II.

Protective Relay

Electromagnetic relays - operating principle - torque equation - relay characteristics - over

current relay, directional relay, distance relay, differential relay, negative sequence relay,
amplitude and phase comparator of over current static relays, duality between comparators.
Microprocessor based over current relay
2.1 Torque
• Operating torque or Driving torque(Td)
Driving torque created on the relay coil. When any fault occurred, the current through the
operating coil, crosses its pick up value, and hence the mmf of operating coil increases and
crosses its pick-up value.
• Restraining torque(Tr)
Provided with the help of springs
• Resultant torque(TR)
TR= Td-Tr When operating torque is greater than restraining torque, the relay operates

2.2 ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

• Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving parts due
to electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities.
• The mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part which closes
the contacts of the relay for its operation.
• The operation of the contact arrangement is used for relaying the operated condition
to the desired circuit in order to achieve the required function. Since the mechanical
force is generated due to the flow of an electric current, the term ‗electromechanical
relay‘ is used.
• Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic attraction or
electromagnetic induction principle for their operation. Such relays are called
electromagnetic relays.
• Depending on the principle of operation, the electromagnetic relays are of two types
– (i) attraction type relays, and
– (ii) induction relays.
2.2.1 (a) Attracted Armature type
• Respond to ac as well as dc.
• Laminated electromagnet carries a coil.
• The coil is energized by the operating quantity which is proportional circuit voltage or
current.

29
• The armature is subjected to the magnetic force produced by the operating quantity.
• The force produced is proportional square of current .
• The spring is used to produce restraining force.

Fig. 2.1 Hinged armature type relay

• Armature gets attracted, when current through the coil increases beyond the limit
under fault conditions.
• Due to this it makes contact with contacts of a trip circuit, which results in the
opening of circuit breaker.
2.2.1(b) Solenoid and Plunger type
• In this type of a relay, there is a solenoid and an iron plunger which moves in and
out of the solenoid to make and break the contact.

30
 Fig.2.2 Solenoid and Plunger type

• The movement of the plunger is controlled by a spring.

• Under fault condition, current through the relay coil increases, hence the solenoid
draws the
plunger upwards and closes the trip Circuit.

2.3Induction Relay
• Also called magnitude relay.
• Works on the principle of the induction motor or an energy meter.
• Metallic disc is allowed to rotate between two electromagnets.
• The coil of the electromagnets are energized with the help of alternating currents.
• The torque produced in the relay is due to the interaction of one alternating flux with
eddy currents induced in the rotor by another alternating flux.
• As the interaction of alternating quantity is the base of operation of the relay , these
are not used for d.c quantities.
Types of Induction Relay
– Watt hour meter type
– Induction cup type
– Shaded pole type

31
Torque equation for Induction Relay

32
33
2.3.1Watthour Meter Type Induction relay

Fig 2.3 Watthour meter type induction relay

• The construction of Watthour Meter Type Induction relay is similar to the
watthour meter which is very popularly used [Link] relay has double
winding structure.
• It consists of two magnets, one E shaped magnet and other U shaped magnet.
• The disc is free to rotate in between these two magnets.
• The upper E shaped magnet carries both primary winding which is relay coil and the
secondary winding.
• The primary carries the relay current I1 which produces the flux φ[Link] e.m.f gets
induced in the secondary due to this [Link] drives current I2 through secondary.
• Due to this current I2, flux φ2 gets produced in the lower [Link] flux lags
behind the main flux φ1 by an angle ∝.Due to the interaction of these two fluxes,
the torque is exerted on the disc and disc rotates.
• Assuming that the entire flux φ1 enters the disc from upper magnet and entire
Flux φ2 enters the disc from lower magnet, we can Write, T ∝ φ1 φ2 sin ∝
• In Watthour Meter Type Induction relay, the tapping can be provided on the
primary. With the help of this suitable number of primary turns can be selected and
hence current setting can be adjusted. Most of the induction relays are of this type.
• An important feature of Watthour Meter Type Induction relay is that its operation
can be controlled by opening or closing of the secondary winding. It is opened, no
current can flow through secondary hence flux φ2 cannot be produced and hence no
torque can be [Link] relay can be made inoperative opening the secondary
winding.

34
2.3.2 Induction Cup Type Relay

Fig. 2.4 Induction cup relay

• The currents and respective fluxes produced by the two pairs of coils are displaced
from each other by angle ∝.
• Thus the resultant flux in the air gap is [Link] rotating magnetic field is produced
by two pairs of coils. Due to this, eddy currents are induced in the cup type rotor.
• These currents produce the flux. The interaction of the two fluxes produce the torque
and the rotor rotates in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field.
• A control spring and the back stop carried on an arm attached to the spindle of the
cup, are responsible to prevent continuous rotation.
• Induction cup relay is very fast in [Link] operating time of the order of 10
milliseconds is possible with this type. This is because the rotor is light
having very low moment of (induction loop) inertia

2.3.3 Shaded Pole type induction relay

• It consists of an aluminium disc which is free to rotate in an air gap of an
electromagnet.

