or oxidant. Thus we can say that oxidising agent is an
electron acceptor. A substance which undergoes oxidation but reduces
others is known as reducing agent or reductant. In other words a reducing
agent is an electron loser.

Some important oxidising agents are

etc.

Some important reducing agents are etc.

What is Osmotic Pressure?
Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of low concentration of solute (atoms, ions, or
molecules dissolved in a liquid) to an area of higher concentration of solute. The rate of osmosis
is determined by the total number of particles dissolved in the solution. The more particles
dissolved, the faster the rate of osmosis.

Figure 1: Water moves from areas of low concentration of sugar to areas of high concentration of sugar.

As shown in Figure 1 above, if a membrane is present, water will flow to the area with the
highest concentration of solute. Osmotic pressure is the pressure created by water moving
across a membrane due to osmosis. The more water moving across the membrane, the higher the
osmotic pressure.
How is Osmotic Pressure Calculated?

Figure 2: Osmotic pressure is affected by concentration and temperature.

Osmotic pressure can be determined using the equation shown in Figure 2. Concentration of
solute and temperature each affect the amount of pressure created by the movement of water
across a membrane. Higher concentrations and higher temperatures increase osmotic pressure.
Osmosis is also impacted by how the solute behaves in water, which is where Van't Hoff's
factor comes in. Basically, the Van't Hoff's factor of a solute is determined by whether or not a
solute stays together or breaks apart in water, as shown in Figure 3 below.
 Figure 3: Some solutes break apart when placed in water, creating a bigger concentration of dissolved
atoms that will increase osmotic pressure

Some solutes break apart and form ions (charged atoms) in water. As shown in Figure 3a, table
salt, NaCl will form sodium (Na+) and Chlorine (Cl-) ions in water. The Van't Hoff's factor of
NaCl is two because it breaks into two ions.
When placed in water, some molecules such as sucrose (sugar) stay together and do not form
ions. Since sucrose does not break into ions, it has a Van't Hoff's factor of 1.

Example Problems
What is the osmotic pressure for a 0.5 M sucrose solution at 300K (27°C) when sucrose has
a Van't Hoff factor of 1?
All you need to do is plug what you know into the equation to solve for osmotic pressure (π).

• i would be 1 since sucrose does not form ions in water

• M would be 0.5 mol/L, or the concentration of sucrose you are using.
• R is the ideal gas constant 0.08206 L atm/mol K
 • T is 300 K
• Since all of the other units cancel each other out, osmotic pressure is measured in atms

Osmotic Pressure

We need to know the molar concentration of dissolved species in order to calculate

the osmotic pressure of an aqueous solution. We calculate the osmotic pressure,
(pi), using the following equation:

Where:

M is the molar concentration of dissolved species (units of mol/L).

R is the ideal gas constant (0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1, or other values depending on the
pressure units).
T is the temperature on the Kelvin scale.