Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Module – 1
GAS POWER CYCLES AND IC ENGINES
GAS POWER CYCLES
1.1 INTRODUCTION:-
Power cycles are classified based on the nature of working fluid as –
 Gas power cycles
 Vapour power cycles
The power cycles in which the working fluid does not undergo a phase change during the cyclic process
are called “Gas power cycles”.
The power cycles in which the working fluid undergoes a phase change during the cyclic process are
called “Vapour power cycles”.

1.2 GAS POWER CYCLES:-

The gas power cycles employ gas as a working medium. The gas is predominantly air with some
products of combustion like CO2, H2O, etc.
In most of the power developing systems such as petrol engine, diesel engine and gas turbines the
working fluid used is a gas. The quantity of air used is large when compared to quantity of fuel; therefore
properties of products of combustion can be approximated to the properties of the pure air. The performance of
these devices can be analyzed by an idealized cycles known as “Air-Standard Cycles”.
Assumptions:-
For thermodynamics analysis of Air-Standard cycles, the following assumptions are made-
1. The working substance [air] is assumed to behave like a perfect gas and obeys gas laws. i.e. pV=mRT.
2. The specific heats remain constant at all temperature and pressure throughout the cycle. i.e. cp =
1.005 kJ/kg K, cV = 0.718 kJ/kg K and γ = 1.4.
3. Addition and rejection of heat takes place in a reversible manner and instantaneously from a heat
source and sink.
4. Compression and expansion processes are isentropic, i.e. change in entropy is zero and no heat transfer
between the system and surroundings during these processes.
5. Working medium does not undergo any chemical reaction.
6. The cycle is considered to be closed one and the same air is used again and again.

1.3 CARNOT CYCLE:-

1 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

A reversible cycle is an ideal hypothetical cycle in which all the processes constituting the cycle are
reversible. Carnot cycle is a reversible cycle. The cycle was proposed in 1824 by a young French engineer, Sadi
Carnot. Two reversible isotherms and two reversible adiabatics constitute a Carnot cycle having the highest
possible thermal efficiency, as the processes are reversible.
The essential elements needed for making an analysis of this cycle are –
1. A working substance assumed to be a perfect gas.
2. Frictionless piston and cylinder arrangement for getting work.
3. Two heat reservoirs (Source and Sink) placed alternately on the head of the cylinder.
4. Piston and cylinder walls excluding cylinder head are taken as perfect heat insulators.
For any stationary system, the cycle consists of following four successive processes.
 Process 1-2 → Reversible Isothermal Compression Process:
During this process the working fluid is compressed isothermally from state point 1 to state point 2 and
constant temperature is maintained by rejecting heat to the sink.
Temperature remains constant, T1 = T2 = TL = Tmin
Pressure increases from, p1 to p2
Volume decreases from, V1 to V2
Work done on the system per kg of air, W = p V ln = 𝑅T ln
Heat rejected by the system per kg of air, Q = Q =W = 𝑅T ln
Relation b/w p, V and T, = Since; T1 = T2 → p V = p V → =

 Process 2-3 → Reversible Adiabatic Compression Process:

During this process the working fluid is compressed isentropically from state point 2 to state point 3
without heat transfer between the system and the surrounding, Work WP is done upon the working fluid
reversibly and adiabatically.
Temperature increases from, T2 to T3
Pressure increases from, p2 to p3
Volume decreases from, V2 to V3
[ ]
Work done on the system per kg of air, W = =
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg of air, Q =0
Relation b/w p, V and T, =

 Process 3-4→ Reversible Isothermal Expansion Process:

During this process, heat is supplied reversibly from a source due to which the internal energy of the
working fluid increases; as a result expansion takes place isothermally from state point 3 to state point 4. The
heat supplied equals the work done.
Temperature remains constant, T3 = T4 = TH = Tmax
Pressure decreases from, p3 to p4
Volume increases from, V3 to V4
Work done by the system per kg of air, W = p V ln = 𝑅T ln
Heat absorbed by the system per kg of air, Q = Q =W = 𝑅T ln
Relation b/w p, V and T, = Since; T3 = T4 → p V = p V → =

 Process 4-1 → Reversible Adiabatic Expansion Process:

The expansion continues adiabatically and reversibly from state point 4 to state point 1 and work WE is
done by the working fluid without heat transfer between the system and the surrounding.
Temperature decreases from, T4 to T1
Pressure decreases from, p4 to p1
Volume increases from, V4 to V1
[ ]
Work done by the system per kg of air, W = =
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg of air, Q =0
Relation b/w p, V and T, =

2 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Air-Standard efficiency [ηc]-

Heat added − Heat rejected Q −Q
η = =
Heat added Q

η =

From process →2-3 & 4-1; = & = *Since; T = T & T3 = T4

= = = → = → =

η = = =1− *Since; T1 = T2

η =1− = 1− = 1−

From process→ 2-3; =

𝟏
𝛈𝐜 = 𝟏 − [𝐑 𝛄 𝟏 Where: Rc = Adiabatic Compression or Expansion ratio
𝐜]
Mean-Effective Pressure [pm]-
Net Workdone W Q −Q
p = = =
Swept Volume V V

p = [ ]

From process →2-3 & 4-1; = & = *Since; T = T & T3 = T4

= = = → = → =

p = [ ]
𝐕
𝐑[𝐓𝟑 𝐓𝟏 ] 𝐥𝐧 𝟒
𝐕𝟑
𝐩𝐦 = [𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟑 ]

1.4 OTTO CYCLE:-

Otto cycle is a theoretical cycle on which petrol, gasoline and gas engines work. The heat is supplied and
rejected by means of source and sink when alternatively brought into contact with the cylinder head. The cycle
consists of two constant volumes and two isentropic processes as shown in figure.