Fig. 2.5 Shaded pole type induction relay

35
 • The part of pole face of each pole is shaded with the help of copper band or ring. This
is called shading ring.
• The total flux φ produced due to the alternating current split into two fluxes displaced
in time and space due to the shading ring.
• Due to the alternating flux, e.m.f gets induced in the shading ring .This e.m.f drives
the currents causing the flux to exist in shaded [Link] flux lags behind the flux
in the unshaded portion by angle ∝.
T ∝ φs φu sin ∝
• Assuming fluxes φs and φu to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil we can
write, T ∝ I² sin ∝
• ∴ T = kI²

2.4 Non Directional Induction Type Over Current Relay

 Also called earth leakage induction type relay
 2 magnets – upper E and lower U
 Aluminium disc free rotate between 2 magnets
 Spindle of the disc- carries moving contact– get contact with fixed contact of trip
circuit.
 Upper magent – py & sy
 Py- connected to sy of CT
-wdg tapped at regular intervals
-tapping connected to plug setting bridge.
 Plug setting bridge- no. of turns of py wdg adjusted- thus desired current setting
obtained.
 7 section-50,75,100,125,150,175,200%

36
 Fig.2.6 Non directional over current relay

IDMT-Inverse definite min time

Fig. 2.7 Time current characteristics

37
2.5 Directional power relay
This Induction Type Directional Power Relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a
specific direction Unlike a non-directional overcurrent relay, a directional power relay is so
designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields derived from
both voltage and current source of the circuit it protects. Thus this type of relay is essentially
a wattmeter and the direction of the torque set up in the relay depends upon the direction of
the current relative to the voltage, with which it is associated.

38
 Fig.2.8 Directional power relay
Constructional details: Fig. 21.18 shows the essential parts of a typical induction type
directional power relay. It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the
poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential
coil) on the central limb which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the
circuit voltage source. The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil)
connected to the secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected. The current coil is provided
with a number of tappings connected to the plug-setting Midge (not shown for clarity). This
permits to have any desired current setting. The restraining torque is provided by a spiral
spring.
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts when the
disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. By adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving disc
can be adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can be given to the relay.

Operation: The flux Φ1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90° lagging
behind the applied voltage V. The flux Φ2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase
with the operating current I.
 [See vector diagram in Fig. 21.18 (ii)]. The interaction of fluxes Φ1 and Φ2 with the
eddy currents induced in the disc produces a driving torque given by :

39
It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the direction of power
flow in the circuit to which the relay is associated. When the power in the circuit flows in the
normal direction, the driving torque and the restraining torque (due to spring) help each other
to turn away the moving contact from the fixed contacts. Consequently, the relay remains
inoperative. However, the reversal of current in the circuit reverses the direction of
driving torque on the disc. When the reversed driving torque is large enough, the disc rotates
in the reverse direction and the moving contact closes the trip circuit. This causes the
operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.

2.6 Directional Induction Type Over current relay

Fig. 2.9 Directional induction type over current relay

 Directional power relay – not suitable for SC. Under SC, V reduced, therefore not
sufficient to produce the driving torque. Thus, directional Ind type relay is used
 Operated independent of Vsys and Cos
 Two relay element- Directional and non directional element
 Directional Element
 Operates when power in the ckt flows in a particular direction
 Voltage coil energised by Vsys of potential transformer

40
  I coil energised by Isys of CT
 Trip contact of this relay (1-1‘) connected in series with sy wdg of non directional
element
Non directional element
 I coil of directional element is connected in series with Py wdg of non directional
element.
 Plug setting bridge- to adjust I setting as per requirement.
 Trip contact 1-1‘ are in series with winding on lower magnet of non directional
element
 Until trip contacts 1-1‘ are closed by the movement of disc of directional element, the
non-directional element cannot operate.
• Operation
 Power flows in proper direction
 relay inoperative - contacts of directional element open- secondary of non
directional element are open
 Under SC condition- power reversal takes place
 I thro I coil of directional element – produce flux
 I thro V coil of directional element- produce flux
 Interaction of 2 flux cause torque , therefore 1-1‘ closed.
• Directional Characteristics
V = Relay voltage through PT
I= Relay coil current through CT
=Angle between V and I
Note : The system current is generally lagging the voltage but with suitable connection the
relay current is made to lead the voltage by an angle .
Due to this correct operation of relay at all types of faults under all system conditions is
ensured.
I lead V by ,
v lags V by angle 
1 is in phase with current I

41
 0
For maximum torque , + =90
0
Torques is zero, + =0 or 180

Fig.2.10 Directional characteristics

42
2.7 Differential Relay
• Difference in current > preset value- relay operates- CB open
• Normal condition – Two currents are equal in magnitude and phase, therefore relay is
inoperative.
• Fault condition- there is difference in current, relay operates
• Types :
– Current differential relay
– Biased beam relay or percentage differential relay
– Voltage balance differential relay

2.7.1 Current Differential Relay

 2CT of same CT ratio on either side of the section to be protected
 Sy of CT are connected in series, so carry current in same direction.
 I be external fault current
 Sy of CT carries same current
 Therefore no current flows thro operating coil. Hence relay inoperative

