Product Design & Manufacturing
Unit 1
Introduction to product design:
Morris Asimow’s Model
Product design : deals with conversion of ideas into reality and, as in other forms
of human activity, aims at fulfilling human needs. Design is a plan for arranging
elements in such a way as best to accomplish a particular purpose.
DESIGN BY EVOLUTION :
In the past, designs used to evolve over long spans of time. The leisurely
pace of technological change reduced the risk of making major errors.
The circumstances rarely demanded analytical capabilities of the
designer. This was design by evolution. Development of the bicycle from
its crank operated version to its present day chain and sprocket version
over a period of about a century is a typical example of design by
evolution.
DESIGN BY INNOVATION
Following a scientific discovery, a new body of technical knowledge
develops rapidly; the proper use of this discovery may result in an
almost complete deviation from past practice. Every skill, which the
designer or the design team can muster in analysis and synthesis, is
instrumental in a totally novel design. Examples of design by
innovation are: Invention of laser beam which has brought about a
revolution in medical and engineering fields. Laser based tools have
made surgical knife in medicine and gas cutting in engineering obsolete.
ESSENTIAL FACTORS OF PRODUCT DESIGN
1. Need :
Design must be in response to individual or social needs.
[Link] relizability:
A design should be convertible into material goods or services, i.e. it must be
physically realizable.
[Link] worthwhileness: The goods or services, described by a design, must
have a utility to the consumer which equals or exceeds the sum of the total costs
of making it available to him. For example, a bulb with luminous intensity 3 and life
4 on a ten point scale has a lower utility than a bulb with luminous intensity 2.5
and life 5.
4. Financial feasibility : The operations of designing, producing and distributing the
goods must be financially supportable, i.e., a design project should be capable for
being funded by suitable agencies or people.
5. Optimality :
The choice of a design concept must be optimal amongst the available alternatives; the
selection of the chosen design concept must be optimal among all possible design
proposals. Optimal design, in theory, strives to achieve the best or singular point derived
by calculus methods. In the context of optimization under constraints for mechanical
strength, minimum weight and minimum cost are usually taken up as criteria for
optimization.
6. Design criterion:
Optimality must be established relative to a design criterion which represents the
designer's compromise among possibly conflicting value judgments which include those
of the consumer, the producer, the distributor, and his own
7. Morphology:
Design is the process from abstract to concrete.
This gives horizontal structure to a design
project.
8. Design process:
Design is an iterative problem-solving
process. This gives a vertical structure to
each design phase. The iterative nature of
design is owing to feedback from existing
design and improvement with further
information in the form of technological,
financial and creativity inputs.
9. Subproblems :
During the process of solution of a design problem, a sublayer of subproblems
appears; the solution of the original problem is dependent on the solution of the
subproblems.
10. Reduction of uncertainty:
Design is derived after processing of information that results in a transition from
uncertainty, about the success or failure of a design towards certainty.
11. Economic worth of evidence:
Information gathering and processing have a cost that must be balanced by the
worth of the evidence, which affects the success or failure of the design. Authentic
information should be gathered to make the design project a success.
[Link] for decision:
Design project is terminated when it is obvious that its failure calls for its
abandonment. Its continues when confidence in available design solution is high.
[Link] Commitment:
Commitment must not be made which will fix future design decisions. Maximum
solutions must be found to subproblems
14. Communication:
Design is the description of an object . The best way to communicate a design is a
drawing
Phase I - Feasibility Study
It is done to
• To demonstrate that the original need has current existence.
• To explore the design problem and identify elements like parameters,
constraints, major design criteria etc.
• To conceive a number of possible solutions.
• To sort out potentially useful solutions on the basis of physical reliability,
economic worthwhileness, and financial feasibility
Phase II - Preliminary Design
Establishes which the best design concept is. Various steps involved Preliminary design
are;
• To subject each alternative solution to order of magnitude analysis until one is proved
to be the best.
• To initiate synthesis studies for establishing the fineness of the range within which the
major design parameters must be controlled.
