 Keeps planets in orbit around the sun.

Gravitation – Class 9 Notes (Extra Deep &  Holds moon around Earth.
 Causes free fall of objects.
Easy)  Responsible for tides in seas and oceans.
 Gives us weight (force with which Earth attracts us).

1. Introduction to Gravitation
4. Free Fall
 Gravitation: A natural phenomenon by which all objects in the universe attract each
other.  When an object falls only under the influence of gravity (no air resistance), it is in free
 Discovered by: Sir Isaac Newton (inspired by an apple falling from a tree). fall.
 Gravitation acts everywhere in the universe: between planets, stars, galaxies, and also  During free fall, the object experiences a uniform acceleration called acceleration due to
between us and the Earth. gravity (ggg).

Example: Earth attracts the moon → causes tides.

Sun attracts planets → keeps them in orbit.
5. Acceleration due to Gravity (g)
 Derivation:
2. Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation From Newton’s law,

 States: Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force that is F=GMmR2F = G \frac{M m}{R^2}F=GR2Mm
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them. But force = mass × acceleration

Formula: F=mgF = m gF=mg

F=Gm1m2r2F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}F=Gr2m1m2 Equating:

Where: mg=GMmR2mg = G \frac{M m}{R^2}mg=GR2Mm g=GMR2g = G \frac{M}{R^2}g=GR2M

 FFF = gravitational force Where:

 m1,m2m_1, m_2m1,m2 = masses of the two objects
 rrr = distance between their centers  MMM = mass of Earth (5.97×1024 kg5.97 \times 10^{24} \, kg5.97×1024kg)
 GGG = gravitational constant  RRR = radius of Earth (6.37×106 m6.37 \times 10^6 \, m6.37×106m)
 Value of ggg on Earth = 9.8 m/s²
Value of G: 6.67×10−11 Nm2/kg26.67 \times 10^{-11} \,
\text{Nm}^2/\text{kg}^26.67×10−11Nm2/kg2 Note: ggg does not depend on the mass of the falling object → All objects fall with the same
acceleration in vacuum.
Important Point: GGG is a universal constant, same everywhere in the universe.

6. Mass vs Weight
3. Importance of Gravitation

 Mass (m): Amount of matter in a body.

o Constant everywhere.
o SI unit: kg
 Weight (W): Force with which Earth attracts a body.
9. Pressure in Fluids
o Formula:
 Fluids (liquids & gases) exert pressure in all directions.
 Pressure in fluid increases with depth.
W=mgW = m gW=mg
P=hρgP = h \rho gP=hρg
o Varies with gravity (less on Moon, more on Jupiter).
o SI unit: Newton (N)
Where:
On Moon: gmoon=16gearthg_{moon} = \frac{1}{6} g_{earth}gmoon=61gearth → Weight
 hhh = height of liquid column
on Moon = 16\frac{1}{6}61 of weight on Earth.
 ρ\rhoρ = density of liquid
 ggg = acceleration due to gravity

7. Motion of Objects under Gravity

 Equations of motion also apply for free-falling bodies by replacing aaa with ggg:
10. Buoyancy & Archimedes’ Principle
1. v=u+gtv = u + g tv=u+gt
 Buoyancy: Upward force exerted by liquid on a body immersed in it.
2. s=ut+12gt2s = ut + \frac{1}{2} g t^2s=ut+21gt2
 Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is immersed in fluid, it experiences a loss in
3. v2−u2=2gsv^2 - u^2 = 2 g sv2−u2=2gs
weight equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
Where:
Applications:
 uuu = initial velocity
 Designing ships & submarines.
 vvv = final velocity
 Hydrometers (measuring liquid density).
 ttt = time
 Explains floating of bodies.
 sss = distance fallen

8. Thrust & Pressure 11. Density & Relative Density

 Density:
 Thrust: Force applied on a surface perpendicular to it.
 Pressure: Force per unit area.
ρ=MassVolume\rho = \frac{Mass}{Volume}ρ=VolumeMass
P=FAP = \frac{F}{A}P=AF
SI unit: kg/m³
 Units:
 Relative Density: Ratio of density of substance to density of water.
o Thrust: Newton (N)
o Pressure: Pascal (Pa = N/m²)
RD=ρsubstanceρwaterRD = \frac{\rho_{substance}}{\rho_{water}}RD=ρwater
ρsubstance
Pressure increases if force increases or area decreases.
Example: Sharp knife cuts better (small area → high pressure).
(No unit, it is a pure ratio).
  Effects of force:
o Can change the speed of a body.
o Can change the direction of motion.
12. Key Differences Table o Can change the shape of a body.