Fig.2.11 Current differential relay

43
  Internal fault
 Current flows thro fault from both sides
 Sy I of CT‘s are not equal.
 I thro operating coil is I1+I2.
 High current relay operates

Fig.2.12 Action of differential relay

2.7.2 Biased Beam Relay or Percentage Differential relay
• Operating coil O carries--- I2-I1
• Restraining coil R carries--- (I1+I2)/2
• N=[Link] turns of restraining coil
• I1 flows thro N/2 turns, I2 flows thro N/2 turns..
Therefore effective AT =(NI1+NI2)/2
= N(I1+I2)/2
• Under normal condition, Fres>Fop
• Under internal fault condition Fop> Fres

44
 Fig.2.13 Biased beam relay

Fig.2.14 Simple circuit of biased beam relay

45
2.7.3 Voltage balance differential relay

Fig. 2.15 Voltage balance differential relay

 Also called opposed voltage method
 Over current relay connected in series with sy of CT
 Under normal condition, current @ends of section are to be protected are same.
Therefore no voltage drop across the relay to cause the current to flow
 Under fault – I in two sy of CT are diff. This causes a large voltage drop across relay.
Thus the voltage balance of the ckt gets disturbed.
 Hence large current thro relay due to which the relay operate to open the CB.
2.8 Distance Relay
• Dependent on V/I ratio or Z
• Also called impedance relay or ratio relay
• Z--- is a measure of distance along a transmission line
• Relay operates when Fault impedance<predetermined value ( Zf<Zline)
• Three types
– Impedance relay
– Reactance relay
– Admittance or mho relay

46
2.8.1 Impedance relay
 Current element fed by CT
 Voltage element fed by PT
 I element– Top(+ve) or pickup torque
 V element- Tres(-ve) or reset torque
 Two element T  I, T  V
 AB – line to be protected
 Under normal condition
 V/I = ZL (impedance of the line)
 Relay inoperative
 Fault occurred @ F
 V decreases I increases
 V/I = Zf decreases
 Zf< ZL
 Trips the ckt

Fig.2.16 Principle of operation of impedance relay

• Universal torque equation is

T= K1I2+K2V2+K3VIcos(-)+K4

47
Restraining torque, operating torque, spring effect
For restraining and spring effect ----- negative

48
Operating characteristics of R-X diagram

Fig.2.17 Characteristics of impedance relay on R-X diagram

49
2..8.1.1 Directional impedance relay

Fig.2.18 Directional characteristics

50
2.8.2 Reactance relay
 Top– current
 Tres– I-V directional relay
 Induction cup type
 4 pole --- operating coil, polarising coil and restaining coil
 I flows from pole 1 to 3.
 Top– produced by interaction of fluxes due to pole 1,2,3 (operating and polarizing)
 Tres– due to pole 1,3,4 ( polarizing and restraining)
 TopI2
 Tres VI
 Desired max torque angle is obtained with help of RC circuit

Fig.2.19 Reactance relay

51
Torque equation

Fig.2.20 Impedance Triangle

52
 Fig.2.21 Operating characteristics of reactance relay
2.8.3 Mho relay or admittance relay
 Top– interaction of fluxes of pole 1,2,3(voltage & current element)
 Tres– interaction of fluxes of pole 1,3,4 (Voltage element)
 Tres V2
 Top VI
 Torque angle adjusted using series tuning circuit.

Fig.2.22 Mho relay

53
 •  = 45o, 60o,75o
• = 45o used for HV (33kV or 11kV distribution line)
• =60oused for 66kV or132kV
• =75o used for 275kV and 400kV line
Operating characteristics

Fig.2.23 Operating characteristics of mho relay

54
2.9 Classification distance relay
• 1) Definite Distance relay
• Can be Z, X,Y type
• Operates instantaneously for the faults upto certain predetermined distance.
• 2) Distance Time Relay
• Can be Z,X,Y type
• Time of operation  distance of fault from pt where relay installed.
• Fault nearer to relay –operates faster
• Fault far from relay– operates slower
2.9.1 Definite distance Type Impedance relay
 Balanced beam pivoted at central point
 Beam carries armature of two electromagnet
 Tres V2 Tres=k1V2
 TopI2 Top=k2I2
 Normal condition Tres>Top---relay inoperative
 @Fault - - Zf=V/I…. I increase … Zf decreases… Zf<ZL…..Top> Tres …Therefore
Beam experience a pull on I coil side…closes the trip ckt…CB open

Fig.2.24 Definite distance Type Impedance relay

55
 III. Apparatus Protection

Protection of Generator- stator & rotor protection - Large Motor protection. Transformer
protection - Bus bar Protection - Transmission line protection

3.1 Rotating Machine Protection

• Rotating machines include synchronous generators, synchronous motors, synchronous
condensers and induction motors.
• The protection scheme for any machine is influenced by the size of the machine and
its importance in the system.
• The failures involving short circuits are usually detected by some type of overcurrent
or differential relay.
• Electromechanical, static or microprocessor-based relays can be used stand-alone or
in combination with one another to achieve the desired degree of security and
dependability.