• To study how the design will meet consumer’s taste, how it will match with products of
competitors, whether scarce and critical raw materials will continue to be available, rate
of obsolescence.
• The rate of deterioration of performance with corrosion, wear fatigue, etc.
• To test the critical aspects of the design in order to validate the design concept and
provide information for subsequent phases.
Phase III-Detailed Design
The detailed design phase begins with the concept evolved in the preliminary design.
Its purpose is to furnish the engineering description of a tested and producible design.
It furnishes the engineering description of a feasible design.
Various steps of Detailed design are;
To develop an overall, provisional synthesis as a master layout.
To prepare specifications of components.
To initiate experimental design by constructing models to check out untried ideas.
To test prototypes and using information obtained as basis of redesign and
refinement.
Phase IV - Planning the Production Process
The above-mentioned three phases were particularly in the area of engineering design;
much of the responsibility for phase 4 will be shared with other areas of management.
A new battery of skills, those of tool design and production engineering, come into
play.
The production planning phase involves many steps which will vary in form and detail
according to the particular industry.
The following shortened list is typical of the mass production industries:
Detailed process planning is required for every part, subassembly and the final assembly. The
information is usually displayed on process sheets, one for each part of subassembly. The
process sheet contains a sequential list of operations which must be performed to produce the
part. It specifies the raw material, clarifies special instructions, and indicates the tools and
machines required. This step is particularly important, because design features that lead to
difficulties in production are revealed. Such difficulties should have been minimized earlier by
timely consultations between product designers and tool designers. Similarly, questions about
materials should have been resolved by consultation with metallurgists.
Design of tools and fixtures: This design work proceeds generally from the information
developed in the operations analysis on the process sheets.
3. Planning, specifying or designing new production and plant facilities.
4. Planning the quality control system
5. Planning for production personnel: Job-specifications are developed, standard times
are determined, and labour costs estimated.
6. Planning for production control: Work schedules and inventory controls are evolved.
Standard costs for labour, materials, and services are established and integrated with
the accounting system.
7. Planning the information-flow system: The information necessary for transmission
of instructions and provision of feedback for control is determined. Appropriate forms
and records are designed and integrated with computers when available. How patterns
and routines are established.
8. Financial planning: Usually, large sums of money are required to initiate production
of a new product. The source of the financing must be carefully established, and the
means and rate of recovering the capital determined.
Phase V - Planning for Distribution
Production is the first process in the production-consumption cycle. The second is
distribution. The purpose of this phase is to plan an effective and flexible system of
distribution of the designed goods. The short list we now give is indicative of the
planning for distribution.
Designing the packaging of the product
Planning the warehousing systems
Planning the promotional activity
Designing the product for conditions arising in distribution
Phase VI - Planning for Consumption
Consumption is the third process in the production-consumption cycle. As a process, it
occurs naturally after distribution. The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the
design, adequate service features and to provide a rational basis for product improvement
and redesign.
Design for consumption must consider the following factors:
Design for maintenance
Design for reliability
Design for safety
Design for convenience in use
Design for aesthetic features
Design for operational economy
Design for adequate duration of services
Obtain service data that can provide a basis for product improvement, for next
generation designs.
Phase VII - Planning for Retirement
The fourth process in the production-consumption cycle is the disposal of the retired
product. For large and semi-permanent installations, the mere removal may pose difficult
engineering problems, as for example, the demolition of a tall building closely surrounded
by buildings on either side. Sometimes, the impact on a new design is more immediate as
when an old structure or system must be replaced by a. new one with minimum disruption
of normal operations.
Designing for retirement, according to Asimow, must consider the following aspects:
Designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence by taking into account the anticipated
effects of technical developments.
Designing physical life to match anticipated service life.
Designing for several levels of use so that when service life at higher level of use is
terminated, the product will be adaptable for further use with a less demanding level.
Designing the product so that reusable materials and long-lived components can be
recovered.
Examining and testing of service-terminated products in the laboratory to obtain useful
design information.