Concept Mass Weight

Definition Amount of matter Force due to gravity
SI Unit kg Newton (N)
3. Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
Constant/Variable Constant Changes with gravity
Can be zero? Never Zero in space  Balanced Forces: Equal forces acting in opposite directions on a body.
o No change in state of motion.
o Example: Book lying on a table (gravity downward = normal reaction upward).
 Unbalanced Forces: Net force ≠ 0.
Quick Recap (For Fast Revision) o Causes change in state of rest/motion.
o Example: Pushing a ball → it moves.
1. Gravitational force → universal, attractive, given by F=Gm1m2r2F = G \frac{m_1
m_2}{r^2}F=Gr2m1m2.
2. g=9.8m/s2g = 9.8 m/s^2g=9.8m/s2 on Earth, same for all bodies in vacuum.
3. Weight = mgmgmg, mass is constant but weight changes.
4. Pressure in fluids = hρgh \rho ghρg.
4. Newton’s Laws of Motion
5. Archimedes’ principle → buoyant force = weight of displaced liquid.
⚡First Law (Law of Inertia)
6. Relative density = ratio of density of substance to water.
 “An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
Class 9 Science – Laws of Motion (Full compelled to change its state by an external unbalanced force.”

Notes) Meaning:

 If no net force acts, a body continues doing what it was doing (rest or uniform motion).
 Inertia = tendency of a body to resist change in its state of motion.

1. Introduction Types of Inertia:

 Motion = change in position of an object with time. 1. Inertia of Rest → Body resists change from rest. (Example: Passenger jerks forward
 To understand why objects move or stop moving, we study the laws of motion given by when bus starts suddenly).
Sir Isaac Newton. 2. Inertia of Motion → Body resists change from motion. (Example: Passenger jerks
 These laws form the foundation of mechanics. backward when bus stops suddenly).
3. Inertia of Direction → Body resists change in direction. (Example: Mud splashes
tangentially when a wheel spins fast).

2. Force
⚡Second Law (Law of Force and Acceleration)
 Force: A push or pull acting on a body that changes (or tends to change) its state of rest
or motion.  “The rate of change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the applied
 Force has magnitude and direction → it is a vector quantity. unbalanced force and takes place in the direction of force.”

Formula: (b) Momentum

F=dpdt=m⋅aF = \frac{dp}{dt} = m \cdot aF=dtdp=m⋅a  Defined as:

Where: p=mvp = m vp=mv

 FFF = force Where:

 ppp = momentum = mvm vmv
 aaa = acceleration  ppp = momentum
 mmm = mass of body
This law gives the definition of force.  vvv = velocity
 Vector quantity.
Example:  SI unit: kg·m/s.
 Greater momentum → harder to stop the body.
 Kicking a football vs. tennis ball with same force → football (heavier mass) accelerates
less.

6. Impulse
⚡Third Law (Action-Reaction Law)
 Impulse = product of force and the short time for which it acts.
 “For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
Impulse=F⋅Δt=ΔpImpulse = F \cdot \Delta t = \Delta pImpulse=F⋅Δt=Δp
Characteristics:
 Impulse = Change in momentum.
 Forces always occur in pairs.  Units: Newton-second (Ns).
 They act on different bodies.
 They never cancel out each other. Examples:

Examples:  Catching a ball with hands moving backward → increases time, reduces force on hand.
 Cushions, airbags, and shock absorbers work on impulse principle.
 Gun recoils when fired.
 Walking: we push the ground backward, ground pushes us forward.
 Swimming: we push water backward, water pushes us forward.
7. Law of Conservation of Momentum
 “If no external force acts on a system of interacting bodies, the total momentum of the
5. Inertia & Momentum system remains constant.”

(a) Inertia Proof (for two bodies):

 Property of body to oppose change in motion.  Before collision: momentum = m1u1+m2u2m_1 u_1 + m_2 u_2m1u1+m2u2
 Depends on mass → heavier body = more inertia.  After collision: momentum = m1v1+m2v2m_1 v_1 + m_2 v_2m1v1+m2v2
 According to Newton’s 3rd law: forces are equal & opposite → change in momentum is
equal.
 Hence:
m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2m_1 u_1 + m_2 u_2 = m_1 v_1 + m_2 v_2m1u1+m2u2=m1v1+m2v2

Momentum is conserved. ⚡Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia)

Examples: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
unbalanced force.
 Bullet fired from gun → gun recoils backward.
 Rocket propulsion → gases expelled backward, rocket moves forward. Examples:

1. A passenger jerks backward when a bus suddenly stops (inertia of motion).

2. A passenger jerks forward when a bus suddenly starts (inertia of rest).
8. Applications of Newton’s Laws 3. A coin placed on a card falls into a glass when the card is pulled quickly.
4. Dust particles come out of a carpet when beaten → dust wants to remain at rest.
 Seat belts in cars (to prevent inertia injury). 5. Books on a table remain at rest until pushed (external force applied).
 Space rocket launching (conservation of momentum).
 Walking, swimming (action-reaction).
 Athletes run before long jump (inertia of motion).
 Karate master breaking bricks (force = mass × acceleration). ⚡Newton’s Second Law (Force = Mass × Acceleration)
Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum, F=maF = maF=ma.

