THOMSON 1 OPERATING MANNUAL ON FOUR PROBE SET-UP MODEL DFR-07 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTOR (Ge) AND DETERMINATION OF ENERGY BAND GAP THOMSON INSTRUMENTS COMPANY SD - 525, D - Block, Shastri Nagar, Ghaziabad-201 002 (U.P.) INDIA MANUFACTURERS & SUPPLIERS OF @ ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS & COMPONANTS © DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS COMPUTER LOGIC TRAINING BOARDS. EXPERIMENTAL SE7 UPS @ ELECTRONIC TRAINING BOARDS @ POWER SUPPLIERS & STABLISERStv INTRONUCTION: "Measurement of Resistivity of Germanium Crystal is made to determine its suitablity for the fabrication of transistor and other semiconductors devices,The resistivity has to be measured very accurately since its value is critical in many devices and some tran- stor parameters,like the equivalent base resistance are at least linearly related to the resistivity High resistance or rectification appears fairly often in electrical contacts to [Link] one measure that if the current is reversed,its value changes. This clearly indicates a rectifying contacts and it is one of the measure problem. Soldered probes contacts should not be used to avoid disturbing the current flow (shorting out the part of the sample) and to avoid amolguity in the measurement of probe [Link] soldering to th body of the sample can eftect the sample properties by heating ect and contamination unless care is [Link] Four robe method e we use four spring type contacts to avoid contact resistance ( i.e. two extra contacts for voltage measurement between the current contacts).The main disadvantages of this type of contacts is that they may be noisy. + The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause neating.A further precaution is necessary to prevent the injunction effect from effecting the measured value of p (Resistivity) .ven good contacts to Germanium, for example may [Link] is minimised by keeping the voltage drop at the contacts low.I the surface near the current contacts is rough and electrical field in the crystal is low, these injected carriers will recombine before reach- ing the measuring probe. In a single crystal material the resistivity may very smoothly from Point to [Link] fact this is generally the case, the measure ques- tion is the amount of this variation rataer then any question of its presence.(ften however it is conventionally stated that p (Resisti- vity) is constant to witn in some percentage of variations and when the variations does infact fall with in this tolrance,it is i and the crystal is considered to be of uniform resistivity,Since p (Resistivity) is independent of current,it is possible to determine weather or not any of these effects are interfering with the measurement by measuring p (Resistivity) at several values of I. It should be kept nd that these points of experimental technique effect essentially all the measurements to be described and not the Resistivity measurement. INT PROBE METHOD: There are many methods for making resistivity measurement. But the standard and accurate method is Four Probe [Link] method is illustrated in [Link] its usual forms the four probe are [Link] flows between the outer pair contacts and the potential accross the inner pair is meas- [Link] the flat surface on which the probe rest is adequately large and the crystal is big,the semiconductor may be considered to be a semi-infinite [Link] prevent minority carrier injection and make good contacts, the surface on which the probe rest may be nechanically lapped. SOME ASSUMPTION FOR FOUR PROBE METHOD | a reer a ete reer pede eee tet in the semiconductor wé take the following assumption into account. |. The Resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measur- ement. 