PRIMARY DESIGN PHASES AND FLOWCHARTING—THE 25 STEPS Morris Asimow
the design philosopher, has proposed three phases of design: 1. Feasibility study
2. Preliminary design 3. Detailed design phase.
Phase I—Feasibility Study
Step 1: The need—Establishing its economic
existence.
Step 2: The design problem—Identification and
formulation.
Step 3: The synthesis of possible solutions.
Step 4: Physical realizability.
Step 5: Economic worthwhileness.
Step 6: Financial feasibility.
Step 1: The need—Establishing its economic existence
The starting point of a design project is a hypothetical need which may have been observed
currently on the socio-economic scene. It may be worded in the form of a primitive need
statement; or it may have been elaborated into a sophisticated and authenticated statement
based on market and consumer studies. The need may not yet exist, but there may be
evidence that it is latent, and that it may arise when economic means for its satisfaction
become available.
Knowledge about people, their habits and lifestyles and their behaviour in the
socioeconomic system, may be combined with specific information obtained by market
research to provide the information necessary for making a need analysis.
After performing the need analysis, a decision must be made about the validity of the
economic worthwhileness of the need. If it is favourable, the results of this step are
summarized in a set of specifications of desired outputs which the product or system must
be capable of producing in order to satisfy the need. As stated earlier, the need statement
should not immediately converge to suggest a single design but should be primitive or
general and encourage multiple solutions and idea generation.
Step 2: The design problem—Identification and formulation.
Design problem is formulated technically from the available information (from step 1)
regarding desired output, resources, general engineering principles, environment.
If the information is not sufficient or some information is overlooked, then the next
decisions will go wrong.
The question which must be asked before this step may be considered complete, is: Is the
resulting engineering statement of the problem sufficiently relevant and adequate to
start the design?
If the confidence level goes down, decision maker will demand rework until the necessary
level of confidence is restored.
Step 3: The synthesis of possible solutions.
Synthesis implies combining or bringing different ideas to produce a whole
product.
This requires innovative and creative effort.
Creativity is therefore an essential ingredient for product design. In the context of
design, we offer the following as a definition of creativity: “A talent for discovering
a combination of principles, materials or components, which are especially
suitable as solutions to the problem in hand”. For example, design systems that
may reduce the fatality of a car crash could be among others: (a) seat belt, (b)
collapsible steering rod, and (c) air cushion.
Step 4: Physical realizability.
The problem is whether it is possible to accomplish such a practical physical
embodiment, as is suggested by the concept. The designer can visualize the
elements and results of a new concept.
Step 5: Economic worthwhileness:
Products utility should be value to the money to producer, distributor &
consumer
Step 6: Financial feasibility.
Some projects are of great importance, but its very difficult for arrange for
resources of implementation.
The last three steps are like sieves. Through the first sieve only those solutions are
passed which are physically realizable; through the second, only those possessing
economic worthwhileness for producer, distributor and consumer; and through the
third, only those that are financially feasible. The set of useful solutions comprise
the ones passing successfully through each of the three sieves.
Phase II—The Preliminary Design
Step 1: Selection of the design concept.
Step 2: Formulation of mathematical model.
Step 3: Sensitivity analysis.
Step 4: Compatibility analysis.
Step 5: Stability analysis.
Step 6: Formal optimization.
Step 7: Projections into the future.
Step 8: Prediction of system behaviour.
Step 9: Testing the design concept.
Step 10: Simplification of design.
Phase II—The Preliminary Design
Step 1: Selection of the design concept.
In the set of useful solutions developed in the feasibility study, the most promising one must
be identified. The design concept is selected on the basis of utility. Factors such as
reliability, safety, cost, and user friendliness are given consideration and the design concept
with the highest point rating qualifies as the best concept.
Step 2: Formulation of mathematical model.
Formulate statement into mathematical equation , so that software can be utilized for
optimization.
Step 3: Sensitivity analysis
Input & output parameters are set in previous step of mathematical model.
Sensitivity analysis : how critically the parameters affect performance, so need to adjust.
Step 4: Compatibility analysis.
A system or a complicated device can be thought of as an object which is itself a
combination of objects on the next lower order of complexity. In the case of a complex
system such objects would be referred to as sub-systems.