9. Key Differences Examples:

1. Kicking a football: harder kick → more acceleration.

Concept Force Momentum Inertia
2. Tennis ball vs. football: with same force, tennis ball accelerates more (less mass).
3. A cricketer lowering hands while catching a ball → increases time, reduces force
Definition Push or pull Mass × velocity Resistance to change
(impulse).
4. Shot put vs. tennis ball: same force → shot put moves very little (large mass).
SI Unit Newton (N) kg·m/s No unit 5. Rocket launching: thrust force produces large acceleration.
Vector/Scalar Vector Vector Property (not measurable directly)

⚡Newton’s Third Law (Action = –Reaction)

10. Quick Revision For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

1. Newton’s 1st Law → defines Inertia. Examples:

2. Newton’s 2nd Law → defines Force.
3. Newton’s 3rd Law → explains Action-Reaction. 1. Gun recoils backward when fired (bullet forward, gun backward).
4. Momentum conserved in absence of external force. 2. Walking: we push the ground backward, ground pushes us forward.
5. Impulse = Change in momentum. 3. Swimming: we push water backward, water pushes us forward.
4. Bird flying: bird pushes air down with wings, air pushes bird upward.
Examples of Newton’s Laws of Motion 5. Rocket propulsion: gases expelled downward, rocket moves upward.

Summary for Exams 4. Uniform vs Non-uniform Motion

 Uniform Motion: Body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time (straight road at
 1st Law → Explains Inertia (bus jerks, coin-card-glass, dust off carpet).
constant speed).
 2nd Law → Explains Force & Acceleration (kicking ball, catching ball, rocket).
 Non-uniform Motion: Body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time (bus in
 3rd Law → Explains Action-Reaction pairs (gun recoil, walking, swimming, rockets).
traffic).

Chapter – Motion (Class 9 Science)

5. Speed & Velocity
Speed: Distance covered per unit time (scalar).
1. What is Motion? 

Speed=DistanceTimeSpeed = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}}Speed=TimeDistance
 Motion = Change in the position of an object with respect to time and a fixed reference
point.
 Example: A moving car, swinging pendulum, Earth revolving around the Sun.  Velocity: Displacement per unit time (vector).

Velocity=DisplacementTimeVelocity =
Motion is relative → A passenger in a moving train is at rest w.r.t. the train but in motion
w.r.t. a tree outside. \frac{\text{Displacement}}{\text{Time}}Velocity=TimeDisplacement

Speed only gives magnitude, velocity gives both magnitude & direction.

2. Types of Motion
1. Translatory motion – straight-line motion (car on road). 6. Acceleration
2. Circular motion – motion along a circular path (Earth around Sun).
3. Rotational motion – spinning around an axis (fan blade).  Rate of change of velocity per unit time.
4. Oscillatory motion – back-and-forth motion (pendulum).
a=v−uta = \frac{v - u}{t}a=tv−u

Where:
3. Distance & Displacement  uuu = initial velocity
 vvv = final velocity
 Distance: Actual path length traveled (scalar).  ttt = time taken
 Displacement: Shortest straight-line distance between initial and final positions, along  SI unit: m/s²
with direction (vector).
Types:
Example: If you walk 4 m east then 3 m west:
 Positive acceleration → velocity increases.
 Distance = 7 m  Negative acceleration (retardation/deceleration) → velocity decreases.
 Displacement = 1 m east  Zero acceleration → uniform velocity.
 Speed is constant, but velocity changes (direction keeps changing).
7. Graphical Representation of Motion 
 Acceleration is directed towards the center → called centripetal acceleration.
(a) Distance-Time Graph
Examples:
 Straight line → uniform motion.  Planets around Sun
 Curve → non-uniform motion.
 Moon around Earth
 Slope gives speed.  Stone tied to a string and whirled
(b) Velocity-Time Graph

 Slope = acceleration.
 Area under graph = displacement. 10. Key Differences Table
Example: Concept Scalar Vector

 Straight line slope up → uniform acceleration. Distance vs Displacement Only magnitude Magnitude + direction
 Straight line slope down → uniform retardation.
 Horizontal line → uniform velocity. Speed vs Velocity Distance/time Displacement/time

