FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

Functionalism

transmission of norms and values from socie t

Durkheim - Education is responsible for the
individual.

and cohesion in so
It is also responsible for creating social solidarity
shared routines, national anthems etc.

y socialization
Pars ons - Education is the first step of secondar
relev ant skills and knowledge.

Education acts as a bridge between familY,

with the right skills and attitudes required by
iduals are allocated roles
Dav is and Moo re - Education system is a me
n system. This is how unequal
in the society based on how good or bad they ac
r ified will take up the upper-level
posi tions in the society are filled up. Those who
the education system occu py lower-level
posi tions in society, while those who
posi tions etc.

· m whereby success and failure in the educ ation

ent.
ents is based on individual meri t and achi evem
able and hard
e nd those who are the mos t talen ted and mos t
back in the
c on syste m whil e others with low ability will fall
s inequality as right and proper.

hard work and talent is

that education syste m is fair and just and only
othe r than merit.
factors influence the child 's educational success

also allow talen ted individuals

- Education system by virtue of meri tocra cy will
mobility. Thos e who are talented and
of their class, gender, ethnicity to achi eve social
g upw ard social mobility while those with
orki ng will clim b up the social ladd er achi evin
nwa rdly mobile. This justi fies the principle
less talen ts and ability will fall back and beco me dow
re.
of role alloc ation advo cate d by Davis and Moo

RAFIAAZHAR
 New Righ t
din g of the relat ions hip betwee n ~ducation '1
e
Bell - globalisation have changed our unde rstan
ices and know ledg e are the dommant prCc
iilct
economy. ln post-indu stri al society, serv
entio na
ir fl ex ibility and speed of change, hence conv
industrie s, and these are characteri sed by the
fo r the curre nt soc iety as its too infl ex __..,=-··---
academic and vocationa l education is not fit

an economy simply exi sts

Luh man n (1997)- questions the idea that
simply allotted pla
coherenc e as a system - and that people are
criteria as educational qualifications .

for marketiza · •·
Marketization - The New Right advocates
focus on c
should operate more like businesses, with a
drive up
belie f that competition between schools will

Critical of welf are state mod el of educ atio \

this nt, creates depe nden cy on the
schooling for all children. They argue that
state , and lacks accountability.

Social dem ocra tic theo ry

solu tion
rowing concerns in mod ern societies. Saw the
ge.
in comprehensive ss social inequality and tech nolo gica l chan

rdles s of their
of schooling in whic h all children, rega
of scho ol. It is
u , or othe r characteristics, attend the sam e type
atio nal oppo rtun ities to all students.

d curr iculu m teac hing .

f opportunity, Mix ed ability teaching, Broa

s
ests of ruling classes to furth er rulin g clas
er - Edu catio n is an ISA - work s in the inter
inequality thro ugh ' myth of meri tocr acy. ,
s hence reproducing and legit imat ing class
'. Mid dle
rulin g class by virtue of a filter calle d 'mo ney
Success is mad e available to children of the
The best
educ ation with state -of-t he-a rt facil ities .
class children are able to afford priv ate
f h .
fore mad e avai lable only to the ch"ld 1 ren o t e mid dle
know ledg e, skills and information is there

•
- - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - = ~~!_] . RAFIA AZHAR •
 back within this system and
classes due to their material and cultural capital. Working classes fall
system appears fair whe
blame themselves for not being able to afford better knowledge. The
not.

class ideology through tli

Bowles and Gintis- Neo Marxism - Ruling classes also instill ruling
attitudes are
education system by virtue of the hidden curriculum, where the right
jobs.
the worki ng classes making them passive receivers of working class
t
a gate keepin g role in society, allowing those with the ' right' attitudes
with the 'wron g' orientation towards work.

Correspondence Principal - School values correspond to

to Passive
Passive subservience of pupils to tea
subservience of workers to managers in the
Acceptance of hierarchy (authori Authority of managers

Motivation by external rewards (gr esponds to being Motiv ated

by wages not the joy of the job.