2. “he sample surface on which the Four Probe rest is uniform and havi- ng no leakage. ‘he contact used for the measurement of Resistivity are voint cont- acts and lies in a straight line. 4. The contacts between the Four Probes and the surface is point cont- acts, ©. The curface of the sample may be conducting or non-conducting from one side The sample should be thin less than half of the probe spacing. If there is monority carrier injection ante the’ Semiconductors, by current carrying electrodes most Of BB ‘Ler recombine : these effect on | elect. so that d oct ould be mad i.e. the measurement 5! UREMT! ON A_LARGIgagoud unos MaLBWLIOA DINOHL9913 ol JoVsNNS WO1L0a ONILINGNOONON VY HIM 3917S NIHL ¥V NO S380Yd 402 YOS : s/m ou £0 50% eo) F] $7000 900-01 0200+ o00's ezzot cee’ v60°0 o00'2 a eee ’ 2 vost 000 - 2] | osce 00s 0 it J et 3 > esto e€e0 \c6°S 002-0 voL'6 ivr | e9e"e oo1'o (3 /m) 49 s/w 1°-31ev1 2 2 é o 2 2 a z 6 o- AuvONNOs NILINGNOD - NON / ON bee x t Ald NOILOSYYOD saree a eeThe distance between the probes is 51 , $2 , S3 through the outer probes and the floating potential is measured accross the inner probes. We know that the floating potential Vf at a distance r from an electrod carrying a current I in a material of Resistivity p is given bys 1, Ocoee f enAr If the potential at probe two is Yo and at probe three Vez the distance between the probes S,= 2=53=5, then the potential erence ‘3 ae and the Resistivity Poet. 2ms se ceceeee sete eee reeeeeeeee(1) For better results the current must be in mA. or in microamp. that the Resistivity in [Link] numerically be equal to the asured voltage in millivoltmeter or in microvoltmeter ranges resp- [Link] the probe spacing is 0.159 cm. then Pence ea v bc Baier More often then not,a large enough sample to be considered nite ig not available and in those case equ.(1) is not direc- [Link] since the Four Probe offer the most conveni~ ently used method for the measurement of Resistivity,a varity of [Link] most general method used here is correction have been deve “sscussed below. SLIC?_NON-CONDUC' reaSUREYEST OAT gel the bottom surface of the slice is non-conducting in this 20 nd the Resistivity | a Po ~ F(w/s) . ‘where w/s is the correction combination 0 of w/s we can t t "alue of F(w/s) fF eee ral 24 graph, thus for any "vom taple or EFaPh- ans 10Eet F(w/s) =~TBs The distance between the probes is §1 , s2 , $[Link] I is passed through the outer probes and the floating potential %is measured accross the inner probes. We know that the floating potential Vf at a distance r from an ectrod carrying a current I in a material of Resistivity p is given oe t Sere If the potential at probe two is Ypp and at probe three Voz a the distance between the probes S,= 5,then the potential v \ and the Resistivity v Poe aS a For better results the current must be in mA. or in microamp. so that the Resistivity in [Link] numerically be equal to the ured voltage in millivoltmeter or in microvoltmeter ranges resp- [Link] the probe spacing is 0.159 cm. then 4 and wy = ig More often then not,a large enough sample to be considered available and in those case equ.(1) is not direc- finite is not However since the Four Probe offer the most conveni- y applicable. y used method for the measurement of Resistivity,a varity of 2ns = 1 : ‘ | ed, The most general method used here is ection have been develop cussed below. NON-CONDUCTI ta I overt ova BOTTOM SURFACE TVITY “EASUR. del the bottom surface of the slice is non-conducting in this mo and the Resistivity = 20 Po ~ F(w/s where w/s is the corpsctson ‘erent combination of w/s atio of w/s we can t Yalue of p(w/s) for aiff "4 graph, thus for any FS "oa table or eraPhy 27s 10862 w F(u/8) =gaILS OF THE APPARATUS USED ae The apparatus consists of the following pnts. }, FOUR PROBE SET-UP (Digital ana Analog 8 ARRANGEMENT (Spring type) ITS POWER SUPPLY GE CRYSTAL 0 - 200° Version) 70UR PROBE ‘i 2 70 Model DFP-2 (Digital type):tt consists of the owing three unit enclosed in one cabinet. LECTR MIL i TAEAAL SLRCTNONIC MILLIVOLIMETER:: + is specially designed for Four Probe Set-Up but can be used arately as a measuring device for the measurement of d.c. volt rom 1 mV to 2 Volt with a resolution of 1 [Link] circuit is igned by using a unity gain amplifier in the input circuit so that the circuit does not draw any current from the [Link] edance balance control (marked zero Adj.) enables the millivol- to be used with source having different impedance ranges. designing of the circuit latest instrument technology is all the components are mounted on a glass epoxy printed cuit board,which reduces the maintenance and extend the life of instrument. The main advantages achieved ver a potentiometeric system is that the present unit sives ct reading with a minimum of external adjustment. SP CATIONS: Range s 0-2 Vor as required. Input impedance : 100 ™ Ohm, Resolution : 1 mv. Accuracy 0.2% of the reading +1digit. Display 3.1/2 digit seven segment LED fo CorsnawT CURRENT SOURCE, | Constant Current Source is specially dent gned pmmmmmmeneeare aeecue *0, provide 100% protection from crocs ain ouk due @© excessive current,The Baste sciauRl aii tg we ay Gediemer getectpie ‘to limit the Toad euppeitl gi sU aaa pease, [Link] value of the current can be changes to -6' ee included for that purpose marked ADJ: .The by the potentiometer eee eeeg.c.