Acceleration Not just magnitude but change in velocity Vector

8. Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

(derived using graphs) 11. Quick Revision (One glance)
1. v=u+atv = u + a tv=u+at 1. Motion is relative.
2. s=ut+12at2s = u t + \frac{1}{2} a t^2s=ut+21at2 2. Distance ≠ Displacement (scalar vs vector).
3. v2−u2=2asv^2 - u^2 = 2 a sv2−u2=2as 3. Speed = Distance/Time, Velocity = Displacement/Time.
4. Acceleration = change in velocity/time.
Where: 5. Graphs → slope = speed/acceleration, area = displacement.
6. Equations of motion (3 formulas).
 sss = displacement 7. Circular motion → speed constant, velocity changes.
 uuu = initial velocity
 vvv = final velocity


aaa = acceleration
ttt = time
FORMULAE
These three are the golden equations of motion.  First Equation of Motion: v = u + at (Velocity-Time relation)
 Second Equation of Motion: s = ut + ½at² (Position-Time relation)
 Third Equation of Motion: v² = u² + 2as (Position-Velocity relation)
Here's a breakdown of the terms:
9. Uniform Circular Motion
 v = final velocity
 Motion of a body in a circular path with uniform speed.
 u = initial velocity

 a = acceleration o m₁ and m₂ = Masses of the two objects

 t = time taken o r = Distance between the centers of the two objects

 s = displacement 2. Acceleration Due to Gravity This formula calculates the acceleration of a body
Other Key Formulas due to Earth's gravity at its surface.
 Formula: g = G(M/R²)
 Speed = Distance / Time: (where speed is constant)
 Where:
 Average Speed = Total Distance / Total Time
o g = Acceleration due to gravity
 Velocity = Displacement / Time
o G = Universal gravitational constant
 Average Velocity = Total Displacement / Total Time
o M = Mass of the Earth
 Acceleration = (Final Velocity - Initial Velocity) / Time
o R = Radius of the Earth
3. Relationship between Weight and Mass

Weight is the force of gravity acting on a body.

 Newton's Second Law:
 Formula: W = mg
 F = ma
 Where:
 Formula Explanation: This formula states that the net force (F) acting on an object is equal to
o W = Weight of the object
its mass (m) multiplied by its acceleration (a).
o m = Mass of the object

o g = Acceleration due to gravity

Important Definitions
 Velocity: The rate of change of displacement.
 Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity. Class 9 Science – Matter in Our
 Momentum: The product of an object's mass and its velocity (p = mv), which is a vector
quantity.
Surroundings (Full Notes)

1. Universal Law of Gravitation 1. What is Matter?

This law states that the gravitational force between two objects is directly  Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space (volume).
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square  Examples: air, water, books, plants, you, me.
of the distance between their centers.
Ancient Indian philosophers: everything made of Panchtatva (five elements) → Air, Water,
 Formula: F = G(m₁m₂/r²) Earth, Fire, Sky.
 Where:
Modern scientists: everything made of atoms and molecules.
o F = Gravitational force between the two objects

o G = Universal gravitational constant (approximately 6.67 × 10⁻¹¹ N⋅m²/kg²)

2. Physical Nature of Matter 4. Interconversion of States of Matter
1. Matter is made up of tiny particles.  Matter can change from one state to another by changing:
o Evidence: diffusion of particles of one substance into another (e.g., smell of o Temperature
perfume). o Pressure
2. Particles of matter have space between them.
o Example: Sugar dissolves in water. (a) Melting (Solid → Liquid)
3. Particles of matter are in continuous motion (have kinetic energy).
o Example: Brownian motion in pollen grains.  At melting point, solid changes to liquid at constant temperature.
4. Particles of matter attract each other (intermolecular force).  Example: Ice → Water at 0°C.
o Example: You need force to break a piece of chalk or stretch a rubber band.
(b) Freezing (Liquid → Solid)

 Water freezes to ice at 0°C.

3. States of Matter (c) Vaporization (Liquid → Gas)
Matter exists in 3 main states:
 At boiling point, liquid changes to gas at constant temperature.
Solid  Example: Water boils at 100°C.

(d) Condensation (Gas → Liquid)

 Definite shape & volume.
 Strong intermolecular force.
 Very small intermolecular space.  Steam condenses to water.
 Particles vibrate about fixed positions.
 Incompressible. (e) Sublimation (Solid ↔ Gas directly)
 Example: Ice, wood, iron.
 Some solids directly change to gas on heating and back to solid on cooling.
Liquid  Examples: Camphor, naphthalene balls, ammonium chloride.

 Definite volume but no definite shape (takes container’s shape).

 Weaker intermolecular force than solids.
 More intermolecular space than solids. 5. Effect of Temperature on State Change
 Can flow → called fluids.
 Example: Water, oil, milk.  Increase in temperature → particles vibrate faster → intermolecular force weakens →
state changes.
Gas  Heat supplied is used in overcoming intermolecular forces, not for increasing
temperature → called latent heat.
 Neither definite shape nor volume.
 Negligible intermolecular force.
 Very large intermolecular spaces.
 Highly compressible.
 Example: Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide. 6. Latent Heat
 Latent Heat of Fusion: Heat energy required to change 1 kg solid into liquid at constant
temperature.

o For ice = 334 kJ/kg. o Predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose & Albert Einstein.
 Latent Heat of Vaporization: Heat energy required to change 1 kg liquid into gas at
constant temperature.
o For water = 2260 kJ/kg.