 Process 1-2 → Isentropic Compression Process:

During this process the working fluid is compressed isentropically from state point 1 to state point 2
without heat transfer.
Temperature raises from, T1 to T2
Pressure raises from, p1 to p2
Volume decreases from, V1 to V2
[ ]
Work done on the system per kg, W = = = c [T − T ] = −c [T − T ]

Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0

Relation b/w p, V and T, = =R

3 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

 Process 2-3 → Constant Volume Heat Addition Process:

During this process the heat is added to the working fluid from state point 2 to state point 3 at constant
volume.
Temperature raises from, T2 to T3
Pressure raises from, p2 to p3
Volume remains constant, V2 = V3
Work done per kg, W =0
Heat Addition per kg, Q = c [T − T ]

Cut-off ratio; α = = → T = αT → T = αT R

 Process 3-4→ Isentropic Expansion Process:

During this process, the expansion takes place adiabatically from state point 3 to state point 4 and work
is done by the working fluid without heat transfer.
Temperature decreases from, T3 to T4
Pressure decreases from, p3 to p4
Volume increases from, V3 to V4
[ ]
Work done by the system per, W = = = c [T − T ]
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0

Relation b/w p, V and T, = = → =

1
→ T = αT R → T = αT
R
 Process 4-1 → Constant Volume Heat Rejection Process:
During this process the heat is rejected from state point 4 to state point 1 at constant volume from the
working fluid.
Temperature decreases from, T4 to T1
Pressure decreases from, p4 to p1
Volume remains constant, V4 = V1
Work done per kg, W =0
Heat rejection per kg, Q = c [T − T ]
Thermal Efficiency [ηo]-
η = =
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
η = [ ]
= [ ]
=1−[ ]
From processes → 1-2; T = T R
3-4; T = αT R
4-1; T = αT
[ ] [ ]
η = 1− =1− [ ]
𝟏
𝛈𝐨 = 𝟏 −
𝐑𝐜 𝛄 𝟏
The air-standard efficiency of Otto cycle depends only on compression ratio ‘Rc’. The efficiency of Otto
cycle increases with increase in compression ratio. The practical value of Rc lies between 5 to 10.
Mean-Effective Pressure [pm]-
p = = =
[ ] [ ]
p = [ ]
From processes → 1-2; T = T R
3-4; T = αT R
4-1; T = αT
[ ]
p =

4 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

[ ] [ ]
p = *Since; p1V1 = RT1 → T =
[ ]
p =
[ ]
p = [ ][ ]
*Since; R = c [γ − 1] & =R
𝛄 𝟏
𝐩𝟏 𝐑𝐜 [𝛂 𝟏] 𝐑𝐜 𝟏
𝐩𝐦𝐨 = [𝛄 𝟏][𝐑𝐜 𝟏]

1.5 DIESEL CYCLE:-

The diesel cycle consists of one constant pressure, one constant volume and two isentropic processes as
shown in figure. The heat is supplied and rejected by means of source and sink when alternatively brought into
contact with the cylinder head. This cycle is also called as “Constant Pressure Heat addition Cycle”. Assume that
the cylinder surface is adiabatically covered.

 Process 1-2 → Isentropic Compression Process:

During this process the working fluid is compressed isentropically from state point 1 to state point 2
without heat transfer.
Temperature raises from, T1 to T2
Pressure raises from, p1 to p2
Volume decreases from, V1 to V2
Work done on the system per kg, W = =−
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0
Relation b/w p, V and T, = =R →T =TR
 Process 2-3 → Constant Pressure Heat Addition Process:
During this process the heat is added to the working fluid from state point 2 to state point 3 at constant
pressure.
Temperature raises from, T2 to T3
Pressure remains constant, p2 = p3
Volume increases from, V2 to V3
Work done per kg, W = p V − p V = p [V − V ]
Heat addition per kg, Q = c [T − T ]
Cut-off ratio; ρ = = → T = ρT → T = ρT R
 Process 3-4→ Isentropic Expansion Process:
During this process, the expansion takes place adiabatically from state point 3 to state point 4 and work
is done by the working fluid without heat transfer.
Temperature decreases from, T3 to T4
Pressure decreases from, p3 to p4
Volume increases from, V3 to V4
Work done by the system per, W =
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0

5 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Relation b/w p, V and T, = = *Therefore; R =

T V V V V ρ ρ
= × = × = →T =T
T V V V V R R
ρ
→ T = ρT R →T =Tρ
R
 Process 4-1 → Constant Volume Heat Rejec on Process:
During this process the heat is rejected from state point 4 to state point 1 at constant volume from the
working fluid.
Temperature decreases from, T4 to T1
Pressure decreases from, p4 to p1
Volume remains constant, V4 = V1
Work done per kg, W =0
Heat rejection per kg, Q = c [T − T ]

Thermal Efficiency [ηo]-

η = = =1−
[ ] [ ]
η =1− [ ]
=1− [ ]
*Since; =γ
From processes; 1-2 → T = T R
2-3 → T = ρT R &
3-4 → T = ρ T
[ ] [ ]
η =1− = 1− [ ]
[𝛒𝛄 𝟏]
𝛈𝐝 = 𝟏 −
𝛄𝐑𝐜 𝛄 𝟏 [𝛒 𝟏]
The efficiency of Diesel cycle can be increased either by increasing compression ratio ‘Rc’ or by
decreasing cut-off ratio ‘ρ’. The practical value of Rc lies between 15 to 22.
Mean-Effective Pressure [pm]-
p = = =
[ ] [ ]
p = [ ]
From processes; 1-2 → T = T R
2-3 → T = ρT R &
3-4 → T = ρ T
{ [ ] [ ]}
p = [ ]
*Since; =γ
[ ]
p = [ ]
[ ] [ ]
p = [ ]
*Since, p1V1 = RT1 → T =
[ ] [ ]
p = *Since, R = c [γ − 1] and =R

[ ]
[ ] [ ]
p = [ ][ ]
= [ ][ ]
𝐩𝟏 𝐑𝐜 𝛄 𝛄[𝛒 𝟏] 𝐑𝐜 𝟏 𝛄 [𝛒𝛄 𝟏]
𝐩𝐦𝐝 = [𝛄 𝟏][𝐑𝐜 𝟏]

1.6 DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE:-

This cycle is a combination of Otto and Diesel cycle consisting of one constant pressure, two constant
volume and two isentropic processes as shown in figure. Heat is added partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure. The heat is supplied and rejected by means of source and sink when alternatively brought
into contact with the cylinder head. This cycle takes the benefits of both Otto and Diesel cycles. Assume that the
cylinder surface is adiabatically covered.