Willis - Learning to Labor - Identified the shop or culture and anti-school culture to depict

that not all individuals pass1 ass ideologies. Some workin g classes used
· tan e and rebellion towards their secondary treatment
cepted their fate as working-class laborers but would
·st sexist, dislikin~ authority, laddish masculinity etc)

as reproducing patriarchy. Men are given a kick start in the

rimary socialization where their educational aspirations are given
e an girls'. These attitudes are further reinforced in the education system
tations, gendered curriculum etc.

-class cultures while

ty - S s education system as predominantly favoring white middle
ers and school
. ing ethnic minorities and ignoring their experiences of education. Teach
school books which
um practice institutional racism, stereotypical teaching practices and
they do not possess the right
leads minor ity ethnicities to underachieve , convincing them that
cultural capital to do well in the education system.

RAFIA AZHAR •
 -

DIFFERENTIAL EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Multiple factors can influence which students succeed at school.

Weber - knowledge is not something that is simply 'out there', waiting to be dis ·
and learnt. knowledge is socially constructed in education systems: what kinds
should be taught, to whom and for what purpose. Education system the
the needs of modern societies where those who have power and co ol get t
taught.

M.F.D Young - Knowledge is socially constructed from

purpose. Powerful groups manufacture or impose a c
it can be validated means that pupils can be assess
in ways that appear: fair, objective and merit
ideological dimension , it is controlled by the up

nd, culture, outside factors that influence his/her

10n is an ISA. Ensuring only ruling class success and working-

owledge and skills for success are only passed down to the children of the
ing classes are made to fail in the education system so that they can
cheap labor.

Youn - Middle classes have power to control what becomes knowledge, hence curriculu m also
benefit ose who are the ruling classes, while working class get disadvantaged because they do
ave power to control what is taught, how it is taught etc.

RAFIAAZHAR
 l items such as food
Material Deprivation - when familie s and pupils are unable to afford materia '
ance of workin g-c
clothes and educati onal resourc es. This can negativ ely affect the perform
childre n eg:

Malnou rished diet

Poor home conditions with no isolated place to study
No access to resources such as books, tutoring, internet etc.
Can't afford private education.

Fatalism - Working class individuals more likely to suffer fro

inevitable and nothing can be done to improve their positio

Immediate/Delayed Gratification - Working class

satisfaction of immediate needs and as a result are not w II pla
compared to middle class children who pre s a result they are well

though t out about their future and plan accordi

Bernstein - Language Codes - Restricted code/s hand s ech is used by children of working
children of middle
class while delayed and descriptive mode/ elaborate code of speech is used by
classes. Since education sys ruction is in elaborated code, the working-
bal and written examinations resulting in their poor

perform ance.

erest - Middle class pupils more likely to take interest in

ce and demand progress reports from teachers. Working cla~s
interest in their child's educational performance resulting in poor

. ming - Middle Class children more likely to be placed in top streams where
them
re classroom attention, enjoy positive pupil subcultures which results in
in bottom
etter educational success. Working Class children more likely to be placed
or which
which results in negative labelling, less classroom attention, anti-school behavi

results in their underachievement.

RAFIA AZHAR •
Labelling - Working class children more likely to be labelled as low ability, underperformers and
deviant by teachers, negatively impacting their educational success, resulting in t ....-.. ...........c:•
underperformi ng in school.

Bourdieu - Cultural Capital - Parents of middle-class children pass down

advantages to their children including economic advantages (financial means) as\.'l(~n~
advantages (social capital) like networks, exposure, travel etc which P.
educational experience of middle-class children.

White Middle-Class teacher - Middle school children recei

because their social class aligns with the class backgroun f the
subconsciously prefer middle class children and sele
resulting in them being favored over working classes.

Evaluation

Meritocracy - Social class remains an irrelev eritocratic schools where only

merit is upheld. If a child is talented and hardw te being working classes they can
achieve upward social mobility.

Self-Negating Prophecy - lass children can continue to reject labels put on them by
good qualifications.

policies have been introduced to compensate disadvantaged

udents. Including counselling sessions, 1-1 coaching etc.

Meals - Egs of policies which have helped working class

ctively with middle class children and also be able to afford private education
· s and me - ased scholarships giving them the same knowledge and capital as middle

RAFIA AZHAR •
Gender and Attainment

Factors resulting in girls' underachievement and boy's overachievement:

Primary Socialization - boys were socialized in to their instrumental roles as breadwin

ners, Ug~J),.~ • •

were socialized in to their feminine role as homemakers. More investment was als
education as compared to girls' and boys' education was considered more importan c
to girls. Boys given more instructional toys to develop their cognitive
while girls centered around domestic activities.

