Media, Medium, and Mass Med ia

as news pape rs, TV, and socia l me

Media: ~roa d term for com mun icati on tools such
Medium : The channel of com mun icati on (e.g.
, radio , internet).
s via platforms like print , audi ovis ual ,
Mass Media: Media that reaches large audi ence
and digital.

Traditional Media vs New Med ia

ision, radio.
Traditional Media: Includes news pape rs, telev
net, soc·
New Media: Uses digital technology (e.g. , inter
networked, and targeted at niche audiences.

Bagdikian (2004): Shows media ownersh highly conc entra ted; by 2014 , six

corporations controlled most US med ia (e.g. ,

Strategies of Media Co

all stages of med ia prod uctio n (e.g. , stud io +

pany diversifies into multiple med ia formats (e.g.,

ally (e.g., New s Corp ).

lomeration: Companies own media [Link] glob
oduct is marketed across multiple formats (e.g.,
film, soun dtrac k
•
•
'

edia reflects the diverse views of society.

nd• d·
- Audience controls media through market dema ' me ta own ers respo nd to cons ume r
. .
preferences to max1m1ze profits. (Market Model)
Power is diffused , not concentrated.

RAFIA AZHAR II
 Media does not create any biases and is fair
Katz and Lazarsfeld - 5 types of variables control how media influences and shapes

attitudes and opinions.

McQuail (1992)- Media Democra cy : Argues that free-market competition leads to

pluralism as media organizations seek diverse audiences to maximize pro

Evaluatio n

Murdock and Golding (1977) argue that media ownership is still

hence diversity is compromised

Marxism - Media owners and journalists also have

l
the media, hence it is not entirely dependant on
Role of Advertising - They undermine the rol
becomes the content of the media. s· If

money will become more important th

in censorshi p and surveillan ce
Role of Governm ent - Undermine the r
ess it has governme nt approval.
of content. Nothing can make it to the mas

Marxist Perspecti ve
ss interests and promotes capitalist ideologie s .

ed among elites who control information flow.

list lifestyles, promoting consumpt ion and false needs.
nsciousness by hiding inequality and diverting attention from

eople from the real issues of class inequalit y and exploitat ion by
consumer ism, entertain ment, and trivial news.
Bourd1eu (1986): Media encourages the working class to look up to middle-cl ass
· styles through advertising and popular culture, creating a dissatisfaction w ith their

Murdock and Golding (1977) - Ownership concentration leads to media reflecting

capital ist ideologies. Eg Rupert Murdoch's News Corp controls multiple outlets globally,
promoting right-wi ng agendas .

•t RAFIAAZHAR
Mass Manipulative Model (Herbert Marcuse):

Mass media manipulates passive audiences, preventing critical thought.

Media distracts the working class and maintains the status quo.
Althusser: Media is an Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) reinforcing dominant
ideology.
Marcuse (Frankfurt School): Media is a tool of mass deception,
\
audiences from actual social inequalities present in the society.
critical thinking and ability to think logically. [
Curran (2003)- there is a lot of historical evid~nce of
content. Eg Rupert Murdock through his news co
L
The He emonic Model Glas ow Universi L
Antonio Gramsci - The ruling class \

~
consent of the masses by making their al" and acceptable. This is
done by promoting dominant i<;feolpgies a
Hence, beliefs are not simply imposed 'fro hove', by the ruling class but they are
accepted by the wor ·

Agenda-
Gal
ing (d~ciding what is newsworthy).
on focuses on elite interests only.
ues like negativity, elite focus, helps shape media narratives.
f
utes - Positive connotations used for ruling classes like
etc while negative connotations were used for employees like

- Found that media portrays the working class as troublemakers (e.g. ,

n , strikes).

a anda Model Chomsk & Herman :

Main role of the media in democracies as ensuring that people support the state and the
capitalist system.
 public passively accepts elite agend as
Medi a creates "manufacture consent" where the
(e.g., war justifications):
d across 5 filters:
New s servi ng elite interests are therefore determine
0 Ownership (elite control),
0 Advertising (influence of corporate sponsors) ,
o Sourcing (dependency on official sources),
o Flak (punishment from elites for dissent),
o Fear ideologies (e.g., terrorism or comm unism as th
in reality it serves the interests of the ruling clas