6 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

 Process 1-2 → Isentropic Compression Process:

During this process the working fluid is compressed isentropically from state point 1 to state point 2
without heat transfer.
Temperature raises from, T1 to T2
Pressure raises from, p1 to p2
Volume decreases from, V1 to V2
[ ]
Work done on the system per kg, W = =− = −c [T − T ]
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0
Relation b/w p, V and T, = =R →T =TR
 Process 2-3 → Constant Volume Heat Addition Process:
During this process the heat is added to the working fluid from state point 2 to state point 3 at constant
volume.
Temperature raises from, T2 to T3
Pressure raises from, p2 to p3
Volume remains constant, V2 = V3
Work done per kg, W =0
Heat Addition per kg, Q = c [T − T ]
Cut-off ratio; α = → T = αT → T = αT R
 Process 3-4 → Constant Pressure Heat Addi on Process:
During this process the heat is added to the working fluid from state point 3 to state point 4 at constant
pressure.
Temperature raises from, T3 to T4
Pressure remains constant, p3 = p4
Volume increases from, V3 to V4
Work done per kg, W = p V − p V = p [V − V ]
Heat Addition per kg, Q = c [T − T ]
Cut-off ratio; ρ = = → T = ρT → T = αρT R
 Process 4-5→ Isentropic Expansion Process:
During this process, the expansion takes place adiabatically from state point 4 to state point 5 and work
is done by the working fluid without heat transfer.
Temperature decreases from, T4 to T5
Pressure decreases from, p4 to p5
Volume increases from, V4 to V5
Work done by the system per, W =
Adiabatic Heat transfer per kg, Q =0

Relation b/w p, V and T, = = × = × = = [R ]

R
→ 𝑇 = 𝑇 [R ] = αρT R → 𝑇 = αρ T
ρ
 Process 5-1 → Constant Volume Heat Rejec on Process:
During this process the heat is rejected from state point 5 to state point 1 at constant volume from the
working fluid.
Temperature decreases from, T5 to T1

7 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Pressure decreases from, p5 to p1

Volume remains constant, V5 = V1
Work done per kg, W =0
Heat rejected per kg, Q = c [T − T ]
Thermal Efficiency [ηdual]-
[ ]
η = = [ ]
=1−[ ]
[ ] [ ]
η =1− [ ] [ ]
=1− *Since; =γ
[ ] [ ]
[ ]
η =1−[ ] [ ]
From process 1-2 → T =TR
2-3 → T = αT R
3-4 → T = αρT R
4-5 → 𝑇 = αρ T
[αρ T − T ]
η =1−
αT R −T R + γ αρT R − αT R
[αρ − 1]
η =1−
R [α − 1] + γαR [ρ − 1]
[𝛂𝛒𝛄 − 𝟏]
𝛈𝐝𝐮𝐚𝐥 = 𝟏 −
𝐑 𝐜 𝛄 𝟏 {[𝛂 − 𝟏] + 𝛄𝛂[𝛒 − 𝟏]}
It can be seen from the above equation that a value of pressure ratio - ‘α<1’ results in an increased
efficiency for the given value of ρ and γ.
If ρ = 1, the above equation becomes Otto cycle efficiency.
If α = 1, the above equation becomes Diesel cycle efficiency.
Mean-Effective Pressure [pm]-
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
p = = = = [ ]
From process 1-2 → T =TR
2-3 → T = αT R
3-4 → T = αρT R
4-5 → 𝑇 = αρ T
[ ]
p = [ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ]
p = [ ]
*Since; =γ
[ ] [ ] [ ]
p = [ ]
*Since, p1V1 = RT1 → T =
[ ] [ ] [ ]
p = *Since, R = c [γ − 1] and =R
[ ] [ ] [ ]
p = [ ][ ]
𝐩𝟏 𝐑𝐜 𝛄 [𝛂 𝟏] 𝛄𝛂[𝛒 𝟏] 𝐑𝐜 𝟏 𝛄 [𝛂𝛒𝛄 𝟏]
𝐩𝐦𝐝 = [𝛄 𝟏][𝐑𝐜 𝟏]

1.8 COMPARISONS OF OTTO AND DIESEL CYCLES:-

1. Compression Ratio and Heat Addition are same:

Referring to above figure-

 The state 1-2 are same for both the cycles as the compression ratio is same.
 Heat supplied for both the cycles is given by areas 2-3-5-6 and 2’-3’-5’-6’ on T-s diagram. These
areas are equal for same heat inputs.
8 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

 Heat rejection for both the cycles is given by curve 4-1 and 4’-1’ respectively.
For the same compression ratio and heat addition –
 Maximum temperature and pressure are attained in Otto cycle and least in Diesel cycle.
 Heat rejection is more in Diesel cycle and least in Otto cycle,
Hence thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is more than Diesel cycle, i.e. ηo > ηd
2. Maximum Cycle Pressure and Output are same:

Referring to above figure-

 The state’s 2’, 3’ and 3 are equal on p-V diagram for same maximum cycle pressure.
 Area 1-2-3-4-1 and 1-2’-3’-4’-1 represent the work done in Otto and Diesel cycles respectively.
These areas are equal for same for output.
 Heat rejected by Otto cycle is curve 1-4 and by Diesel cycle is 1-4’ on T-s diagram.
For the same maximum cycle pressure and output –
 Maximum temperature is attained in Diesel cycle.
 Heat supplied is more in Otto cycle and least in Diesel cycle.
 Heat rejection is more in Otto cycle and least in Diesel cycle.
Hence thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle is more than Otto cycle, i.e. ηd > ηo
3. Maximum Cycle Pressure and Heat Input are same:

Referring to above figure-

 The state’s 2’, 3’ and 3 are equal on p-V diagram for same maximum cycle pressure.
 Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-1 and 1-2’-3’-4’-5’-6-1 gives heat input for Otto and Diesel cycles respectively.
These areas are equal for same for heat input.
 Heat rejected by Otto cycle is curve 1-4 and by Diesel cycle is 1-4’ on T-s diagram.
For the same maximum cycle pressure and input –
 Maximum temperature is attained in Otto cycle.
 Compression ratio of Diesel cycle is more than Otto cycle; hence Diesel cycle [3’-4’] allows more
expansion than that of Otto cycle [3-4].
 Heat rejection is more in Otto cycle and least in Diesel cycle, hence thermal efficiency of Diesel
cycle is more than Otto cycle, i.e. ηd > ηo.
4. Maximum Cycle Pressure and Temperature are same:

Referring to above figure-

 The state’s 2’, 3’ and 3 are equal on p-V diagram for same maximum cycle pressure.
 The state’s 3’ and 3 are equal on T-s diagram for same maximum cycle temperature.
 Heat rejection is same in both Otto [4-1] and Diesel [4’-1] cycles.
For the same maximum cycle pressure and Temperature –
 Compression ratio of Diesel cycle is more than Otto cycle; hence Diesel cycle [3’-4’] allows more
expansion than that of Otto cycle [3-4].

9 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

 Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-1 and 1-2’-3’-4’-5’-6-1 gives heat input for Otto and Diesel cycles respectively.
Here heat input is more in Diesel cycle and least in Otto cycle, hence thermal efficiency of Diesel
cycle is more than Otto cycle, i.e. ηd > ηo.
Note: In all the above cases efficiency of dual cycle falls in between Otto cycle and Diesel cycle efficiency.

IC ENGINES
1.9 Introduction
The basic task in the design and development of IC-Engines is to reduce the cost of production and
improve the efficiency and power output. In order to achieve the above task, the engineer has to compare the
engine developed by him with other engines in terms of its output and efficiency. Hence he has to test the
engine and make measurements of relevant parameters that reflect the performance of the engine. In general
the nature and number of tests to be carried out depend on a large number of factors. In this chapter only
certain basic as well as important measurements and tests are described…
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine in which the chemical energy of fuels is converted to
thermal energy and in turn is converted into mechanical energy which is used for various types of mechanical
transmissions such as in transportation systems, industrial works and small power generation systems.
In all I.C. engines the heat energy is developed by the combustion of fuels inside a closed chamber
called engine cylinder.

1.10 Classification of I.C. Engines

A broad classification of I.C. Engines is as follows.
1. According to the nature of fuel used in the engine
i) Petrol engines
ii) Diesel engines
iii) Gas engines
2. According to the method of ignition of the fuel in the engine cylinder
i) Spark ignition engines
ii) Compression ignition engines
3. According to the cycle of operation
i) Two stroke cycle engines
ii) Four stroke cycle engines
4. According to the arrangement of the engine cylinder
i) Horizontal engines
ii) Vertical engines
iii) Radial engines
iv) In line engines
v) ‘V’ – engines
vi) Opposed piston and opposed cylinder engines
5. According to the method of cooling system used for the engine cylinder
i) Air cooled engines
ii) Water cooled engines
6. According to the use of engines
i) Automotive engines
ii) Stationary engines
iii) Marine engines
iv) Locomotive engines
v) Aero engines
7. According to the speed of the engines
i) Low speed engines
ii) High speed engines
iii) Medium speed engines

10 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

1.11 Combustion of SI engine

Combustion in SI engine may roughly divided into two general types:
 Normal (knock free)
 Abnormal (Knocking)
Theoretical diagram of pressure crank angle diagram is shown. (a → b) is compression process, (b → c)
is combustion process and (c → d) is an expansion process. In an ideal cycle it can be seen from the diagram, the
entire pressure rise during combustion takes place at constant volume i.e., at TDC. However, in actual cycle this
does not happen.
According to Ricardo, known as father of engine research describes the combustion process can be imagined
as if it is developing in three stages as shown in figure.
1. Ignition lag stage
2. Flame propagation stage
3. After burning stage

1. Ignition lag stage: There is a certain time interval between instant of spark and instant where there is a
noticeable rise in pressure due to combustion. This time lag is called IGNITION LAG. Ignition lag is the time
interval in the process of chemical reaction during which molecules get heated up to self ignition
temperature, get ignited and produce a self propagating nucleus of flame. The ignition lag is generally
expressed in terms of crank angle (θ1). The period of ignition lag is shown by path ab. Ignition lag is very small
and lies between 0.00015 to 0.0002 seconds. An ignition lag of 0.002 seconds corresponds to 35 deg crank
rotation when the engine is running at 3000 RPM. Angle of advance increase with the speed. This is a
chemical process depending upon the nature of fuel, temperature and pressure, proportions of exhaust gas
and rate of oxidation or burning.
2. Flame propagation stage: Once the flame is formed at “b”, it should be self sustained and must be able to
propagate through the mixture. This is possible when the rate of heat generation by burning is greater than
heat lost by flame to surrounding. After the point “b”, the flame propagation is abnormally low at the
beginning as heat lost is more than heat generated. Therefore pressure rise is also slow as mass of mixture
burned is small. Therefore it is necessary to provide angle of advance 30 to 35 deg, if the peak pressure to be
attained 5-10 deg after TDC. The time required for crank to rotate through an angle θ2 is known as
combustion period during which propagation of flame takes place.
3. After burning: Combustion will not stop at point “c” but continue after attaining peak pressure and this
combustion is known as after burning. This generally happens when the rich mixture is supplied to engine.

1.12 Combustion of CI engine

The combustion in SI engine starts at one point and generated flame at the point of ignition propagates
through the mixture for burning of the mixture, where as in CI engine, the combustion takes place at number of
points simultaneously and number of flames generated are also many. To burn the liquid fuel is more difficult as
it is to be evaporated; it is to be elevated to ignition temperature and then burn.