3.2 GENERATOR PROTECTION

• Stator faults
faults associated with 3 ph winding of generator.(insulation failure)
– phase to earth
• Occur in armature slots
• Faults are dangerous and cause severe damage to expensive machine.
• Fault current<20A– less burning of core
• High fault current– severe burning of core. (Earth fault protection
required)
– Phase to phase
• SC between to phase winding
• This is uncommon because insulation used between the coils of
different phases in a slot is large.
• Phase-earth fault occurs ------ overheating takes place----- phase to
phase fault occurs (occurs at the end connections of the armature
winding which are overheating parts outside the slots)
• This fault causes sever arching with high temperature. This may lead to
melting of copper and fire the insulation.

76
 – Inter turn faults
• Coils used in alternators are multi turn coils
• SC between the turns of one coil may occur which is called inter turn
fault.
• This fault is due to current surges with high value of Ldi/dt voltage
across the turns.
• Rotor faults
– Rotor--- field winding
• SC between the turns of winding
• conductor to earth fault
– Above faults due to severe mechanical and thermal stresses acting on field
winding insulation
• Abnormal running conditions
Following are the some of the abnormal conditions
• Overloading
– Overloaded– overheating of stator—increases winding temp—insulation
fails(over current protection)
• Over speeding
– Hydraulic generators –loss of load—over speeding.
– This is because water flow cannot be stopped instantly.
– Turbo governor is provided to prevent over speeding
• Unbalanced Loading
– Circulation of negative sequence currents.
• Overvoltage
– This is due to…
• over speeding of generator
• Faulty operation of voltage regulator
• Atmospheric surge voltage caused by direct lightning stroke.( this
voltage is transferred to the generator . Thus to protect generator, surge
arrester or surge capacitors are used)
• Failure of prime mover
– This results in motoring operation of synchronous generator

77
 – Generator draws active power from the network and continues to run at
synchronous speed as a synchronous motor.
– This leads to dangerous mechanical conditions if allowed to persists for more
than 20secs(directional power relay)
• Loss of excitation
– Opening of field wdg
– SC in field
– Fault in exciter system
Should not persist long--- disconnection of alternator
• Cooling system failure

3.2.1 Merz-Price Protection of Stator Windings(Star connected)

This is most commonly used protection scheme for the alternator stator windings. The
scheme is also called biased differential protection and percentage differential protection. The
figure below shows a schematic arrangement of Merz-Price protection scheme for a star
connected alternator.
The differential relay gives protection against short circuit fault in the stator winding of a
generator. When the neutral point of the windings is available then, the C.T.s may be
connected in star on both the phase outgoing side and the neutral earth side, as shown in the
above figure. But, if the neutral point is not available, then the phase side CTs are connected
in a residual connection, so that it can be made suitable for comparing the current with the
generator ground point CT secondary current. The restraining coils are energized from the
secondary connection of C.T.s in each phase, through pilot wires. The operating coils are
energized by the tappings from restraining coils and the C.T. neutral earthing connection.

78
 Fig. 3.1 Merz-Price Protection of Stator Windings (Star connected)

The similar arrangement is used for the delta connected alternator stator winding, as
shown below.

Fig. 3.2 Merz-Price Protection of Stator Windings (Delta connected)

79
This scheme provides very fast protection to the stator winding against phase to phase faults
and phase to ground faults. If the neutral is not grounded or grounded through resistance, then
additional sensitive earth fault relay should be provided.
The advantages of this scheme are,
 Very high speed operation with operating time of about 15 msec.
 It allows low fault setting which ensures maximum protection of machine windings.
 It ensures complete stability under most severe through and external faults.
 It does not require current transformers with air gaps or special balancing features.

3.2.2 Restricted Earth Fault Protection

Merz price is used for internal faults. Restricted earth fault protection is required for large
generators which are costly.
• For solidly grounded,
– the generator gets completely protected against earth faults.
• But when neutral is grounded through resistance,
– then stator winding gets partly protected against the earth faults.

80
 Fig. 3.3 Restricted Earth fault relay
• The percentage of winding protected depends on the value of earth resistance and
relay setting.
• Earth faults are rare near the neutral point as the voltage of neutral point with respect
to earth is very less.
• But when earth occurs near neutral point insufficient voltage across the fault drives
very low fault current than the pick up current of the relay coil. Hence relay coil is
inoperative.
• Thus 15% to 20% of the winding from the neutral side is unprotected. Hence called
restricted earth fault relay.
• Fault occurs on phase B- breakdown of insulation to earth
• Fault current If flows thro- core, frame of machine to earth and earth resistance.
• CT secondary current Is flows thro the operating coil and restricted earth fault relay
coil of the differential protection.
• As the current Is flows, the relay operates to trip the CB. The voltage Vbx is sufficient
to drive the enough fault current If when the fault point is x is away from the neutral
point.

81
 • If the fault point x is nearer to the neutral point then the voltage Vbx is small and not
sufficient to drive enough fault current If. Thus relay does not operate and part of the
winding from the neutral point is unprotected.