Evaluation of Marxist and Neo Marxist models:

Pluralists argue media reflects cons umer dema

ra in the digital age,
Postmodernists highlight audience p
unde rmin ing ruling-class control.
allenges elite powe r (e.g.,
Critics also note that investigative journ
Watergate Scandal, Pana ma Papers).
Unde rmin e the Role of state and its powe r
Unde rmin e the role o ising revenue in gene ratin g and guidi ng conte nt
·se of the New Medi a enco urage s audie nces to be
nge of peop le to prod uce and share medi a content.

e.g., Chin a block ing Tian anme n Squa re content).

use censo rship to supp ress
• Curran (2002): Note s that autho ritari an states
dissent and control narra tives abou t the regime.
in most of the autho ritari an gove rnme nt
Cent raliz ed or State controlled Med ia (Eg BBC )
regim es.
g out Legal pena lties for portr aya l of
Regulation through agen cies like Ofcom . Or settin
of critical medi a outle ts etc.
conte nt again st gove rnme nt eg revok ing licen ses

RAFIA AZHAR
 Use of fear ideologies to control public opinion (Prop
aganda Model).
.
Globalization - Some governments, hke the US rt t l 1·ndirectly via global m
, exe con ro
corporations (e.g. , Hollywood , CNN) that export
cultural and political values,
strengthening soft power.
Post Modernism - Baudrillard would argue this
can create hyperreality,
government-influenced media blurs fiction and fact,
especially in £ eign pol
narratives.

Post Modernism

Contemporary media is fragmented , diverse, and

Baudrillard (1981) - Emphasize that med ian
ideology, but instead creates hyperreali ,
anger
rr
representations and reality are blurred.
Baudrillard - Audiences experience si
original (e.g., Disneyland as a "real" place
things that no long er have an
mfluential than real-life sma ll
rr
towns).
Baudrillard - Argue e place" in the public's mind as they only
·on via filtered images and narratives.
iduals exposed to a cons tant flow of ima ges,
ital media, television, and social platf orms .
society no longer relies on grand narr ative s like
relig ion,
ia offers fragmented micro-narratives, givin g rise
to
no one version of reality dominates, and individua
ls can crea te pers onal

5) - Argues that postmodern med ia breaks dow n disti

nctio ns betw een high
and popu lar cultu re (e.g., "high art" and reali
ty TV are equa lly valu ed in med ia
sumption) .
Leve ne (2007): Audiences are active and dive
rse ' freely selecti'ng cont ent to cons
truc t
identities. Media acts as a cultu ral supe rma rket
whe re peop le mix· an d matc h content to
suit their indiv idual preferences (e.g. blen ding
, fash ion , mus ic
· , spm
· ·tual belie
• fs).

RAFIAAZHAR .· -
Evaluation
Overstates Audience Freedom
ctural inequalities still exist, with media own
Neo-Marxists (e.g., GUMG) argue that stru
ey, News Corp).
concentrated in a few corporations (e.g., Disn

inan t ideologies
Marxism - Media still transmits dom
still reinforces capitalist val
Despite media diversity , mainstream media
ing (e.g. , coverage of i
especially through agenda-setting and fram

Aud ienc e
Hyperreality not universal - Active
ity and
Many audiences can distinguish between real
ps rejecting
still shape consumption (e.g., religious grou

Ignores Power Imbalances

orati s, and political elites continue to
Postmodernism downplays how global corp
influence media narratives.

OF MEDIA EFFECTS

essages into passive audiences.

sive and homogenous, meaning everyon
e reacts to media messages in

avior and beliefs.

s a direct and powerful influence on beh
etation or filtering by audiences.
h model assumes there is no active interpr
and ura (1961): Bobo Doll experiment-
children imitated media violence .

Newson (1994): Argues media violence

causes desensitization over time.