10. Key Differences

Property Solid Liquid Gas
7. Effect of Pressure on State Change
Shape Fixed Not fixed Not fixed
 Increasing pressure → particles come closer → gas can become liquid.
 Example: LPG cylinder (liquefied petroleum gas). Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
 Decreasing pressure → liquids can change into gas.
Compressibility Negligible Very less High

Intermolecular Force Strong Moderate Negligible

8. Evaporation (Liquid → Gas at any temperature below
Motion of particles Vibrate in fixed positions Slide over each other Move freely
boiling point)
 Occurs at the surface of the liquid.
 Factors affecting evaporation:
1. Surface area ↑ → evaporation ↑ (wet clothes dry faster when spread out). 11. Quick Recap
2. Temperature ↑ → evaporation ↑ (clothes dry faster in sun).
3. Wind speed ↑ → evaporation ↑ (faster drying in windy weather). 1. Matter → made of particles, has mass & volume.
4. Humidity ↑ → evaporation ↓ (damp air slows drying). 2. Properties → particles have space, motion, force of attraction.
3. 3 States → Solid, Liquid, Gas.
Evaporation causes cooling: 4. State interconversion → melting, boiling, condensation, freezing, sublimation.
5. Heat → affects intermolecular forces (latent heat).
 Fastest moving particles leave the surface → average kinetic energy decreases → cooling 6. Pressure → changes gas ↔ liquid.
effect. 7. Evaporation → factors & cooling effect.
 Examples: 8. Other states → Plasma, BEC.
o Sweat cools our body.
o Water in earthen pot remains cool.
o Ice cools drinks more than water (latent heat absorption). Class 9 Science – Is Matter Around Us Pure?
(Full Notes)
9. States Beyond the 3 Common Ones
 Plasma: 1. Pure Substance vs Mixture
o High energy state of matter where particles are ionized.
o Examples: Sun, stars, neon signs, lightning. Pure Substance
 Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC):
o State formed at very low temperature (close to 0 K).  Consists of only one kind of particles (atoms or molecules).
o Particles almost come to rest, showing unique quantum properties.  Fixed composition.
  Cannot be separated into other substances by physical methods.  Do not scatter light (no Tyndall effect).
 Always homogeneous.  Cannot be separated by filtration.
 Examples: Distilled water, oxygen, sodium chloride (NaCl).  Stable → solute does not settle down.

Mixture Concentration of Solution

 Consists of two or more pure substances mixed in any proportion.  Amount of solute present in given amount of solution.
 No chemical reaction between components.  Expressed as:
 Can be separated by physical methods (filtration, evaporation, etc.).
 May be homogeneous (uniform) or heterogeneous (non-uniform).
 Examples: Air, milk, soil, lemonade.
4. Suspensions
 Heterogeneous mixtures with visible particles.
 Particle size: larger than 100 nm.
 Example: Chalk in water, sand in water.
2. Types of Mixtures
Properties:
(A) Homogeneous Mixture
 Particles visible to naked eye.
 Uniform composition throughout.  Scatter light (Tyndall effect).
 Particles not visible separately.  Unstable → particles settle on standing.
 Example: Air, sugar in water, brass (alloy).  Can be separated by filtration.

(B) Heterogeneous Mixture

 Non-uniform composition. 5. Colloids

 Components can be seen separately.
 Example: Oil in water, sand in iron filings.  Mixture in which particle size is between solution & suspension (1–100 nm).
 Homogeneous to naked eye but heterogeneous under microscope.
 Example: Milk, soap solution, fog, smoke.

3. Solutions Properties:

 Solution = Homogeneous mixture of 2 or more substances.  Particles cannot be seen separately.

 Do not settle on standing (stable).
Components:  Show Tyndall effect → scattering of light by colloidal particles.
 Cannot be separated by filtration, but can be separated by special methods
1. Solvent → Substance present in large quantity (does dissolving). (centrifugation).
2. Solute → Substance present in smaller quantity (gets dissolved).

Example: Salt solution (Water = solvent, Salt = solute).

6. Separation Techniques
Properties of Solutions

 Homogeneous.
 Particles smaller than 1 nm → cannot be seen.

For Solids from Liquids  Cannot be broken into simpler substances.

 Classified into:
 Filtration → insoluble solid from liquid (sand + water). 1. Metals (Iron, Copper, Gold)
 Evaporation → soluble solid from liquid (salt from seawater). 2. Non-metals (Oxygen, Sulphur, Carbon)
 Centrifugation → separates denser particles from liquid (cream from milk). 3. Metalloids (Boron, Silicon)
 Crystallization → purifies solid by crystallizing from solution (sugar, salt).
(B) Compound
For Liquids from Liquids
 Pure substance made of two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio.
 Separating funnel → immiscible liquids (oil + water).  Properties different from those of its elements.
 Distillation → miscible liquids with different boiling points (alcohol + water).  Example: Water (H₂O), Sodium Chloride (NaCl).
 Fractional distillation → separates liquids with closer boiling points (petroleum into
petrol, diesel, kerosene).