3.2.3Unrestricted Earth Fault Protection

The unrestricted earth fault protection is used to protect the alternator winding from internal
earth fault. It uses a residual connected earth fault relay. Unrestricted earth fault relay consists
of three Current Transformer one in each phase. The primary of the current transformer is
considered as line. The earth fault relay is connected across the secondary’s which carries a
residual current.

Fig.3.4 Unrestricted Earth Fault Protection

Principle of Unrestricted earth fault relay:
The vector sum of three-line current is equal to zero under normal condition. If the fault
occurs in the generator, the relay reads the unbalance current in the system.
Under normal conditions the vector sum of the all current Īrs+ Īys + Ībs = 0. The earth fault
relay is connected in such a way that the residual current flows through the relay operating
coil. Under normal condition, residual current is zero so relay does not carry any current and
is inoperative. However, in presence of earth fault condition, the balance gets disturbed and
the residual current IRs is no more zero. If this current is more than the pickup value of the
earth fault relay, the relay operates and opens the circuit breaker through tripping of the trip
circuit. In the scheme shown in the figure, the earth fault at any location near or away from
the location of C.T.s can cause the residual current. Hence the protected zone is not definite.
Such a scheme is hence called unrestricted earth fault protection.

3.2.4 Balanced Earth Fault Protection

The balanced earth fault protection scheme is mainly used for protection of small generator
where differential and self-balanced protection systems are not applicable. In a small

82
generator, the neutral end of the three phase windings is connected internally to a single
terminal. So the neutral end is not available, and protection against earth fault is provided by
using the balanced earth protection scheme. Such scheme does not provide protection against
phase-to-phase fault until and unless they develop into earth faults.

Connection of Balanced Earth Fault Protection Scheme

In this scheme, the current transformers are mounted on each phase. Their secondary is
connected in parallel with that of CT mounted on a conductor joining the star point of the
generator to earth. A relay is connected across the secondaries of the CTs.

The balanced protection schemes provide protection against earth fault in the limited region
between the neutral and line CTs (current transformers). It provides protection against the
stator winding of the earth fault in the stator and does not operate in case of an external earth
fault. This scheme is also called restricted earth fault protection scheme. Such type of
protection is provided in the large generator as an additional protection scheme.

Fig. 3.5 Balanced earth fault protection

Working of Balanced Earth Fault Protection Scheme

When the generator is in a normal operating condition the sum of the currents flow in the
secondary of the current transformers is zero and the current flow into secondary to neutral is
also zero. Thus the relay remains de-energized. When the fault occurs in the protected zone
(left of the line) the fault current flow through the primary of current transformers and the
corresponding secondary current flow through the relay which trips the circuit [Link]
the fault develops external of the protective zone (right of the current transformer) the sum of
the currents at the terminal of the generator is exactly equal to the current in the neutral

83
connection. Hence, no current flows through the relay operating coil.

3.2.6 100 % Earth Fault Protection

• Maximum protection achieved by other schemes is up to 85% to 90%.

• 100% earth fault protection to the stator of the generator.

• It uses a coupling transformer and coded signal current.

Fig.3.6 100% Earth fault protection

• A coupling transformer is connected between the earth and the earthing resistance R
in neutral to ground circuit.

• Primary of coupling transformer is excited by coded signal current source.

• This coded signal current has a frequency of 12.5Hz.

• This current is continuously injected into a generator stator winding through the
secondary of the coupling transformer.

• Under normal condition

– Signal current injected into stator flows through stray capacitance of the
generator and directly connected system.

• During fault condition

– Stay capacitance is bypassed which increases the monitoring current.

84
 – This current is measured and corrective action is taken

• This scheme gives protection of 15% to 20% of stator winding from neutral side
which is unprotected by Merz- Price protection.

• The remaining portion is protected by Merz-Price protection.

• Thus overall 100% stator windings gets protected against earth faults.

3.2.7 Stator Interturn Protection

• Merz price protection system gives protection against phase- phase faults and earth
faults. It does not give protection for interturn faults.
• Interturn fault is short circuit between the turns of the same phase winding.

Fig.3.7 Stator inter turn fault protection

• Thus the current produced due to such fault is a local circuit current and it does not
affect the currents entering and leaving the winding at the two ends, where CT are
located. Hence Merz Price protection cannot give protection against interturn faults.
• In single turn generator – No interturn fault.
• Multi turn generator- interturn fault exist.
• Each winding is divided into two halves, due to the heavy currents which they have
to carry.

85
 • This splitting of single phase winding into two is advantageous in providing interturn
fault protection to such hydroelectric generators.
• The scheme uses cross differential principle.
• Each phase of the generator is doubly wound and split into two phases S1 and S2.
• The current transformers are connected in parallel paths of the each winding.
• The secondaries of the CT are cross connected.
• Under Normal Condition
– Current in two parallel paths S1 and S2 are equal
– Hence current in secondaries of CT are equal
– Secondary current flows round the loop and its same at all points.
– Hence no current through the relay and relay is inoperative.
• Under fault condition
– If short circuit is developed between the adjacent turns of S1 winding, then
current thro S1 and S2 are no longer same.
– Thus unequal currents will be induced in the secondaries of the CT.
– The difference of these currents flows through the relay. Hence relay operated
and CB made open.
• This scheme is applied to Generator having Doubly wound armature.