11 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

The combustion in CI engine is considered to be taking place in four phases:

• Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion
• Uncontrolled combustion
• Controlled combustion
• After burning
1. Ignition Delay period /Pre-flame combustion: The fuel does not ignite immediately upon injection into the
combustion chamber. There is a definite period of inactivity between the time of injection and the actual
burning this period is known as the ignition delay period. In figure the delay period is shown on pressure
crank angle (or time) diagram between points a and b. Point “a” represents the time of injection and point
“b” represents the time of combustion. The ignition delay period can be divided into two parts, the physical
delay and the chemical delay. The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on both engine
design and performance. It is of extreme importance because of its effect on both the combustion rate and
knocking and also its influence on engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in the exhaust.
2. Period of Rapid Combustion: The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled combustion, is that
phase in which the pressure rise is rapid. During the delay period, a considerable amount of fuel is
accumulated in combustion chamber, these accumulated fuel droplets burns very rapidly causing a steep rise
in pressure. The period of rapid combustion is counted from end of delay period or the beginning of the
combustion to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. The rate of heat-release is
maximum during this period. This is also known as uncontrolled combustion phase, because it is difficult to
control the amount of burning / injection during the process of burning. It may be noted that the pressure
reached during the period of rapid combustion will depend on the duration of the delay period (the longer
the delay the more rapid and higher is the pressure rise since more fuel would have been present in the
cylinder before the rate of burning comes under control).
3. Period of Controlled Combustion: The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the controlled
combustion. The temperature and pressure in the second stage are so high that fuel droplets injected burn
almost as they enter and find the necessary oxygen and any further pressure rise can be controlled by
injection rate. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at maximum cycle temperature.
4. Period of After-Burning: Combustion does not stop with the completion of the injection process. The unburnt
and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as soon as they come into
contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain duration called the after-burning period. This
burning may continue in expansion stroke up to 70 to 80% of crank travel from TDC.

1.13 Detonation and factors affecting detonation

Knocking is due to auto ignition of end portion of unburned charge in combustion chamber. As the
normal flame proceeds across the chamber, pressure and temperature of unburned charge increase due to
compression by burned portion of charge. This unburned compressed charge may auto ignite under certain
temperature condition and release the energy at a very rapid rate compared to normal combustion process in
cylinder. This rapid release of energy during auto ignition causes a high pressure differential in combustion
chamber and a high pressure wave is released from auto ignition region. The motion of high pressure
12 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

compression waves inside the cylinder causes vibration of engine parts and pinging noise and it is known as
knocking or detonation. This pressure frequency or vibration frequency in SI engine can be up to 5000 Cycles per
second.
Denotation is undesirable as it affects the engine performance and life, as it abruptly increases sudden
large amount of heat energy. It also put a limit on compression ratio at which engine can be operated which
directly affects the engine efficiency and output.

The phenomenon of knock may be explained by referring to figure-a and b Which shoes the cross
section of the combustion chamber with flam advancing from the spark plug location A without knock whereas
figure-c and d shows the combustion process with knock. In the normal combustion the flame travels across the
combustion chamber from A towards D. The advancing flame front compresses the end charge BB’D, thus raising
its temperature. The temperature is also increased due to heat transfer from the hot advancing flame front and
due to pre-flame oxidation. In spite of these factors if the end charge temperature had not reached its self-
ignition temperature, the charge would not auto-ignite and flame will advance further and consume charge
BB’D. This is the normal combustion process.
However, if the end charge BB’D reaches its auto-ignition temperature and remains for some length of
time the charge will auto-ignite, leading to knocking combustion. In figure-d, it assumed that when flame has
reached the position BB’, the charge ahead of it has reached critical auto-ignition temperature. During the pre-
flame reaction if the flame front could move from BB’ to only CC’ then the charge ahead of CC’ would auto-
ignite.
Because of auto-ignition, another flame front starts travelling in the opposite direction to the main
flame front. When the two flame front collide, a severe pressure pulse is generated which is known as Knocking
ot=r Detonation.

1.14 Factors Affecting Detonation

When any one of the following factors is applied during an engine’s combustion cycle, the likelihood of
detonation is increased:
 Increased compression ratio = increased pressure.
 Improved volumetric efficiency = increased pressure.
 Leaner mixture = increased combustion temperature.
 Increased ambient air temperature = increased engine temperature.
 Increased bore diameter = increased time (greater distance for combustion path).
 Increased ignition advance = increased time.
 Decreased rpm = increased time

13 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

1.15 IC-Engines Terminology

1. Bore:
The inner diameter of the engine cylinder is called as Bore.
2. Crank Radius (rc):
It is the linear distance b/w the shaft centre & crankpin center. It is equal to half the stroke length.
3. Top Dead Centre (TDC):
The position of the piston nearer to the cover or cylinder head of the engine is called TDC. The crank pin
comes b/w the piston & the crankshaft. It is also called as cover end.
4. Bottom Dead Center:
The extreme position of the piston nearer to the crank is called bottom dead center. It is also called as
crank end. The crank pin moves to its farthest distance from the cylinder.
5. Stroke (L):
It is the linear distance travelled by the piston from one dead centre position to another dead centre
position. The stroke length is also equal to twice the crank radius.
i.e. L= 2rc.

6. Swept Volume (Vs):

It is the volume displaced by the piston as it moves from its TDC to BDC position. It determines the size
of the piston in cubic centimeters. It is equal to the product of surface area of piston & its stroke length.
i.e. Vs = (𝜋𝑑 2/4) x L in cc
7. Clearance Volume (Vc):
It is the volume b/w the top of the piston & cylinder head, when the piston is at TDC.
8. Compression Ratio (CR):
It is the ratio of the volume of the charge in the cylinder above the piston at BDV & the volume of the
charge when the piston is at TDC.
Also, it is the ratio of total cylinder volume to the clearance volume
𝑉 +𝑉
𝐶𝑅 = >1
𝑉
Where; Vc = Clearance volume
Vs = Swept volume.
For, Petrol engines- CR=4:1 to 10:1 and Diesel engines- CR=12:1 to 22:1
9. Cycle Of Operation:
It is the complete series of events, in which suction, compression, burning & expansion & expulsion of
the working medium are accomplished.
In,
2S-engine, a cycle of operation completes in every one revolution of the crankshaft.
4S-engine, a cycle of operation completes in every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
10. Piston Speed / Velocity (Vp):
It is the distance travelled by the piston per unit time.
i.e Vp = 2LN m/s
Where: N = Rotational speed of the crankshaft
L = Stroke length