Orsen Welles- News broadcast of alien

invasion, people started believing that an
cultural effects model)
invasion has taken place (mentioned in the

RAFIAA ZHAR
 - James Bulger case (1993) - murder of James Bulger by two young boys who were
reportedl y exposed to the violent film "Child's Play 3". Used by critics to argue that
violent media directly leads to violent behavior

Evaluation

- Too Simplistic - Assumes audiences are passive and uniform, ignoring indi
differences (e.g. , age, social background).
(
~
- Underestimates Audience Agency - Blumler and Katz (1974
Gratifications Theory argue that audiences are active, us· b.
(e.g., Diversion, identity formation).
b.
Two-Step Flow Model Critique - Katz and L
leaders mediate media effects, filtering messag
them.
k\_
~
Cultural Effects Model - Glasgow U edia's influence is long-
term and gradual, not instant or uniform. el only looked at immediate
and short-term effects.

ces directly; instead, they first reach opinion leaders,

~
se messages before passing them on to wider audiences.
· e, relying on social interaction to interpret and respond to
ypodermic syringe model)

erent subcultures or communities might interpret the same message

azarsfeld (1940) - Conducted a study on how media influenced voters durino

0

the 1940 US Presidential election. Found that voters were more likely to be influenced by
rsonal conversations with opinion leaders than by direct exposure to media content.
Concluded that peer-to-peer communication was crucial in shaping attitudes and political
decisions.

RAFIA AZHAR 1111

 s influenced their social
Dorothy Hobson (1990): Found women discussing TV show
informal communications
interactions at work. People interpreted TV shows in these
e shape and reinterpret
hence that added a second filter, demonstrating how peopl
through social contexts.

Evaluation

betwe
Curran (2000): In the age of social media , the distinction
audiences has blurred, as many individuals both consume
Critics also point out that mass audiences sometimes by
when consuming content online or via global media.
always involved in the interpretation process
Multi Step Flow Model - Media messages flo
leaders and peer networks, rather tha ·

as non-linear and circular: messages a

groups, allowing reinterpretation and ne

Uses and Gratifications M

media for:

a ive and goal-oriented.

al or social
purpose for individuals and fulfills individual psychologic

background, values, and social

People interpret media content differently based on their

ic Syringe Model by focusing

Challenges passive audience theories like the Hypoderm
e.
on what people do with media, not what media does to peopl

RAFIAAZHAR
 McQuail (1972): Expands on these needs above. Emphasized how audiences tailor media
consumption depending on whether they want knowledge, relaxation, or social

connectedness.
Lull (1980) - Studied how families used TV fo r maintaining family cohesion , where
members bonded over shared TV content, fulfilling social integration nee
New Media - allows people to customize their experiences maki
personalized. People can use different social media networks to
depending on what is it that the audience wishes to consume News
the interests of the audiences, showing only the content
the individual.

Evaluation

Overemphasis on Audience Freedom

Argue the model ignores structural ineq rship concentration) that limit

true choice.
Lacks Explanation of Media Effects - Crit1 y it focuses too much on why people

use media but does n ·n how media sHapes beliefs or behaviors (Cultural Effects

Model).

-drip" / long term effects over time.

ences audiences to accept ruling-class values (hegemony), hence
e Marxist views on cultural hegemony (Gramsci)

1995): Media normalizes certain beliefs and discourages others.

ii (1938): Studied public reaction to Orson Welles' broadcast of a M art'tan mvasmn

· • .
ound cultural context (e.g., economic depression, war fe ars ' cultu ra l and socm
· l environment)
•
shaped audience reactions and believability of the news broadcast.
Tuchman (1978) - Used media representation of gender as an examp le of how media influences
behavior over time. Media reinforces gender stereotypes (e.g., women shown ac; domestic,
sexualized, or invisible in professional roles). Wh en audiences are exposed to these patte
gradually internalize such stereotypical representations and begin to think them as normal.

GMG - Study of industrial disputes can again be used here. Positive words for rul
negative words for working classes helps shape mindsets of audiences wh
these narratives over time. Repeated exposure to biased news shape's
ruling-class perspectives, even if subtly.

Evaluation

Underestimates Audience Resistance

Uses and Gratifications Model - argu l reject or reinterpret

media messages based on their social co
Methodological Challenge - Difficult to
w, cumulative effects empirically.
Postmodernism -
andscape, individuals consume a variety
long-term influence of any single dominant ideology.