Compatibility may involve straightforward considerations such as geometrical tolerance or
chemical tolerance. More difficult problems of compatibility arise when interacting co-
members must have matching operating characteristics, as when one member is in series
with another so that the outputs of one are the inputs of the other. One example of this
aspect of compatibility is electric motor and pump combination.
Step 5: Stability analysis.
Systems and devices that engineers design are often exposed to a dynamic
environment. For example, a building is apparently a stable and static structure, but
an earthquake may apply an impulsive displacement to the foundation, resulting in a
catastrophe.
A designer would like the systems he designs to have an inherent stability so that
uncommon perturbations in the environment or accidental large inputs or loads will
not cause catastrophic failures or malfunctions.
Step 6: Formal optimization
Optimizing values of design parameters
Step 7: Projections into the future.
We may now pose two main questions: the first is on the socioeconomic environment
that will exist when the product comes into actual use, and the second refers to the
race against technical obsolescence. The development period for a product should
not be so large that by the time it comes in the market, the competitor would have
launched a superior product. The other aspect of the future projections is the
expected useful ‘shelf life’ of the product.
Step 8: Prediction of system behaviour.
A system must function in an acceptable manner throughout a reasonable service life.
The desired outputs must be produced over a span of time as well as at the start when
the system is new.
Step 9: Testing the design concept.
Design concept can be tested through computer simulation.
Step 10: Simplification of design.
As a design moves through various steps, the original concept becomes more
complicated. The simple and the obvious are hard to achieve.
The detailed design to be discussed now onwards carries the overall design concept,
developed in its preliminary stage, to the final hardware.
To do so, the overall concept must be brought to a state of design that is clearly
physically realizable. This state is achieved by finally design a prototype from a full set
of design instructions, testing it and making the necessary revisions in both prototype
and design instructions until the system or device is satisfactory for production,
distribution and consumption.
Phase III—Detailed Design
Step 1: Preparation for design.
Step 2: Overall design of subsystems.
Step 3: Overall design of components.
Step 4: Detailed design of parts.
Step 5: Preparation of assembly drawings.
Step 6: Experimental construction.
Step 7: Product test program.
Step 8: Analysis and prediction
Step 9: Redesign.
Phase III—Detailed Design
Step 1: Preparations for design.
In order to go ahead we need budgetary approvals and a strong design team. The
commitment to proceed is not final because relatively close estimates of time and
money are needed, prior to the design. For practical reasons, it is only the top
management who, having the responsibility for the final economic success of the
project, can make the decision to suspend the project, or to approve the necessary
budgets. The art and science of estimation is very important.
Step 2: Overall design of subsystems.
In the preliminary design, we are concerned with the overall concepts; subsystems
are examined only to evaluate the quality of the overall system concept.
Subsequently, each subsystem must be looked at as an individual entity.
Compatibility of one subsystem with the other also needs to be verified. Finally, a
provisional master layout is prepared for each subsystem which translates the
results of the subsystem designs into drawings. These master layouts become the
basis for developing the design of the components.
Step 3: Overall design of components.
System comprises several subsystems, so the subsystems usually comprise a certain
number of components, which are developed in the same way as the subsystem.
Some of the components can even be purchased as complete assemblies of hardware. A set
of ball bearings is a typical example of broughtout items.
Master layout (drawing) for component design is basis for detailed design of parts.
Step 4: Detailed design of parts.
Parts are the elementary pieces from which components are assembled.
In the design of subsystems or components, a large number of questions about achieving
physical realization are allowed to go unanswered by considering that answers will come
when the actual parts are being designed.
When a part is being designed, no questions pertaining to its design may remain
unanswered; no ambiguities about its shape, its material, or its surface treatment should
interfere with the instructions for its manufacture. In this phase the idea merges into
physical reality.
Step 5: Preparation of assembly drawings.
After the constituent parts have been designed, the form of a component can be fixed.
Assembly drawing are produced.
Cases of incompatibility is revealed in this phase. The affected parts are suitably
modified.