Abraha m - School Textbooks - Stereotypical representationA,l'..,l,ii\,,th

books. boys were presented as running businesses, or o
represented as shoppers instilling the same gender ste

Kelly - Few female role models present in textbo

subjects included male scientists etc.

Dwek - Confidence- Boys were more likely to C)Jf"ffl. (~~ es for their achievement but on

the other hand if girls achieve success, they believe they got lucky, always self-doubting
their abilities.

dy of A Level classrooms concluded that teachers also

had stereotypi iris in their classroom as homemakers eventually
tion. Teachers did not recall the names of girls in classes and

derized subject choices, positive role models, and increased

s in STEM subjects with more male teachers teaching these subjects as well
ore male dominated. Females restricted to humanitarian subjects more
them to partake or opt for male dominant subject choices.

m _ Gender Blindness - curriculum pretends that gender does not matter, but in reality,
igned in ways that exclude or ignore the experiences of women. This can limit girls'
po ntial by failing to account for their unique educational needs.

RAFIA AZHAR •
Lack of Role Models -Teachers in high school and college are predominantly male , hence more
role models available for men in schools than women which can affect their experienc

education.

Sue Sharpe 1976 - Career Aspirations - girls attached primary importance to marriage and sa
that as a job in itself. They found job market to be a male dominated area and belie
in such areas is abnonnal and unattractive.

Media Representation of Women - Social Learning T~eory - Girls m

that reinforces traditional gender roles, such as the portrayal of
toward
and relationships rather than intellectual pursuits. This
education, making academic achievement seem 'less im f
beauty standards.

Reasons for improved position of Girls in

Feminist Movements - Mitsos and Ken Bro omen empowerment and equal

rights.

Sue Sharpe 1990s - chan her 1970s study and found that girls no
longer attach primary impo arriage and childcare but ,rather to career.
,1

Career choices - ed for women incentivizing more women to get

bor force at good positions.

e sex dis~rimination act, equal pay act, compulsory education

I

omen and providing them with an opportunity to get educated and

onal actors - Girls tend to have better organizational skills and spend their leisure
ctiviti including reading or talking which also improves their verbal and written Sk"ll
I S.

. gender roles.
resentation - Positive role models for women in the m ed"1a re d efimmg
.
presented as lead characters, superheroes etc leading to mo1·1va1·10n amongst girls.

ewell - Feminization of Schoolin Mfi

. . . ore emale teacher, female friendly subject choices
g -
female admm1strat1ons to create positive reinfiorcements ~ior girls
. .
m education.
'

RAFIA AZHAR -
 Katz - Lack of Male role models - boys nowadays see a lot of incompetent male role models in
the media and advertising, which undermines their self-esteem.

Mac and Ghail - Crisis of masculinity - decline of traditional male-dominated industr es

manufacturing) and the rise of service-sector jobs, have led to a sense of uncertainty and insecuri
among men. This has resulted in the questioning of traditional male roles and ide
in no motivation to study.

Peer pressure - Social norms and peer pressure may lead boys to reJect
associated with academic success, such as reading or acade
' uncool ' .

Becker - Labelling - Boys are often more likely t or behaviorally

problematic in the classroom. This can result in them r c support and being
punished more frequently.

Hidden Curriculum - Schools often transmi "ilE>""" '" orm and expectations through the
hidden curriculum. For example, girls may be o develop qualities like passivity,
neatness, and nurturing, while boys may be encour ed to demonstrate leadership, assertiveness ,
and competitiveness. In the om, this could tra slate to girls being expected to be quiet and
obedient, while bo · o be rewarded for displaying dominant or disruptive
behavior.

·eve in the education system as compared to the ethnic majorities due to:

lum - Most textbooks represent the classic white british culture, minorities
t repr ented or represented negatively such as Enid Blyton's story books (prince and
es always white while villain always black).

centric Curriculum - Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams - Disproportionately European

~ J anguages such as French and Spanish taught in majority of schools rather than Asian Languages.
Y Enid Blytons story books and ethnic stereotypes.