D AREPRESENTA TION

. .a glorifies the monarchy to create national unity.

orkmg cla own as lazy or criminal middle cl .
• ass as normative.
edia serves as ISA
ortrayal of industrial disputes
noon and Butsch (1982) M'ddl
• -I e classes represented as successful in TV .
while working class represented in comic roles st . 1· series
, rugg mg etc .
ender

Mulvey: Media objectifies women through th I

e ma e gaze.
 Tuchman: Symbolic anni hilat ion- wom en are unde
rrepresented or portrayed
stereotypically.
Marjorie Ferguson - Cult of femininity in women 's
magazines. Women constan
asked to live up to an ideal beauty standard .
Advertising - Women presented in beauty and home
based ads, men pres
Insurance/ car ads.
Grant et al (2006) - suggest that women face a 'doub
le jeopa rd
discrimination that has a different impact on women
of diffe
Egs of Marvel Movies, Superhero films, representa
tion
Changing Representation- Females represented a
represented as soft, emotional etc.

Ethnicity

Stuart Hall (1978): Media uses inferen

portr aying mino rities as
problematic.
Van Dijk (1991): Med ia has a "white voice rginalizing mino rity persp ectiv es.
Shah (2008): Tokeni morities are inclu ded for appe aran ce only,

at near 50% of news stories conc ernin g youn g blac k

m com · ing crime. The trial of O.J. Simp son to
be used as

s youth as rebellious or crim inal (adu lt gaze).

n as frail , though some positive portrayals (e.g. , "gol
den ager s") are

ng People as creating Moral Pani cs - Stan Coh en's

stud y of Mor al Pani cs.
Wayne et al. (2007) : Foun d that medi a often focu
ses on yout h in the cont ext of crim e or
victimization, failin g to show young peop le in posit
ive or comp lex roles.
Lee et al. (2007) : Found that news and adve rtise ment
s often show eld l
er y peop le as
"problematic" (e.g., victim s of scam s or illness)
rathe r than emp ower ed.
 Eg Films like "Gran Torino" (2008) portray older characters as out of sync with younger
generations.
Elderly PortTaye d as burden on health care, immobi le, emotional burden, usi ng u
welfare etc.

Postmodernists - the new media platfo rms (e.g., TikTok, YouTube) allow
and the elderly to challenge stereotypes by creating their own cont
New Media - Older influencers (e.g., "grantluencers") are eme
lnstagram and TikTok, challenging traditional narrative

Draws from the hypodermic syringe model

Views audiences as passive

Imitation/Copycat Violence:

Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment

James Bulger case ( inked to violent
· ke to higher youth violence , but critiqued by

vi Clockwork orange causing copycat violence

eated exposure to violence in films and TV leads to

pathy, potentially encouraging aggression.

zation of violence due to repeated exposure.

Continuous exposure reduces emotiona l response to violence. Criticized by

Barker (1984), who argues professionals (e.g. , firefighters) do not become desensitized.

RAFIA AZHAR N:J.■

 De,;aoce Amplification & Moral Panics
. behavior
• b~· exaggerating
· an d se nc;ationalizin°
Media con·rage can escalate denant - = crime .
[Link] to further deYiance.

\1/ilkins (1964) - coined the tem1 "deviancy amplification spiral." \vhere media a
fear. more control. and more de,·iant acts.

Cohen (1972) - Moral Panics - Media amplifies deviance. creating "i

Rockers [Link]). Media exaggerates problems to divert attention deepe

HaJI et aJ. 's - study on mugging shmved that the media racia ·
youth as de,i ant during an economic crisis to divert atte
amplified de,i ance and divided the working class alo

Evaluation

Cumberbatch (2004): Found that rese

aggression is often inconclusive and lacksllrciffib
Postmodernists argue that audiences today e active and critical, not passive
consumers.

(Blumler & Katz, 1974): People actively choose and

s, reducing the likelihood of uniform v iolent

GUMG) suggests media effects are long-term and

using instant deviant acts.