- supply used is designed using an operational amplifier which gives a ripple free d.c. source. SPECIFICATIONS: Current : 0 - 10 mA. or as required. Open circuit : eh Ve voltages Load Regulation : 0.02% from zero to full load Line Regulation : 0.05% for 10% change in main!s P Metering : 3.1/2 digit seven segment LED display. Power : 220V +#10%, 50Hz. ARRANGSMENT: — "Tt consists four spring type collinear equally spaced probes coated with zinc at the tip,to make good electrical and spring type contacts with [Link] probes are mounted in a teflon bush for good electrical insulation. The whole arrangement is mounted on a suit- able stand and leads are provided for current and voltage meas- urements. NOT? L2ADS :" FOR CURRENT" iE LEADS :" FOR VOLTAGE " OE 0 VEN AND TES*SUPPEY Teas a small oveniused forithe variation oF temperatures of the crystal from room tempe- ure to about 175°C.?he supply for the oven is built-in inside the set-up ,which has three different output voltages for the oven to vhange the rate of heating, which are as follows. ‘ax. Temperature : 200°C Op. Temperature : 175°C tax. Voltage : 45°7 SP2CIFT CATIONS FOR OVSi SUPPLY: (a) At low position marked L: 20 7 a,c, (b) At medium position M; 28V¥ aa, (c) At nigh position Hoi whe Vingae At 220V main!s volta; ‘-Sauptp: Bamaiegan ge form of Sample in chip shape Se etens pottom surface. P co a “+ THERMOM! od quality thermometer gO!range used for the measurement of oven temperature, XPERIMENTAL 13 PROCEDURE: ‘st take out the Four Probe arrangement from the oven and put it on a plane surface. Now put the sample on the circular base plate of the Four Probe arrangement such that the non-conducting surface of the crystal should be on the plate side and the four probes are in the middle of the [Link] some pressure slightly on tne pipe so that it y makes the contacts with the sample and tighteen the screw. check the continuity between the sample and four probes by the multimeter i.e, the RESISTANCE between the pait of ORANGE LEADS the pair of N LEADS should nearly be equal and of the r of 1 KOhm f the contacts are loose tighteen the W provided on the top of the base stand till the four bes touches the crystal. e 2, Put the Four Probe Arrangement in the ‘ven and check the conti- nuity between the each pair of leads again. Put the thermometer in the whole provided in tour Probe grran- gement to measure the oven temperature. 4. Connect the GREEN LZADS (Cuter Probes leads) to the output terminals of the Constant Current Source marked !CUR the ORANGE LS&DS (inner Probes leads) to the Input terminals of the Digital “4illivoltmeter marked !Voltaz: ! and Connect the set-up to the A.C. main!s and switched !0) 5. But the SELECTOR SWITCH im curremt positioa and RANGE MULTI>= LIER SWITCH AT X 1 POSTTION. Adjust current to ero with the oz current Ad$. [Link] the SELECTOR SWITCH in voltace DVM 20 shor e voltaje ter 2 tue SELECT7O SWITCH in current > and ap wprcaz say about 5 wm! tae help of current Adj. knob and goxe tase reacing-Further zannge the SELECTOR SwITat Tt gsitioa and RANGE MULTIPLIER SWITCH £2 X 10 RANGE and sitage ia [Link] cote the corresnoni= Voltage PI . ote the corrrsnonciag : tote aa a. in thermozeter, “ecord these >oacinzs in ta dle Say tea Der ee Change the RAINOT MULTIPLIER SWITCH IN X 1 RANGE ading reaches below 200 nV, ease sen per nt yalue by chanzing th SWITCH. Tt aust Cheeix tho current YOOue— ais be fixede as shor del?connect the Oven with the Oven supply and adjust the oven SUPP switch in L POSITION: easure voltag for different values of temperatures keeping ‘he current constant. nots : For better observations please adjust the oven supply switch in L POSTTTON upto 40 to 45°C , and M POSITION upto 70 to 80 or 90°C and for above H POSITT gecord these readings in table epeat the experiment for different values of current AND TABULATIONS: For Current I = ...