General Cell Information Cells: The smallest units from which all organisms are made.

All
organisms are made of cells, which can be very small (millions in large organisms) or
multicellular. Bacteria and yeast are examples of single-celled organisms.

 Microscopes: Used to see cells clearly.

o Light microscope: Uses glass lenses to magnify and focus light. Can magnify
up to 1500 times.

o Electron microscope: Uses a beam of electrons instead of light, providing

much higher magnification (up to 500,000 times) and allowing visualization of
more detailed internal cell structures.

Animal vs. Plant Cells Unicellular vs. Multicellular Organisms:

o Unicellular: Organisms made of a single cell (e.g., yeast, bacteria).

o Multicellular: Organisms made of many cells (e.g., humans, moss plants).

 Key Differences: Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts, which animal cells lack.
Animal cells often have small vacuoles, while plant cells have a large central vacuole.

Cell Structures and Their Functions:

 Nucleus

o Function: Stores genetic information (DNA) which determines the kinds of

proteins made in the cell. Controls cell activities.

o Chromosomes: Structures within the nucleus where genetic information is

kept. Inherited from the organism's parents. Made of DNA and proteins.
Become visible as "spider legs" under a microscope when the cell is dividing.

o DNA: A molecule containing genetic information, controlling proteins made

in the cell.

 Cell Membrane

o Function: Thin, outer layer of protein and fat that surrounds every cell.
Controls what enters and leaves the cell. It is partially permeable, meaning it
allows some substances through but not others. Separates the cell contents
from its surroundings.

o In plant cells, it is pressed tightly against the inside of the cell wall.
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 Cytoplasm

o Function: A clear, jelly-like material that fills the cell. Approximately 70%
water. Contains many dissolved substances. Site of many metabolic reactions
(chemical reactions of life).

 Cell Wall

o Location: Outer layer of plant cells (and fungi and bacteria). Animal cells do
not have a cell wall.

o Composition: Primarily made of cellulose (a polysaccharide).

o Function: Provides support and protection to the plant cell. Allows the cell to
absorb a lot of water and swell without bursting.

o Plant cell – cellulose, bacteria – peptidoglycans, fungi- chitin.

 Vacuole

o Function: Fluid-filled space within a cell.

o In animal cells: May have small, temporary vacuoles (sometimes called

vesicles).

o In plant cells: Typically a large, permanent central vacuole containing cell

sap. Helps keep the cell shape.

 Chloroplasts

o Location: Found in plant cells (and some other organisms like algae), not
animal cells.

o Contents: Contain the green coloring or pigment called chlorophyll. Also

contain starch grains (tiny pieces of starch where food is stored).

o Function: Site of photosynthesis. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight,

and this energy is used to make food for the plant.

 Mitochondria

o Function: Site of aerobic respiration, where energy is released from glucose

using oxygen. More active cells (needing more energy) have more
mitochondria.

o Structure: Small structures inside cells with inner and outer membranes.

o Aerobic respiration: Chemical reactions that use oxygen to break down

glucose and other nutrient molecules to release energy for cell use.
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 Ribosomes

o Function: Site where proteins are made (protein synthesis). Instructions for
making proteins come from DNA.

o Structure: Tiny structures found in almost all animal cells and plant cells.

Section 2.1 Organs

Organ: A group of different tissues that carry out a particular function.

 Examples: Heart, lungs, kidneys (animal organs); onion bulb, leaf (plant organs).

 Stomach: An organ involved in digestion, made of various tissues (muscle tissue for
churning, gland tissue for enzymes).

 Levels of Organization: Cells make up tissues, tissues make up organs, organs make
up organ systems, which make up organisms.

Section 2.2 Bacterial Cells

 Bacteria: Unicellular organisms (single-celled).

 Prokaryotic Cells: Cells that do not contain a nucleus. Their genetic material (DNA) is
free in the cytoplasm.

 Structure of a Bacterial Cell (Figure 2.14):

o Cell Wall: Made of peptidoglycan (not cellulose like plants), provides support
and prevents bursting.

o Cell Membrane: Partially permeable, controls what enters and leaves the
cell.

o Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell.

o Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

o Circular DNA: Main genetic material, free in cytoplasm.

o Plasmids: Small, circular molecules of DNA, additional to the main DNA. Can
be used by scientists in genetic modification.

 Reproduction: Bacteria reproduce by binary fission (Figure 2.15).

 Differences from Animal/Plant Cells: No nucleus, no mitochondria, no chloroplasts.

Section 2.3 Specialised Cells

 Multicellular Organisms: Made of many millions of cells.

 Cell Specialisation: All cells share basic characteristics, but they are modified in
structure to perform specific functions.

 Examples of Specialised Cells (Table 2.1):

o Ciliated cell: Cilia move mucus upwards (lining trachea/bronchi).

o Neurone (Nerve cell): Conducts electrical impulses (nervous system).

o Red blood cell: Transports oxygen (blood of mammals).

o Sperm cell: Male gamete in sexual reproduction (produced in testes of

mammals).

o Egg cell: Female gamete in sexual reproduction (produced in ovaries of

mammals).

o Root hair cell: Absorbs water and mineral ions (tips of flowering plant roots).

o Palisade mesophyll cell: Photosynthesis (leaves of flowering plants).

 Tissues: A group of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function.

o Example: Muscle tissue in the stomach wall, gland tissue in the stomach.

Section 2.4 Sizes of Specimens / Practising using the magnification equation

 Microscope Usage: Many biological structures are too small to be seen without a
microscope. Photographs and diagrams of cells are usually much larger than actual
cells.

 Micrometres (µm): Units used for measuring very small biological specimens.

o 1 mm = 1000 µm

o 1 m = 10⁶ µm

 Magnification: How many times larger an image is than the actual object.

 Magnification Equation:

o Magnification = actual size of objectsize of image​

o Also used to calculate real size: real size=magnificationsize of image​

 o Important Note: All measurements in the equation must be in the same units
(e.g., mm or µm). Magnification has no units.

Activity 2.3: Practising using the magnification equation

 Materials: Small objects (eraser, paper clip, button), ruler, paper, pencil.

 Method:

1. Measure actual size of objects carefully.

2. Draw magnified diagrams of objects.

3. Calculate magnification for each drawing. Can also draw objects smaller than
real size (magnification < 1).

 Self-Assessment: Check if magnifications and actual sizes were calculated correctly.

Identify and learn from errors.