3.2.8 Generator Rotor Earth Fault Protection

The rotor of an alternator is wound by field winding. Any single earth fault occurring on the
field winding or in the exciter circuit is not a big problem for the machine. But if more than
one earth fault occur, there may be a chance of short circuiting between the faulty points on
the winding. This short circuited portion of the winding may cause unbalance magnetic field
and subsequently mechanical damage may occur in the bearing of the machine due to
unbalanced rotation.

86
 Fig. 3.8 Rotor earth fault protection
Hence it is always essential to detect the earth fault occurred on the rotor field winding circuit
and to rectify it for normal operation of the machine. There are various methods available for
detecting rotor earth fault of alternator or generator. But basic principle of all the methods is
same and that is closing a relay circuit through the earth fault path.
AC Injection Method
Here, one voltage sensitive relay is connected at any point of the field and exciter circuit.
Other terminal of the voltage sensitive relay is connected to the ground by a capacitor and
secondary of one auxiliary transformer.
Here, if any earth fault occurs in the field winding or in the exciter circuit, the relay circuit
gets closed via earthed path and hence secondary voltage of the auxiliary transformer will
appear across the voltage sensitive relay and the relay will be operated.
The main disadvantage of this system is, there would always be a chance of leakage current
through the capacitors to the exciter and field circuit. This may cause unbalancing in
magnetic field and hence mechanical stresses in the machine bearings
Another disadvantage of this scheme is that as there is different source of voltage for
operation of the relay, thus the protection of rotor is inactive when there is a failure of supply
in the AC circuit of the scheme.
DC Injection Method
The drawback of leakage current of AC injection method can be eliminated in DC Injection
Method. Here, one terminal of DC voltage sensitive relay is connected with positive terminal
of the exciter and another terminal of the relay is connected with the negative terminal of an
external DC source. The external DC source is obtained by an auxiliary transformer with
bridge rectifier. Here the positive terminal of bridge rectifier is grounded.
It is also seen from the figure below that at the event of any field earth fault or exciter earth
fault, the positive potential of the external DC source will appear to the terminal of the relay
which was connected to the positive terminal of the exciter. In this way the rectifier output
voltage appears across the voltage relay and hence it is operated.

87
3.3 Induction Motor Protection
• Abnormal Condition
– Over loading- draws more current- temp rise- winding damage
– Rotor is locked – due to excessive load- damage winding
– Loss of supply voltage
– unbalanced supply voltage – excessive heating
– under voltage – motor draws more current for same load,
– over voltage , under frequency,
– phase sequence reversal of supply voltage – motor runs in other direction than
the normal direction ( dangerous in case of cranes, elevators)
– Single phasing – blowing of fuse in any phase (Unbalanced current)

Table 3.1 Induction motor protection for different abnormal conditions

3.3.1 Protection circuit for IM

88
A DOL starter (or Direct On Line starter or across the line starter) is a method of starting of a
3 phase induction motor. In DOL Starter an induction motor is connected directly across its
3-phase supply, and the DOL starter applies the full line voltage to the motor terminals.
Despite this direct connection, no harm is done to the motor. A DOL motor starter contains
protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. A wiring diagram of a DOL
starter is shown below:

Fig. 3.9 Protection Circuit for Induction motor

Since the DOL starter connects the motor directly to the main supply line, the motor draws a
very high inrush current compared to the full load current of the motor (up to 5-8 times
higher). The value of this large current decreases as the motor reaches its rated speed.
A direct on line starter can only be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause
an excessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. If a high voltage drop needs to be avoided, a
star delta starter should be used instead. Direct on line starters are commonly used to start
small motors, especially 3 phase squirrel cage induction motors.

As we know, the equation for armature current in the motor. The value of
back emf (E) depends upon speed (N), i.e. E is directly proportional to N.
At starting, the value of E is zero. So starting current is very high. In a small rating motor, the
rotor has more considerable axial length and small diameter. So it gets accelerated fastly.
Hence, speed increases and thus the value of armature current decreases rapidly. Therefore,
small rating motors smoothly run when it is connected directly to a 3-phase supply. If we
connect a large motor directly across 3-phase line, it would not run smoothly and will be
damaged, because it does not get accelerated as fast as a smaller motor since it has short axial

89
length and larger diameter more massive rotor. However, for large rated motors, we can use
an oil immersed DOL starter.