14 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

1.16 Performance Parameters of IC-Engines

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success with which conversion of chemical energy
contained in the fuel into the useful mechanical work. The important performance parameters of I.C. engines are
as follows- Mean Effective Pressure, Indicated Power, Brake Power, Friction Power, Mechanical Efficiency,
Thermal Efficiency, Volumetric Efficiency, Relative Efficiency, Specific Fuel Consumption, Air–Fuel Ratio, Specific
Output, Specific Weight, Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions
1. Indicated Power-
The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is called Indicated power
and is denoted by IP. It is given by-
𝑖 𝑝 𝐿𝐴𝑁
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐾𝑊
60000
Where: i = Number of cylinders
pim = Indicated mean effective pressure, bar
L = Length of stroke, m
A = Area c/s of piston, m2
N = Speed, rpm
[N = N for 2 Stroke and N = N/2 for 4 Stroke]
2. Brake Power-
The power developed by an engine at the output shaft is called brake power and is denoted by BP. It is
given by-
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑃 = 𝐾𝑊
60000
Where: T = Torque in N-m
N = Speed in rpm
3. Friction Power-
The amount of power lost in friction is called friction power. In other words, it is the difference between
the indicated power and brake power and is denoted by FP. It is given by-
𝐹𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 – 𝐵𝑃 𝐾𝑊
4. Mean Effective Pressure [MEP or pm]-
It is defined as hypothetical [average] pressure which is thought to be acting on the piston throughout
the power stroke. Therefore MEP is given by-
𝑠 .𝑎 𝑁
𝑝 =
𝑙 𝑚
Where: s = Spring constant N/m2/m
a = Area of the indicator diagram, m2
l = Length of the indicator diagram, m
If mean effective pressure is based on indicated power it is called indicated mean effective pressure [pim
or IMEP] and if based on brake power it is called brake mean effective pressure [pbm or BMEP]. Similarly frictional
mean effective pressure [pfm or FMEP] is the difference between indicated mean effective pressure and brake
mean effective pressure [i.e. pfm = pim – pbm].
5. Thermal Efficiency-
It is the ratio of power developed to energy supplied by the fuel and is expressed in percentage.
Power developed 𝑃
η = =
Energy supplied by fuel 𝑚 . 𝐶𝑉
If the thermal efficiency is based on indicated power it is called as indicated thermal efficiency and is
given by-
Power developed 𝐼𝑃
η = =
Energy supplied by fuel 𝑚 . 𝐶𝑉
If the thermal efficiency is based on brake power it is called as brake thermal efficiency and is
given by-
Power developed 𝐵𝑃
η = =
Energy supplied by fuel 𝑚 . 𝐶𝑉
6. Mechanical Efficiency-
It is the ratio of brake power to the indicated power and is expressed in percentage.
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
η = = =1+
𝐼𝑃 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃 𝐹𝑃
It can also be defined as the ratio of brake thermal efficiency to indicated thermal efficiency.

15 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

𝐼𝑃
η 𝑚 . 𝐶𝑉 𝐵𝑃
η = = =
η 𝐵𝑃 𝐼𝑃
𝑚 . 𝐶𝑉
7. Volumetric Efficiency-
The engine output is limited by the maximum amount of air that can be taken during the suction stroke;
due to this only a certain amount of fuel can be burnt efficiently with this quantity of air.
Therefore, volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of air actually inducted at NTP to the swept
volume of the engine.
Actual volume of air per stroke at NTP
η =
Swept volume
Volumetric efficiency can be calculated considering mass or volume of air, preferably on mass basis.
𝑚
η =
𝑚

Where: ma = Actual mass of air induced per intake stroke

mth = Theoretical mass of air to fill swept volume under atmospheric
conditions
8. Relative Efficiency-
It is the ratio of indicated thermal efficiency to air standard efficiency and is given by-
η
η =
η
9. Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)-
The specific fuel consumption is defined as the mass of fuel consumed per hour per unit power
developed. It is given by-
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑚 𝐾𝑔
𝑠𝑓𝑐 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑃 𝐾𝑊 − ℎ𝑟
If sfc is based on indicated power, it is known as indicated specific fuel consumption and is given by-
𝑚 𝐾𝑔
𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑐 ==
𝐼𝑃 𝐾𝑊 − ℎ𝑟
If sfc is based on brake power, it is known as brake specific fuel consumption and is given by-
𝑚 𝐾𝑔
𝑏𝑠𝑓𝑐 ==
𝐵𝑃 𝐾𝑊 − ℎ𝑟
𝑨
10. Air-Fuel Ratio -
𝑭
Air-Fuel ratio is the ratio of mass of air to the mass of fuel in the air-fuel mixture. Fuel-Air ratio is the
reciprocal of Air-Fuel ratio.
𝐴 𝑚
=
𝐹 𝑚
Also-
𝐹 𝐴 −1 𝑚
= =
𝐴 𝐹 . 𝑚
Air-Fuel ratio in the mixture affects the combustion phenomena. It determines the flame propagation,
velocity, heat release in the combustion, maximum temperature and completeness of combustion.
11. Specific Output-
It is defined as the brake power output per unit volume of piston displacement.
𝐵𝑃
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 =
𝑉
Where: Vs = Swept volume (A x L), m3
12. Specific Weight-
It is defined as the weight of the engine per unit power developed.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝐵𝑃

1.17. Exhaust Smoke and other Emissions-

Some is an indication of incomplete combustion. Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of
Nitrogen, unburned Hydrocarbons, etc. are misance for the public environment. It also limits the output of an
engine if air pollution control is the consideration.

16 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

1.18 Speed Measurement

Different types of speed measuring devices are available. These are-
1. Mechanical tachometer
2. Electrical tachometer
3. Revolution counter
The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolutions in a given time. This gives an
accurate measurement of speed.
A mechanical tachometer or an electrical tachometer can also be used for measuring the speed. But
both types of tachometers are affected by the temperature variations and are not very accurate.

Single Tooth
Wheel Tooth
Wheel Engine
Dynamo-
meter

Pick Up Coupling

Counter

Pulse
For accurate and a continuous measurement of speed, a magnetic pick is placed near toothed wheel
coupled to the engine shaft. This magnetic pick up will produce a pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter
will accurately measure the speed as in figure.