RAFIA AZHAR •
 n Myer s (2009) conducted research on
Ethn icity- GRT Child ren - Kalw ant Bhop al and Marti
children to not view their curric u
the Gypsy, Roma and Traveler children and found that GRT
their history is inadequately repr
as reflecting their interests and GRT Parents believe that
et al - minority ethnicity teachers are no
Lack of Role Models in schools for Minorities- Blair
for minority children ,n~IJ,fl.l{;;41.\-'
represented in schools, leads to barriers in communication
ds low status rol llocatio
low levels of educational performance contributing towar
also varies bas
Value of education - Educational attainment of ethnicities
general
at home. Eg Indo Fijians and Ethno Fijians. Indo-Fijians
e
on the importance of education. Many Indo-Fijian famili
mobility while Ethno Fijians also value education, th
er than indiv idual
Fijian society places significant emphasis on comm u
succeed at schoo l and
academic achievement. This cultural narrati
which don't.
on education by Chine se paren ts,
Francis and Archer (2007) - found that a high
coupled with a strong cultural tradition of respec r one's elders. High educa tional aspira tion
e positive self-esteem from const ructin g
transmits from parents to c · dren, and students d

ing - Black Caribbean childr en are overr epres ented

en off'
'educ ationa l triage ' - such pupils effectively get 'writt
-Afri can
hav· g no chance of achieving A-Cs. This mean t Black
represented in lower sets.

and peers . Black

inorities often subje ct to negative labelling by schoo l
·
teach ers wou Id give
s disruptive, aggressive and disob edien t due to which
ssroom attention affecting their educa tional ability.

repres ent th •
- Lang uage Codes - Ethnic minor ities more likely to e restri cted speec h
. . .
tional perc-0 rman ce . w ·tt
1ch 1s not favored m schools. This affects their educa ti 111 n en and
- s.
verba I sk I 11

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _:R~A:FI\AAAZHAR •
.,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
-1 ~
 ses the necessary cultural
eu - La ck of cultur al cap ita l-E thn ic minority parents do not pos
Bourdi
ool. The lack of relevant cultural
s~ ~~.;."!1!\
ld cou ld use to suc cee d at sch
advantages which their chi
learning capabilities a ·
, travel etc can affect their overall
along with exposure to networks
ly affecte
titu tion al Ra cism - eth nic min orities are often disproportionate
Tariq Modood - Ins
ed as
certain ethnic groups are perceiv
by institutional racism for eg
Black pu
lusion from school activities for
"troublesome or how there is exc
h dis
certain ethnic groups coupled wit
expectations from the ability of
which can hold minorities back.

- Asian girls received less a

Wr igh t- Classroom Attention
d and disapproved of.
and traditions were largely ignore
teachers wh o expec
received negative attention from
badly.

d - African
Tony Sewell - Home backgroun
ce the boys are role mo del " resulting in making
par ticu larl y with the mo the r hen
t activities and pee
the m mo re vul ner abl e to devian
dev ian ce tha n Afr ica n Bo ys
h Asian boys pu shed less for
Co nn oll y - Stereotyping
n bec aus e tea che rs
so eceived less classroom attentio
oys pun ish ed wa y mo re harshly.

ritocratic sch ool s wh ere only

ain an irre lev ant factor und er me
eth nic itie s
, despite com ing from min ori ty
chi ld is tale nte d and har dw ork ing

can con tinu e to reject labels put on the m by

ting Prophecy - Mi nor ity chi ldr en
gai nin g goo d qualifications.
s by con tinu ing to wo rk hard and
ste reo typ ica lly low
ck Girls - fou nd tha t tea che rs had
992)- Negative Labelling of Bla
d the m for
gir ls and thu s did n't pus h the m too hard in les son s and ent ere
exp cta tio ns of bla ck
wa nte d to wo rk har d and
exa ms . Th e bla ck gir ls Mi rza stu die d did val ue edu cat ion and
ow er tier

RAFIA AZHAR •
 do well , but they responded negatively to their teacher's negative labe ll ing by outwardly appearin
g
to not care about school and care more about appearance.

Compensatory Education - Social policies have been introduce d to compensate di sad

groups to bring them at par to other students. Including counselling sessions, 1- 1 coaching etc.