I age, social media platforms can amplify deviance ( e.g., v iral v ideos of
" allenge" trends), but they also provide counter-narratives and
 NEW MEDIA
Refers to digitally-based, interactive, and on-dema nd form s of communi cation , which di
ffe r
traditional media (e.g. , TV, radio , newspap ers) by bein g more participatory and decentra
l ze
Features

Interactivity - Traditional media is largely one-way communication (produce r to a

New media allows two-way or many-to-many communication (e.g., so ·

Global Reach - Old media is more localized (e.g., national news

global, with content easily accessible worldwide (e.g., strea ·
McLuhan (1964): Coined the term "global village" to
people worldwide.

Convergence - Boyle (2005) refers to techno · a

merge into single digital platforms (e.g., smart et, video, and messaging).

Non-linearity - Old media follows a linear struct ng a newspap er from start to

end). New media offers non-linear structures, with pertext and hyperlin ks allowing random
access to information.

ers both consume and create content,

nline commun ities around shared interests (e.g., Redd it

tells (1996): Describes a "networ k society" where digital

ues that new media increases diversity and empowe rs audiences.

evene (2007) - Describes a "cultural superma rket", where users can choose from a wide
range of ideologies, cultures, and lifestyles.

RAFIAAZHAR
 Marxist/ Neo-Marxist View

Murdock and Golding (1997): Despite new medi a's promise of diversity, large
corporati ons (e.g .. Google. Meta) still dominate platforms. concentra ting power it
[Link] hands.
Fuchs (2014): Argues that new medi a companies exploit users' data (e .g ..
capitalism ), reinfo rcing corporate control even in interactiv e envir

Postmodernist View

Baudrillard: New media fosters hyperreality, where pe

simulations with real-life experiences.
Emphasis on fragmentation of narratives and t
Identity becomes fluid and constructed through users engaging in
"pick and mix" consumption (Levene

Interactionist Perspective

Focuses on how new media shapes micro-I

Example: Online g ing communities and s · media platforms foster new norms and

Negative

(2012) - online compani es and sites can track the content of

d site visits in order to target advertise ments on users.
ission is relatively easy to intercept and read, especiall y if they are
ed. The developm ent of peer to peer networks has therefore led to the rise of
lobal forms of property theft ('piracy' ).

tate level - the national security could be undermin ed due to problems such as
cybercrimes including cybertheft or hacking.

RAFIA AlHAR Ill

 Positive

Democratization of content: Everyone can create and share content (e.g. , citizen
journalism).

Amplified marginalized voices : Minority groups use new media to challenge dominant
narratives (e.g., #Me Too movement).
Increased audience agency : Users can challenge mainstream media
viewpoints (e.g. , independent biogs, podcasts).
Increased diversity of opinions

Digital Optimism

Negroponte (1995): Sees new media as brin

harmonization, and empowerment.
Tapscott and Williams (2008): Introdu
models (e.g., Wikipedia) allow global coll free sharing of knowled ge and
creativity.

Democratization of

offler), able to create and share content widely.

al media gatekeepers to ordinary users (e.g.,

ctivism - Spencer-Thomas (2008): New media has helped

nts (e.g., Arab Spring, B~ack Lives Matter).
ar m - Levene (2007): Audienc es no~ have access to a "cultural
with diverse voices, niche interests, and alternative viewpoi nts.
onstruction - New media enables individu als to construc t flexible identities,
sharing lifestyle s and values through digital spaces (e.g., influenc er culture on Instagra
m,

RAFIAAZHAR
 Digital Pessimism
Exploitation of Free Labor . Platfonns benefit
from unpaid user-generated cont ent ( e.g.,
bloggers , YouTubers) while profiting from ad reve
nue and data sales. Eg Huf fing ton Pos
Sold for millions after using unpaid contributors.

Corporate Control & Conglomeration - Desp

ite apparent diversity, Sch ecte r (20
Murdock & Golding (1997) argue that a small
num ber of corporations
Examples: Meta (Facebook, Instagram), Google
(YouTube), Ama zon' s mo
Kindle.

Surveillance Capitalism - Socha & Ebe r-Sc hmi

d (2012
exploit personal data for targeted advertising and use new med ia
poli · l pro
for monitoring citizens and suppressing dissent
(e.g., CH na's
surveillance).

Digital Divide - Castells (1996): The netw ork

groups, excluding marginalized communities .

Cybersecurity Threats - N w med ia facilitate acki ng, and cybe rwar fare , und erm inin g
s pira
national security and trust in