1.19 Fuel Consumption Measurement

Fuel consumption of IC engines can be found out by knowing volume and mass of fuel supplied in a
specific time interval and are classified as follows-
1. Volumetric type-
a. Burette method
b. Automatic burette flowmeter
c. Four piston flowmeter
d. Turbine flowmeter
2. Gravimetric type-
a. AVL fuel consumption meter
b. Four orifice flowmeter
c. Flow-Torn meter

Burette

Fuel
Tank

Valve
To Engine
Figure shows the simple arrangement of burette method of fuel consumption measurement. The
simplest method of measuring volumetric fuel consumption is to use a glass burette having bulbs of known
volume and having mark on each side of the bulb. Time taken by the engine to consume this volume is measured
by a stop watch. Volume divided by time will give the volumetric flow rate.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑉 𝑚
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡 𝑠

17 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Also-
𝑋 𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝐾𝑔
𝐹𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
1000 𝑥 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ℎ𝑟

1.20 Air Consumption Measurement

It consists of an air-tight chamber in which sharp edged orifice is fitted. The orifice is situated away from
the suction connection to the engine. A rubber diaphragm is provided to further reduce the pressure pulsations.
There is a pressure depression due to the suction of the engine which causes the flow through the orifice. The
pressure difference which causes the flow through the orifice is measured with the help of manometer fitted in
the air box. For obtaining steady flow the volume of the chamber should be sufficiently large as compared with
the swept volume of the cylinder.

Let,
Pa = Atmospheric pressure, KN/m2
Ta = Room temperature, °C
Ra = Characteristic gas constant (0.287), KJ/Kg K
Do = Diameter of orifice meter, m
Ao = Area of the orifice meter, m2
hw = head of water causing flow or difference in manometer reading, m
Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice meter
ρw = Density of water (1000), Kg/m3
ρa = Density of air, Kg/m3
Therefore:
Head of air causing flow is given by-
. .
(𝜌𝑔ℎ)𝑎 = (𝜌𝑔ℎ)𝑤
𝜌 ℎ =𝜌 ℎ
𝜌 ℎ
ℎ =
𝜌
Velocity of air passing through orifice-
𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ 𝑚/𝑠
Volume flow rate of air through orifice-
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑉𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ 𝑚 /𝑠
Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by-
𝑚 =𝑉𝜌
Since,
𝑝 =𝜌 𝑅 𝑇
𝑝
𝜌 = 𝐾𝑔/𝑚
𝑅 𝑇
Therefore,
𝑝
𝑚 = 𝐶 𝐴 2𝑔ℎ 𝐾𝑔/𝑠
𝑅 𝑇

18 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

1.21 Torque and Brake Power Measurement

Measurement of BP is one of the important measurements of an engine. It involves the determination
of the torque and the angular speed of the engine output shaft. This torque measuring device is called as
dynamometers. Dynamometers are classified into two types-
1. Absorption dynamometers
a. Rope brake
b. Prony brake
c. Hydraulic
d. Eddy current
2. Transmission dynamometers
1. Absorption Dynamometer-
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power developed by the engine to which they are
coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat.

As shown in figure the rotor (R) is driven by the engine to be tested is coupled electrically or
magnetically or hydraulically or by mechanically to the stator (S) which is supported in low friction bearings.
The turning moment of the rotor is just balanced by the torque exerted on the rotor with weights,
springs or pneumatic means.
If T is the torque exerted by the engine-
𝑇=𝐹𝑥𝐿
Power developed by the engine-
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑥 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
2𝜋𝑁𝑇
𝐵𝑃 = 𝐾𝑊
60000
Where: T = Torque in N-m
N = Speed in rpm
Rope Brake-

Figure shows the rope brake dynamometer. It consists of a number of turns of rope wound around the
rotating drum attached to the output shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a spring balance and the other
to a loading device. The power developed by the engine is absorbed in friction between the rope and the drum.
The drum therefore gets heated and requires cooling arrangement.
Rope brake is a simple device to measure power output of an engine. It is cheap and easily constructed
but not very accurate, because of changes in friction coefficient of the rope with temperature.

19 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Let,
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
D = Diameter of the brake drum, m
Dr = Diameter of the rope, m
W = Load on the engine, KN
S = Spring balance reading, KN
The brake power is given by-
𝐵𝑃 = 𝜋𝐷𝑁[𝑊 − 𝑆] 𝐾𝑊
Prony Brake-

The Prony brake works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction. It consists of a
wooden block and these are clamped on the brake drum coupled to the engine. The wooden block when pressed
into contact with the rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power is dissipated in frictional resistance.
Spring loaded bolts are provided to tighten the wooden blocks and hence increases the friction. The power
absorbed is converted into heat and requires cooling. These dynamometers are usually used for medium speed
engines.
Let,
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
D = Diameter of the brake drum, m
W = Load on the engine, KN
R = Distance from the centre of shaft to point of load, m
The brake power is given by-
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 2𝜋𝑁[𝑊 𝑥 𝑅]
𝐵𝑃 = = 𝐾𝑊
60000 60000
Hydraulic-

Figure shows the hydraulic dynamometer. It consists of a rotor and a stator. Rotor or Impeller is coupled
to the engine crankshaft or output shaft. The stator is free to rotate in the trunion bearings.
A torque arm extending from the side of the stator is attached with a loading platform. When the
engine is rotating, rotor also rotates in a casing filled with fluid (water). As the rotor rotates the centrifugal force
is developed which tends to rotate the stator. The application of a suitable load on the loading platform will
prevent the rotation of stator. This sets a torque reaction which is equal to the torque developed by the engine.
Let,
N = Speed of the engine, rpm
D = Diameter of the brake drum, m
W = Load on the engine, KN
R = Distance from the centre of shaft to point of load, m
The brake power is given by-
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 2𝜋𝑁[𝑊 𝑥 𝑅]
𝐵𝑃 = = 𝐾𝑊
60000 60000
20 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

Eddy Current-

The working principle of Eddy Current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a stator on which a
number of electromagnets are fitted and a rotor disc made of copper or steel and is coupled to the output shaft
of the engine. When the rotor rotates eddy currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by
passage of field current in the electromagnets. These eddy currents oppose the rotor motion, thus loading the
engine. These eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so cooling arrangement is required. The torque is
measured exactly as in other types of absorption dynamometer i.e. with the help of a moment arm. The load is
controlled by regulating the current in the electromagnets.
2. Transmission Dynamometer-

Transmission dynamometers also called torque meter consists of a set of strain gauges fixed on the
rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain of
the strain gauge. Usually a four arm bridge circuit is used to reduce the effect of temperature to be minimum
and the gauges are arranged in pairs such that the effect of axial or transverse load on the strain gauges is
avoided. Figure shows a transmission dynamometer which employs beams and strain gauges for sensing torque.
Transmission dynamometers are very accurate and are used where continuous transmission of load is
necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.