Scholarships/Financial Aid/ Free Meals - Egs of policies which have helped Mi ren
compete effectivel y with Ethnic majority children and also be able to Th,n
through aids and merit-based scholarships giving them the same know ed hnic
Majorities.

Positive reinforcement through teachers - More schoo

inclusive, having teachers to represent multiple ethni xperience of
minority ethnicities in classic British schools while als
schools.

Multilingual Children - There is little evidenc ffecting attainment as most of

the children now are equipped with multiple s oreover, children are smarter in
changing between speech codes as well making t m better equipped to use elaborated codes
within the education system. zed Bernstein's theory claiming that its not
speech codes rather the probl nee and comfort that holds children back, given an
adequate enviro e well able to deliver in the same way as elaborated
code users.

why some kids underachieve at school is due to innate ability and intelligence.
intelligence which affects their educational ability.

are one way of measuring individual's natural intelligence with respect to a range of their
tical and verbal abilities. Those who support IQ tests believe that they are an important
too for revealing the natural variations in intelligence within and between different individu
als
and populations. This is based on the theory of innate intelligence mentioned above.

Why are IQ tests not a good measure of intelligence?

RAFIA AZH AR.

 Kaplan - IQ test depends on factors like reading habit
s, education, cultural upbringing
-
etc and much more than just intelligence.
- IQ tests are greatly affected by practice.
physical and mental health.
- Test score can be influenced by external factors such as
biased in fa f the white
- Tests are not inclusive of all cultures rather are culturally
middle-class majority.
Flynn (1987), what these IQ tests actually meas
ure ar
-
intelligence only; linguistic and
measure a 'part' of intelligence.
- Saunders (2002) - intelligence, while not dete
classes. Social and developmental factors
significantly more intelligent than their wor · g-cl

FACTORS I

efers to the academic division of

Hargreaves - Streaming and Pupil Subculture
(where children in secondary schools are
students in schools. It can be done in two ways : ban
of
divided based on teacher re om primary sc ool) and setting (subject wise division
s to top stream and E refers to bottom stream.

Pupi l subc
ed the top most students of the schools who valued
, and were considered as ideal pupils according to the
d in
s labelled as 'trouble-makers' were most likely to be place
either streams allowing
·s affected t e motivation, confidence of children from
ers.
to naturally underachieve due to negative labels by teach
given an equal access
ity Teaching - all stream members treated equally and
to be placed in lower
al facilities. In cases of mixed ability teaching, those found
considered able and in top
ually improved their performance whereas those who were
s did not register any change.
ing students between good and
all- Teachers subconsciously practice unofficial streaming, divid
have registered as ideal pupils while
bad pupils. Teachers favor those children whom they

RAFIA AZHAR l?i

 neglecting those tenned as bad pupils . Those labe ll ed bad eventua ll y start getting neglected and
eventually end up underachi evi ng.

Nell Keddie - Differential knowl edge being made available to children of different s r
Questions from different streams are also handled differently by teachers. Teachers provide to
knowledge to upward stream students with basic to border I ine knowledge for the on _H"~···"""'
gatekeeping the road to success for them. Teachers also comprehend quest'
differently. This results in low motivation and confidence for thP,,.,r;n1~
perpetuating educational inequality.

Routines and responsibilit ies which are not art

indirectly internalized in to the students.

Things learnt through the Hidden Curriculum:

respecting hierarchy and authority.

time at the beginning of the day and to
lessons.

s hidden curriculum as positive. It acts as a bridge between family and

g the necessary social skills required at workplace.

- Sees hidden curriculum as oppressive. Is just a way of the ruling class to transmit their
ass ideology on to the working classes to make them conformist and passive.

RAFIA AZHAR II
_ _ _ _ _ _____,7
LABELLING AND SELF FULFILLING PROPHECY

Labelling - involves that first judgement you make about someone, often
impressions. Labels are either good or bad.

SFP - where an individual accepts their label and the label becomes tru 1

a student labelled as deviant actually becomes deviant as a respo to being

Examples of labelling and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

Rosenthal and Jacobson's study of Me e how teachers

perception of ability can affect child's p

- Palardy's study on reading ability

RAFIA AZHAR •