3.3.2 Single Phasing Preventer

• Single phasing is nothing but a motor runs when one of the supply is disconnected
due to open circuit or improper contact in switch or other electrical equipment failure.
• Single phase preventer is used to protect the induction motor from single phasing
fault.
• Single phasing is a very dangerous fault - Which damages the motor stator winding
rapidly.
• Normally, the motor runs with the three phase supply - which takes balance current in
each phase winding.
• Consider one of the fuse has blown. But the motor still in a rotating position which
tries to rotates at the same speed.
• At that same time, the absence phase current will be shifted to the remaining
live phases. Therefore, the current in the other phases increases up to 3 times its
normal value instantly. This is called a single phasing fault.
• The single phasing leads to an unbalanced current in the motor stator. The component
which is present in this unbalanced current called
– negative sequence component.
Three current transformer is placed in each phase of the power supply. The output of the
current transformer is given to the negative sequence filter circuit and which senses the
magnitude of unbalance.
The filter circuit will be connected to the control circuit. The control circuit sends the trip
command to the circuit breaker if the negative sequence current exceeds the preset value. If
the failure of single-phase the unbalance current flow in the motor and the current will be
sensed by the negative sequence filter.

90
 Fig. 3.10 Single phasing preventer
3.3.3 Ground Fault Protection
• Ground fault protection is achieved through Earth leakage circuit breaker(ELCB).
• When the fault current or leakage current flows through the earth return path then it
forms earth fault.

Fig. 3.11 Ground fault protection of IM

• ELCB can operate in 25ms when current exceeds the preset value.

91
 • ELCB consists of a small current transformer connected between a live and neutral
wire.
• The secondary winding of CT is connected to relay circuit which can trip the CB.
• Under normal condition
– Current in line and neutral are the same
– Net current IL-IN through the core of CT is zero.
– Hence no flux in core, no emf. So breaker does not trip.
• During fault condition
– Net current through the core will no longer remains zero.
– Hence flux produced and emf induced in CT. Therefore relay is operated to
trip the CB.
3.3.4 Phase Fault Protection

Fig. 3.12 Phase fault protection of IM

• Phase fault protection is nothing but an attracted armature type relay unit is connected
in each phase .
• This protection is also called short circuit protection.
• The current transformer sense the motor current as well the short circuit current.
• At the time of a fault (short circuit between the phases), the current increases by 5 to
10 times the full load current of the motor.

92
 • Due to this phase to phase faults can cause burn out of coils and stampings and hence
motor should be disconnected as quickly as possible when fault occurs.
• The high speed tripping over current relays are used to provide phase fault protection.
• To avoid relay functioning during starting, the short circuit protection current
setting must be just above the maximum starting current of the motor.

3.4 Transformer Protection

3.4.1 Possible Transformer Faults
• Overheating
– Higher loads – permissible for less time
– Prolonged overloading- overheating of transformer, failure of cooling
system
– Thermal overload relay, temperature relay, sounding alarms are used.
– Thermocouples used near winding
• Winding Faults
– Phase to phase fault
– Earth fault
– Interturn fault
– Overheating or mechanical shocks- deteriorate the winding insulation- in such
case SC between phases or between phase and ground or SC between the
adjacent turns of same winding exist ------ transformer quickly disconnected –
otherwise oil fires.
– > MVA- Differential protection
– < MVA- Over current protection
– High capacity transformer – differential as main protection and over current
as back up protection
– For earth fault protection – restricted earth fault protection, neutral current
relays or leakage to frame protection is used.
• Open circuits
– Open circuit in one of the three phases causes overheating of the transformer.
– Harmless, therefore manually disconnected.
• Through Faults
– It is the external fault which occur outside the protected zone.

93
 – Through faults are not detected by differential protection
– Through faults persists for long time can cause thermal and mechanical stress
on the transformer.
– Overcurrent relay, zero sequence protection and negative sequence protection
are used for through faults
– Overcurrent protection not only protects transformer, it covers busbar and
portion of transmission line
• Overfluxing
– Flux density (B) in the transformer core is proportional to the ratio of the
voltage to frequency(V/f)
– In transformer over fluxing is the dangerous situation in which magnetic flux
density increases to extremely high level.
– The high flux density increases core loss which may lead to overheating of
components which in turn may result into internal fault. (Ph B1.6, Pe B2)
– Volts/Hz relay is used
• Other Faults
– Tap changer fault
– High voltage surge due to lightning and switching
– Incipient fault ( Slow developing fault) { Buchholz relay is used- oil immersed
transformer)

3.4.2 Important points to be considered while considering differential protection for

power transformers
1. In Power transformer, voltage rating of two transformer are different.
– HV winding is low current winding,LV winding is high current winding
– Thus there always exists a difference in current on py and sy sides of power
transformer. If CT of same ratio used in both sides, then relay get operated
even though there is no fault.
– To compensate this, CT of different current ratio is used on both sides.
– If K is the turns ratio of power transformer, then CT on LV side= K * CT on
HV side

2. Phase difference in voltage of HV and LV side

 Phase difference in line current of PY and SY sides of power transformer.