For Solids from Solids

9. Differences
 Magnetic separation → iron from sulphur.
 Sublimation → separates sublimable solids (naphthalene, camphor). Mixture Compound

For Gases from Gases Formed by physical mixing Formed by chemical reaction

 Fractional distillation of air → separates oxygen, nitrogen, argon. Components keep individual properties Properties different from components

Composition variable Fixed composition

Can be separated by physical methods Cannot be separated by physical methods

7. Physical vs Chemical Change
Physical Change Chemical Change

No new substance formed New substance formed

10. Quick Recap
1. Matter → Pure substances (elements, compounds) + Mixtures (homogeneous,
Reversible Irreversible
heterogeneous).
2. Solutions → true solutions, stable, no Tyndall effect.
Only physical properties change Both physical & chemical properties change
3. Suspensions → heterogeneous, unstable, particles settle.
4. Colloids → intermediate, show Tyndall effect, stable.
Example: Ice → Water Example: Burning of paper 5. Separation techniques → filtration, evaporation, distillation, crystallization,
centrifugation, separating funnel.
6. Elements → metals, non-metals, metalloids.
7. Compounds → fixed ratio, new properties.
8. Elements & Compounds 8. Mixtures vs Compounds → physical vs chemical differences.

(A) Element
Comparison of Solutions, Colloids &
 Pure substance made of only one kind of atom.
Suspensions
 Feature Solution Colloid Suspension o Water evaporates from wet pads in cooler → absorbs heat → sends cool air into
Apparently homogeneous (looks room.
uniform, but actually 6. Feeling cool under a fan after a bath
Type of mixture Homogeneous Heterogeneous o Fan increases evaporation of water from skin → absorbs heat → cooling effect.
heterogeneous at microscopic
level) 7. Wet clothes feel cold when worn
o Water evaporates slowly from the clothes → takes heat from body → gives
Very small (< 1 cooling.
Particle size Intermediate (1–100 nm) Large (> 100 nm)
nm)
Visibility of Not visible even Not visible to naked eye, visible
particles with microscope under powerful microscope
Visible to naked eye
✅Why cooling happens?
Unstable → particles
Stability
Stable → solute
never settles
Stable → particles do not settle on
standing
settle down on During evaporation, high-energy (fast)
standing
Cannot be Cannot be separated by ordinary
Can be separated by
molecules escape as vapor, leaving behind
Separation separated by
filtration
filtration, but can by
centrifugation
filtration molecules with lower energy. This lowers the
Tyndall Effect
(scattering of Absent Present (colloids scatter light)
Present (because temperature of the remaining liquid/surface
particles are large)
light)
Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque
→ hence cooling. Cell – The Fundamental
Examples
Salt in water, sugar Milk, fog, smoke, blood, soap Chalk in water, muddy Unit of Life (Class 9)
in water, air solution water, sand in water

Quick Trick to Remember 1. What is a Cell?

 Solution → Clear, stable, no Tyndall effect.  Definition: The structural and functional unit of life.
 Colloid → Cloudy but stable, shows Tyndall effect.  All living organisms are made up of cells (building blocks).
 Suspension → Cloudy & unstable, particles settle.  Discovery:
o Robert Hooke (1665): First observed dead cork cells → coined the word “cell”.

❄ Cooling Due to Evaporation – Examples o Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Observed living cells.

1. Sweating in humans ♂
o When sweat evaporates from the skin, it absorbs heat from our body → body feels
cool.
2. Cell Theory
2. Earthen pot (matka/ghara) cooling
o Water seeps through tiny pores of the pot → evaporates → absorbs heat → water
 Proposed by Schleiden (plants) & Schwann (animals).
inside becomes cool.  Later modified by Rudolf Virchow.
3. Alcohol/Acetone on skin (like sanitizer or nail polish remover)  Main points:
o Evaporates very fast → takes heat from skin → skin feels cold.
1. All living organisms are made of cells.
4. Water sprinkled on roof or ground in summer 2. Cell is the basic unit of life.
o Evaporation of water absorbs heat → makes surface cooler.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
5. Desert coolers

Cytoplasm
3. Types of Organisms by Cells
 Unicellular → Made of one cell (Amoeba, Paramecium, Bacteria).  Jelly-like fluid between nucleus & cell membrane.
 Multicellular → Made of many cells (Plants, Animals, Humans).  Contains organelles → site of many metabolic activities.

Nucleus

 Control center of cell.