-- Sonstant for one set of exp. geilo. Tempe- Voltage Tempe- Resistivity Log, oP rature V Volts rature p Ohm-Cm. 10 7c Pak) Peete ais nee between the proves (s) vated «CMMI tls yac'ss 5 Oy LATIONS: tion (1) aauatie From eq) 5 ot ee he thickness of the crystal is very small compared aa i ection factor for it is to be applied. stances urfa to pacer: the probe di ce is non-conducting so, "ther the bottom © af F(w/s) The value of Function (w/s) may be obtained from table or , for some appropriate value of (w/s).Thus calculate p for erent value of temperatures. Plot graph for tog, vs + x 107 mex Where T is the temperature in Kelvin. As we know that p Lk aaa - Log,k (See booklet) and the slope of the curve is given by dence Where k is tne Soltzmann!s constant = 8.6 x 107? eV/deg. and Logf = 2.3026 Log, of) Thus BE. can be calculated from the slope of the [Link] he above equation is applicable ld be kept in knowledge that t in the Intrinsic Reston SPYATIONS AND TABULATIONS shows the variations maple for OBS of Resistivity # 2. the eee ee cee Sample as a function of inverse o¢ ures 16 also shown in graph. (“ee test results) tally calculated value Of B= = 11. oy ith Temperatures emperat 3, The ExperiaerQUESTIONS 2 3. ry De &. 2 8. oe 10. as Tee SU, iz au 3. What is the difference between Semiconductor,Conductor and Insulator, Define the terms; Band-Gap, Valance Band and Conduction Band What is the Four Probe Method and why it ws called so. Explain why a Semiconductors behaves like an Insulator at zero degree kelvin. Nhat are the advantages of this method over other one. Explain the behaviour of the Log. Ya q curve. Can we use a ordinary millivoltmeter in place of Digital or Electronic millivoltmeter to measure the potential in such case. Nill the Band-Gap vary with the change of Temp. Why is the Resistivity changes with the changes in Temp. hy we are using here an constant current source. If we change the size of the sample, the Band-Gap will be changed or not. ‘ill the Resistivity and Sand-Gap changes with the change of length and breath of the sample. Tatroduction to solid state Physics By [Link] Experiment in modern Physics By [Link] Resistivity measurement on Ge sample for transistor By [Link]. Hand book of Semiconductor Slectronic By Lp aunter, ectrons and iioles [Link],D Van As available other books sostrand,’ , egg iSTeey OF THE SEMICONDUCTOS BY FOUR PROBE METHOD AT DIFFERENT “upERATURES AND DETERMINATION OF ENERGY BAND-GAP upis TEST RESULTS Four Probe Set-Up [Link]. 342 (Digital) GMPLE Ge Crystal, pgSERVATLONS AND TABULATIONS furrent T= +77A Comslart [> [Link] rene Voltage Tempera- Resistivity _1_, jo¢3 log jo/ > re V volt ture f Ohmem= TK ack le al 1.014 294 99.7 3.401 1.9999 2. 25 0.880 298 86.5 3.356 1.937 3. 30 0.720 303 20.8 3.300 1.850 he 35 0.610 308 60.0 3.247 1.778 5s 40 0.505 313 49.6 3.195 1,696 6 45 0.420 318 41.3 3.145 1.616 Ts 50 0.357 323 35.1 3.096 1.545 8. 60 0.260 333 25.6 3.000 1.408 % 70 0.1876 33 18.4 2.915 1.266 10. 80 O.131y 353 12.9 2.835 i.11t We 90 0.0954 363 09.38 2.955 0.972 V2. 100 0.0700 373 06.88 2.081 0.838 13. 110 0.0527 383 05.18 2.611 0.714 Vy. 120 0.0395 393 03.88 2.545 0.589 152. Peed 0.0298 403 02.93 2.481 0.467 16. 140 0.0227 13. 02.23, 2.421 0.349 Distance between the Probes (s) 0.2 cm, Thickness of the crystal (w) = 0.09 cm. CALCULATIONS: We know that Py = tare ‘cyanea as hkk Since the thickness of the ctystal is very small compared to the probe distance., a correction factor for it is té be applied. For this case the bottom surface is non-conducting so the correction factor would be, fo eee Fl e/a) "T1TMEEEDSS¢000 02090 00 enaiiaas (2)2et putting Proper values in equation (1) Poe ce Vk 2ix Sslinoe ° T fo = 4x 1.256 “he correction factor corresponding to F ( 0.09/0.2) or F(0.45) is 3.193 ( As obtained from graph or table I ) putting the proper values in equation (2), we get b li 3.195 o. | Ve 1256 eae ears a } x 0.393) Puttdngeieah mhsRecHeterecemeneiestiad readings p= 923951 x 1000 xv 4 f =98.3X V CALCULATION FOR ENERGY BAND-GAP. We know from booklet that log, / 7 i edafelere eletstaratee eet eC) =2k Ee T Where k in the Boltzmann!s constant = 8.6 x 107%eV/deg and 7 is the temperature in Kelvin From graph the Curve slope is 1og.f 2.3021 log, / — = -2:20267x "Ne" = 2.3086 x 0.90 x 1000 = £22086 20,90 x 1000 = 4236 Putting this value in equation (3) A = 2x 8.6 x 107? x 4236 = 0.72 eV. RESBLTS. + The Band gap of the Ge crystal is = 0.72 ev.i i (AN G BONS PRVATELTO VishnupuriyOLI3 as *) 2 0 I BOVLIOA "2H 0S av A0ze \0O7 NI = 0 ASz/a 70001 =£3 A@l/ No