1.22 Indicated Power Measurement

Indicated power is usually determined with the help of p-V diagram taken with the help of an indicator.
Indicator is a device which measures the variation of pressure in the cylinder over a part or full cycle and the
diagram plotted is known as indicator diagram.
Indicated power can be computed by measuring the area of indicator diagram using planimeter and
dividing this by stroke measurement to get mean effective pressure.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑎
𝑝 = 𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑁/𝑚
𝑙
If,
A = Area of piston, m2
L = Length of stroke, m
N = Speed of engine, rpm
i = No. of cylinders
Then,
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝑝 𝐴 𝑁
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
=𝑝 𝐴𝐿 𝑁−𝑚
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑑 = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑥 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑠/𝑚𝑖𝑛

21 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝐿𝑁 𝑁−𝑚 𝐽
Indicated Power = 𝑜𝑟
60000 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛

1.23 Friction Power Measurement

The friction power of an engine can be determined by the following methods-
1. Difference between IP and BP method
2. Willan’s line method
3. Motoring method
1. Difference between IP and BP method-
In this method, determine the IP by using indicator diagram and BP by using dynamometer. The
difference of these two values will give friction power of the engine.
Commercially very limited in use because, it is very difficult to draw accurate indicator diagram at high
speeds.
2. Willan’s Line method-
In this method at a constant engine speed the load is reduced in increments and the corresponding BP
and fuel consumption readings are taken.

mf

b
O
FP BP

A graph is drawn by fuel consumption V/s BP as shown in figure. Then the graph is extrapolated back to
cut the BP axis at point ‘b’. The reading ‘ob’ is taken as friction power loss of engine at that speed. The fuel
consumption at zero BP is given by ‘oa’ and if the relationship between fuel consumption and BP is assumed to
be linear, the fuel consumption ‘oa’ will be equivalent to power loss of ‘ob’.
3. Motoring test method-
In this method, the following procedure is followed to get frictional power-
1. Run the given engine to the desired speed and load conditions for some times so that it reaches stable
conditions (steady state).
2. The power of the engine is measured by using swing field dynamometer.
3. The fuel supply is the cut-off.
4. By suitable arrangement, convert the dynamometer to run as motor and motor the engine at the same
constant speed at which it was previously running.
5. The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of friction power of the engine.

1.24Morse Test-
The method of measurement of IP of multi cylinder engine is known as Morse-test. In this method IP is
measured without the use of indicator diagram.
In this test, the engine is run at the required speed and output is measured. Now one cylinder is cut-off
i.e. the cylinder of a petrol engine by shorting spark plug and diesel engine by cutting of the fuel supply.
If one cylinder is cut-off, the speed of the engine falls because of loss of power developed by that
cylinder and as the load remains same. The engine speed can be brought back to its original value by reducing
the load on the engine. This is required to maintain the friction power constant.
Let there are ‘n’ cylinders in an engine
When all cylinders working- 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃 −1
When cylinder 1st is cut-off- 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃 −2
When cylinder 2nd is cut-off- 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃 −3

22 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere
 Applied Thermodynamics BME401

When cylinder 3rd is cut-off- 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃 −4

Now, from equation 1 and 2- 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 −5

Similarly, from 1 and 3 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 −6
Similarly, from 1 and 4 𝐵𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 −7
In this way the IP of all the cylinders is measured and sum of IP’s of all the cylinders is the total IP of the
engine.
I.e. 𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 + 𝐼𝑃 + 𝐼𝑃 −8
Also to find friction power, we know that-
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃
𝐹𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐵𝑃 −9
Therefore equation-9, gives the friction power of the engine. And this method is comparatively
accurate.

1.25 Heat Balance

Heat balance sheet gives an idea about the amount of heat input and amount of heat utilized in the
system. The heat balance sheet calculations are done generally either on minute basis or second basis.
Heat Balance Sheet-
Unit % Unit %
Q
a. QBP = x100 BP

Qs
Qs = Q
b. Qw = mw Cpw [Two - Twi] x100 w
mf x CV Qs
c. Qg = mg Cpg [Tg – Ta] Q
x100 g

Qs
Qst
d. Qst = mst [hg + Cpg (Tg – Ta)] x100
Qs
Qu
e. Qu = Qs – [QBP + Qw + Qg + Qst] x100
Qs
Qs Total
Where:
Qs = Heat supplied to the engine, KJ/s
QBP = Heat equivalent of brake power, KJ/s
Qw = Heat carried out by cooling water, KJ/s
Qg = Heat carried out by exhaust gases, KJ/s
Qst = Heat carried out by steam, KJ/s
Qu = Heat unaccounted, KJ/s
mf = Mass flow rate of fuel, Kg/s
ma = Mass flow rate of air, Kg/s
mg = Mass flow rate of exhaust gases, Kg/s
mw = Mass flow rate of cooling water, Kg/s
Cpw = Specific heat of water, KJ/Kg K
Cpg = Specific heat of exhaust gases, KJ/Kg K
Cpst = Specific heat of steam, KJ/Kg K
CV = Calorific value of fuel, KJ/Kg
Ta = Atmospheric temperature, K
Twi = Water inlet temperature, K
Two = Water outlet temperature, K
Tg = Exhaust gas temperature, K

*****END*****

23 Mr. Ramesh B R, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Studies in Mechanical Engineering, UBDT CE, Davangere