4. Cell Shape & Size  Parts:
o Nuclear envelope (double membrane).
 Shape → varies according to function (RBC = circular, Nerve cell = long & branched, o Nucleoplasm (fluid inside).
Muscle cell = spindle-shaped). o Nucleolus (makes ribosomes).
 Size → varies from 0.1 μm (bacteria) to 170 mm (ostrich egg). o Chromatin material (DNA + proteins → carries genes).

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 Network of membranes.
5. Types of Cells (Structure)  Rough ER (RER): Has ribosomes, protein synthesis.
 Smooth ER (SER): No ribosomes, lipid synthesis & detoxification.
1. Prokaryotic Cells
o Primitive, no well-defined nucleus.
Ribosomes
o Genetic material (DNA) lies in nucleoid.
o No membrane-bound organelles.
 Non-membrane bound, found in cytoplasm or on RER.
o Example: Bacteria, Blue-green algae.
 Function → protein synthesis (protein factories).
2. Eukaryotic Cells
o Advanced, true nucleus with nuclear membrane.
Golgi Apparatus
o Have membrane-bound organelles (Mitochondria, ER, Golgi, etc.).
o Example: Plants, Animals, Fungi.
 Stack of flattened sacs.
 Modifies, packages & transports proteins & lipids.
 Forms lysosomes.

6. Cell Organelles & Functions Mitochondria

Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)  Double membrane organelle.

 Produces energy as ATP → “Powerhouse of cell”.
 Outer covering of cell.  Has its own DNA & ribosomes → self-replicating.
 Made of lipids & proteins.
 Selectively permeable → allows only some substances to enter/exit. Lysosomes
 Functions: Protects cell, controls exchange of materials, communication with outside.
 Membrane-bound sacs with digestive enzymes.
Cell Wall (only in Plant Cells)  Function → breakdown of waste, old organelles, foreign particles.
 Called “suicidal bags” of the cell.
 Outer rigid layer made of cellulose.
 Provides shape, support, protection. Plastids (only in Plants)
 Fully permeable.
 3 types:
 1. Chloroplasts → green (photosynthesis, contain chlorophyll).
2. Chromoplasts → colored (carotenoids, give fruits & flowers color). Flowchart: Cell Organelles & Their
3. Leucoplasts → colorless (store food: starch, fats, proteins).
Functions
Vacuoles
CELL
 Fluid-filled sacs. │
 Large in plants, small in animals. ├── Plasma Membrane → Selectively permeable, exchange of materials
 Function → store food, water, waste, give turgidity. ├── Cytoplasm → Site of metabolic activities, holds organelles
 Contains cell sap. │
├── Nucleus (Control Center)
Centrosome & Centrioles (only in animal cells) │ ├── Nuclear membrane → Protects DNA
│ ├── Chromatin → Genetic material (DNA, genes)
 Helps in cell division (spindle formation). │ ├── Nucleolus → Makes ribosomes
│
├── Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
│ ├── Rough ER → Protein synthesis
│ └── Smooth ER → Lipid synthesis, detoxification
7. Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells │
├── Ribosomes → Protein factories (non-membranous)
Feature Plant Cell Animal Cell │
├── Golgi Apparatus → Modifies, packages, transports proteins & lipids; makes lysosomes
Cell wall Present (cellulose) Absent │
├── Mitochondria → “Powerhouse”; produces ATP; has own DNA & ribosomes
Plastids Present (chloroplasts, etc.) Absent │
├── Lysosomes → Digest waste, foreign particles, old organelles (“suicidal bags”)
Vacuoles Large, central Small, temporary │
├── Plastids (Plants only)
Shape Fixed (rectangular) Irregular (roundish) │ ├── Chloroplast → Photosynthesis (green)
│ ├── Chromoplast → Provide color to fruits/flowers
Centrosome Absent Present │ └── Leucoplast → Storage (starch, fats, proteins)
│
Mode of nutrition Mostly autotrophic Heterotrophic ├── Vacuoles
│ ├── Plants: Large, central → stores water, food, waste
│ └── Animals: Small, temporary
│
└── Centrosome & Centrioles (Animals only) → Helps in cell division (spindle formation)
8. Summary (Quick Recap)
 Cell is the basic unit of life. Plant Tissues (Class 9 Notes)
 Two types: Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic.
 Cell organelles perform specific functions (like human body organs).
 Plant & animal cells differ in some structures.
1. What is Tissue?
 Definition → A group of similar cells performing a specific function.

 Plant tissues are of 2 main types: o Example: Husk of coconut, nutshell.