After the component assemblies are prepared, the corresponding assembly drawings
for the subsystems can be drafted. Again, incompatibilities and misfits of various kinds
may be revealed, and these are corrected by the usual iterative process.
Step 6: Experimental construction
With the completed drawings at hand, the prototype shop can undertake to build the
first full-scale prototypes.
Step 7: Product test program.
The programs can be enormously expensive, and if improperly planned, yield insufficient
evidence for or against the design. Design of experiments provide a very effective method
of testing with low cost. In this method, the independent variables are changed between
their high limit and low limit. The effect of such change on the response variable (or the
main design objective) is determined.
Step 8: Analysis and prediction.
With the notes and records of the experimental construction and the data and other
general observations of the test program, preparation for revision or redesign can begin,
if necessary.
Step 9: Redesign.
The analysis and predications of performance leads to redesign.
If the experimental construction and the test program have not found the design
inadequate, the work of redesign may be just that of minor revision. If major flaws and
shortcomings have been exposed, then he work of redesign may reach major
proportions, and entirely new concepts may have to be sought for major components
and even for subsystems.
PRODUCTION–CONSUMPTION CYCLE
The production–consumption cycle, one of the
main features of the socio-ecological systems,
consists
of four processes:
1. Production
2. Distribution
3. Consumption
4. Recovery or disposal.
Production-consumption Cycle:
It is one of the most important things which features of socio-ecological systems.
So, to develop products we should try to have this social touch also to the
product. For example, for developing a product introduced into the market what social
impact
that is going to happen on to the product, on to the customer or to the society, it is also
what is the change is going to do in the
socio-ecological system.
For developing any product, today one should also make sure that what amount of
social changes it is going to bring in. So, developing a product which can kill 20,000
peoples job is no way acceptable, because a developing country needs to have products
wherein which they still have to involve the people around in the society.
Role of Allowance ,Process Capability,& Tolerance in
Detailed Design and Assembly
• Every manufacturing process is a combination of three elements man,
machine, material. Change in any one will result in change in sizes of
manufactured component.
• Therefore some permissible variation in dimension has to be allowed to
account for variability.
• Limits: Limits are the two extreme permissible sizes, between which the
actual size of the dimension may lie.
• Tolerance: The permissible variation in size or dimension is called
tolerance.(Job is allowed to go away from accuracy without causing
functional trouble)
Allowance
It is Prescribed difference between dimensions of two mating parts for
any type of fit.
It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of hole and higher
limit of shaft.
The allowance may be positive or negative.
FITS
• The degree of tightness and or looseness between the two
mating parts.
Three basic types of fits can be identified, depending on the
actual limits of the hole or shaft.
1. Clearance fit
2. Interference fit
3. Transition fit
Clearance fit
• Shaft is always smaller than hole.
• The largest permissible dia. of the shaft is smaller than the dia. of
the smallest hole.
• MML of shaft is smaller than MML of hole
• E.g.: Shaft rotating in a bush
Interference fit
• Minimum permissible diameter of shaft is larger than the maximum
allowable diameter of hole.
• LML for shaft is larger than LML for hole
• No gap between the faces and intersecting of material will occur.
• Shaft need additional force to fit into the hole, attached permanently and
used as a solid component.
• Ex: Dowel pin inserted in base plate
Clearance fit
Interference fit
Transition fit:
• Transition Fit lies midway between Clearance and
Interference fit.
• In this type of fit, the size limits of mating parts (SHAFT AND
hole ) are so selected that either clearance or interference
may occur depending upon actual sizes of parts.
Process Capability ( P)
A production process which is set up to produce a certain dimension ( D) of a part will
not be able to produce all parts to the set-up dimension. There will always be a few
oversized parts with dimension Dmax and a few undersized parts with dimension Dmin.
The difference between Dmax and Dmin is termed process capability. A precise
production process such as grinding will have a narrower band width (Dmax – Dmin) as
compared with a less precise production process such as, say, rough turning on lathe.
Referring to fig, a frequency distribution curve of machine cut parts follows a bellshaped
normal distribution curve.