94
  This introduces phase difference of current in CT secondary on both sides of a
power transformer.
 Though turns ratio of CT are selected to compensate the turns ratio of power
transformer, a differential current exists due to phase difference.
 Such differential current may operate relay without fault.
 To compensate this, secondaries of CT s on star connected side of power
transformer are connected in delta while secondaries of CT s on delta
connected side of power transformer are connected in star

3.4.3 Percentage Differential Protection for Transformer

Table 3.2 Percentage Differential Protection for Transformer

3.5 Different Methods of Transformer Protection

3.5.1 Merz-Price Protection for Star Delta Transformer

95
 Fig. 3.13 Merz-Price Protection for Star Delta Transformer

• Power transformer –star / delta

• CT secondaries – Delta/star for the phase displacement.
• Star point of power transformer and CT are grounded
• Restraining coil connected across the CT secondary winding
• Operating coil connected between tapping points of restraining coil and star point of
CT secondaries.
• Under normal condition
– With proper selection of turns ratio of CT , the coils are under balanced
condition during normal operating conditions. CT carry equal current which
are in phase under normal conditions. So no current flows through the relay
and relay is inoperative.
• With internal fault in power transformer winding
– Balance in the CTs get disturbed.
– The operating coil carry difference of current between two sides of power
transformer

96
 – Thus relay operates
• This relay operates for interturn fault too.
– Turns ratio of PT get affected
– Due to this currents on both sides of Power Transformer become unbalanced.
Thus current flows through the operating coil and relay get operated.
Merz price protection for star star transformer is shown in fig.

Fig.3.14 Merz-Price Protection for Star Star Transformer

3.5.2Frame Leakage Protection
Frame leakage protection is generally employed in transformer protection. It is nothing but
the method of providing an earth fault protection to the transformer.
Here as you can see in the above figure metal-clad switchgear is lightly insulated from earth.

The frame of the switchgear is grounded. This is done through primary of the current
transformer which is connected in between.

97
 Fig. 3.15 Frame Leakage Protection Scheme For Transformer

The foundation of switchgear is of concrete and all other equipment are lightly insulated from
the ground. The resistance of this equipment to the earth is about 12ohm.
Now let us talk about the faulty condition. So when there is an earth fault, Then fault current
leaks from the frame to the earth connection which is provided. Thus the primary of the
Current transformer senses the current due to which current passes through the sensitive earth
fault relay. Due to this, the relay operates.
Such protection is provided only for small transformers. While for large rating transformer
the differential protection is enough.
Hence the purpose of frame leakage protection becomes extremely more important because
of this it may happen that when any operator goes near the transformer frame and by mistake,
he touches the frame then due to the leakage current he may experience electrical shock. Due
to that severe electrical shock, there can hugely damage to the particular person’s body.
Hence to ensure the protection against these the frame leakage protection scheme is
implemented.

3.5.3 Basic arrangement of Buchholz Relay

• Buchholz relay is gas operated relay.
• Used for protection of oil immersed transformers against all types of internal faults
– insulation failure of turns, breakdown of core or excess core heating, the fault
is accompanied by production of excess heat.
• Slow developing faults called incipient faults in the transformer tank below oil level
operate Buchholz relay which gives alarm.
• If the faults are severe it disconnects the transformer from supply.

98
 • Fault – oil in tank- decomposes- generates gas(Hydrocarbon , CO2 and CO)
• 70% gas – Hydrogen – light- rises upwards towards conservator through the pipe.
• Gas collected in upper portion of Buchholz relay- relay operates-gives an alarm

Fig.3.16 Basic arrangement of Buchholz relay

Construction of Buchholz Relay

Fig. 3.17 Buchholz relay

• Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber.
• There are two hinged floats, one at the top and other at the bottom in the chamber.
• Each float is accompanied by a mercury switch.

99
• The mercury switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm circuit and that on the
lower float is connected to an external trip breaker.
• During Minor Faults
• Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault
currents.
• The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles are
produced.
• These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the buchholz relay.
The collected gas displaces the oil in buchholz relay
• The displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch
which is connected to an alarm circuit.
• Hence, when minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets activated.
• The collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred. During minor
faults the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during
minor faults, the lower float is unaffected.
• Sometime due to oil leakage on the main tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the
upper part of buchholz container which may also cause fall of oil level in it and alarm
circuit is energized.
• Inorder avoid this, gas is collected in the gas release path and tested.
• The presence of; (a) C2H2 and H2 shows arcing in oil between constructional parts; (b)
C2H2, CH4 and H2 shows arcing with some deterioration of phenolic insulation, e.g.
fault in tap changer; (c) CH4, C2H4 and H2 indicates hot spot in core joints; (d) C2H4,
C3H6, H2 and CO2 shows a hot spot in the winding.
• During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a
large amount of gas is produced.
• This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards, but its motion is high enough
to tilt the lower float in the buccholz relay.
• In this case, the lower float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the
transformer from the supply, i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.
• Advantages Of Buchholz Relay
• Buchholz relay indicates the internal faults due to heating and it helps in avoiding the
major faults.
• Severity of the fault can be determined without even dismantling the transformer.
• If a major fault occurs, the transformer can be isolated with the help of buchholz relay
to prevent accidents.
• Limitations
- Can be used only for oil immersed transformers having conservator tanks.
- Relay is slow to operate having minimum operating time of 0.1sec and average time
of 0.2sec.
100