1. Meristematic Tissue → Dividing tissues (growth).
2. Permanent Tissue → Non-dividing, specialized tissues.

(B) Complex Permanent Tissue (different types of cells, common function → transport)

1. Xylem (Transports water & minerals, upward only)

2. Meristematic Tissues (Growth tissues) o Components:
 Tracheids & Vessels → transport water.
Cells: Small, thin-walled, dense cytoplasm, large nucleus, no vacuoles.  Xylem fibres → support.
Function: Responsible for growth in plants.  Xylem parenchyma → stores food.
o Mostly dead cells (except xylem parenchyma).
Types of Meristematic Tissue: 2. Phloem (Transports food, both directions → translocation)
o Components:
1. Apical Meristem  Sieve tubes → transport food.
o Location: Tips of root and shoot.  Companion cells → help sieve tubes.
o Function: Increases length (primary growth).  Phloem fibres → support.
2. Intercalary Meristem  Phloem parenchyma → storage.
o Location: Base of leaves, nodes (grasses). o Mostly living cells (except phloem fibres).
o Function: Growth of leaves, internodes.
3. Lateral Meristem (Cambium)
o Location: Sides of stems and roots.
o Function: Increases thickness (secondary growth).
4. Protective Tissues
1. Epidermis
o Single outermost cell layer.
3. Permanent Tissues (Specialized, non-dividing) o Protects plant.
o Covered with waxy cuticle to prevent water loss.
Formed from meristematic tissue after differentiation. o Has stomata → gaseous exchange + transpiration.
2. Cork (Phellem)
Types: o Outer protective layer in old stems/roots.
o Dead cells with suberin (waterproof).
(A) Simple Permanent Tissue (1 type of cell)
o Protects against injury, infection, water loss.

1. Parenchyma
o Structure: Living cells, thin cell walls, large vacuoles.
o Function: Storage of food, photosynthesis, filling spaces.
o Special type: Chlorenchyma (with chlorophyll → photosynthesis). 5. Quick Comparison Table
o Example: Soft parts of plants, fruits.
2. Collenchyma Tissue Living/Dead Function Example
o Structure: Living cells, unevenly thickened at corners.
o Function: Provides flexibility + mechanical support. Parenchyma Living Storage, photosynthesis Fruits, leaves
o Example: Found in leaf stalks, stems.
3. Sclerenchyma Collenchyma Living Flexibility, support Leaf stalk
o Structure: Dead cells, very thick walls with lignin.
o Function: Provides hardness, strength.
 Tissue Living/Dead Function Example
Difference Between Meristematic and
Sclerenchyma Dead Strength, rigidity Coconut husk
Permanent Tissues
Xylem Mostly dead Water transport (upward) Roots → leaves
Feature Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue
Phloem Mostly living Food transport (both ways) Leaves → rest of plant Cell
Actively dividing Non-dividing (differentiated)
division
Epidermis Living Protection, exchange Leaf surface Cell wall Thin Thick (sometimes lignified)
Vacuoles Absent or very small Large and prominent
Cork Dead Protection, waterproof Bark of trees
Cytoplasm Dense cytoplasm Less dense cytoplasm
Nucleus Large, prominent Small or normal size
Shape of Small, isodiametric (similar in
Mind Map: Plant Tissues cells all directions)
Variable (specialized according to function)
Growth of plant (length, Perform permanent functions (support, storage,
PLANT TISSUES Function
thickness, internodes) transport, protection)
│ Apical, Intercalary, Lateral Parenchyma, Collenchyma, Sclerenchyma,
├── 1. Meristematic Tissue (Dividing, growth) Examples
meristems Xylem, Phloem, Epidermis, Cork
│ ├── Apical → Tip of root/shoot → ↑ Length (primary growth)
│ ├── Intercalary → Base of leaves/nodes → Growth of leaves, internodes
│ └── Lateral (Cambium) → Sides of stem/roots → ↑ Thickness (secondary growth)
✅Easy way to remember:
│
├── 2. Permanent Tissue (Non-dividing, specialized)
│  Meristematic = “Active, Young, Growing” cells.
│ ├── (A) Simple Permanent Tissue (1 type of cell)  Permanent = “Mature, Specialized, Working” cells.
│ │ ├── Parenchyma → Living, storage, photosynthesis (soft parts, fruits)
│ │ ├── Collenchyma → Living, flexibility + support (leaf stalks)
│ │ └── Sclerenchyma → Dead, strength (coconut husk, nutshell)
│
│ ├── (B) Complex Permanent Tissue (different cells, transport)
│ │ ├── Xylem (mostly dead) → Water & minerals ↑
│ │ │ ├── Tracheids & Vessels → Transport
│ │ │ ├── Fibres → Support
│ │ │ └── Parenchyma → Storage
│ │ └── Phloem (mostly living) → Food transport (both ways)
│ │ ├── Sieve tubes → Transport food
│ │ ├── Companion cells → Help sieve tubes
│ │ ├── Fibres → Support
│ │ └── Parenchyma → Storage
│
└── 3. Protective Tissue
├── Epidermis → Outer layer, stomata, cuticle, protection
└── Cork (Phellem) → Dead, waterproof (suberin), bark protection