2018 INTEGRATED LEARNING PROGRAMME, ILP

IASBABA

[MEDIEVAL INDIA-PART 1]
Integrated Learning Programme 2018 is a step towards ‘Enabling a person located at the most remote
destination a chance at cracking AIR 1 in UPSC/IAS’
These documents on Medieval History cover important events and
concepts to focus. Despite not many questions are asked from this
section in the past few years, still you need to prepare this smartly
without overlooking or taking UPSC for granted 

We have tried to cover almost all important aspects. While reading this
document please take care of timeline, remember the chronology and
pay special attention to architecture, literature, administration,
different dynasty’s and their ruler’s chronology, rulers and saints
contemporary to each other.

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 CONTENT
1. EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
1.1. After the death of Harsha
1.2. Rajput kingdoms
1.3. Arab conquest of India
1.4. Mahmud of Ghazni and his invasions
1.5. Muhammad Ghori
1.6. Causes for the failure of Hindu states.
2. DELHI SULTANATE
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Slave Dynasty (1206 -1290)
2.3. The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
2.4. The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
2.5. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)
2.6. Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
3. INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
3.1. Administration
3.2. Central government
3.3. Local Administration
3.4. Economy
3.5. Social Life
3.6. Art and Architecture
3.7. Music
3.8. Literature

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 EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

After death of Harsha

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  Period between 750 to 1750 have large scale changes & variety of developments.
o New technologies – Persian wheel in irrigation, spinning wheel in weaving and
firearms in combat
o New foods and beverages – potatoes, corn, chilies, tea and coffee
 This period was also period of great mobility
 People travelled long distances in search of opportunity.
o One group of people who became important in this period were the Rajputs.
 For next FIVE centuries - no political unity in north India.
 The country was split up into a number of states which were constantly fighting and
because of this their frontiers keep on changing.
 Important kingdoms in north India were
o Kashmir, Gandhara, Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmer, Malwa, Bengal and Assam (see
map)
 In early 8th century -
o Kashmir was dominant.
o Palas of Bengal were supreme until the Pratiharas became the most powerful
rulers of north India.
 th
In 10 century –
o Rashtrakutas of Deccan tried to extend their power in north India but didn’t
succeed.

Rajput Kingdoms

Background

 Their dominance had started from 7th century and lasted till 12th century (Muslim
conquest).
 Even after coming of Turkish rulers they continued to survive for longer period of time.
 During Muslim aggression period they were the main defenders of Hindu religion and
culture.

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Origin of Rajputs

Rajan (king) Putra (son)

Rajputra
(son of a ruler)

 They were considered to be the descendants of foreign invaders and Indian Kshatriyas.
 Rajput clan is shaped by diverse elements and one fact which supports it is that these
foreign invaders were Indianized and absorbed into Indian society.
 Homogeneity in this clan came by constant intermarriages and by adopting common
customs and traditions.
 Their chief occupation – War.
 But trade and agriculture was also there
 According to Arab travelers –
o Land was prosperous
o Trade was flourishing in cities
o Built strong forts

Gurjar-Pratiharas
Gurjar Rajputs

 Earliest of Rajput rulers.

 1st great leader – Harischandra
 He conquered extensive territory in Rajaputana.
 His capital - Bhinmal.
 The Gurjaras were in different branches.
o One branch ruled Gujarat
o Second ruled at Avanthi.

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Pratihara Rajputs

 Tripartite struggle - For centuries, rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,

Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for control over Kanauj. Because there were
three “parties” in this long drawn conflict, historians often describe it as the “tripartite
struggle”.

Why the 3 rulers fought for control over Kanauj or what is the significance of Kanauj in
Tripartite struggle?

Kannauj was located on the Ganga trade route and was connected to the Silk route. It made
Kannauj strategically and commercially very important. It was also the erstwhile capital of
Harshvardhana's empire in north India.

 Later the Pratiharas became weak.

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Chauhans

 Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled over the region around Delhi and
Ajmer.
 The most valiant of the Rajput races.
 They attempted to expand their control to the west and the east, where they were
opposed by the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western Uttar Pradesh
respectively.
 The best-known Chahamana ruler was Vigraharaja and Prithviraja III.
 Vigraharaj had occupied Delhi.
 Prithviraja III (1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler named Sultan Muhammad
Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very next year, in 1192.
 Therefore, the Chauhans faced the onslaught of the Muslims under Muhammad of
Ghori.

Paramaras

 They were also important Rajput rulers of this period.

 Most important king - Bhoja.
 His military conquests as well as cultural contributions remain notable in the history of
Rajputs.

Why Rajputs were not able to carve out an empire or what are the reasons for failure of
Rajputs?

 Constant fighting weakened them

 Never united against a common enemy.
 Lack of political foresight and constant rivalries
 All the above factors prevented any combined opposition to the Muslim invaders.

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 Arab Conquest of Sind (712 A.D.)
Islam religion

 Born - at Mecca in Arabia.

 Founder - Prophet Muhammad.
 But his teachings made the wealthy people of Mecca his enemies. Therefore, he
migrated to Medina in 622 A.D., which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar
and the Muslim era called Hijra.
 After 8 years Prophet returned to Mecca with his followers.
 Prophet died - 632 A.D.
 Islam was interpreted in a variety of ways by its followers
 The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph should be elected
by Muslims or their representatives.
 Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a caliph should be an Imam chosen by God
from the Ahl al-Bayt (the "Family of the House", Muhammad's direct descendants).
 The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the Caliphate.
 The Umayyads and the Abbasids were called the caliphs. They expanded their rule by
conquests and spread their religion Islam.

Caliphate

 A caliphate is an area containing an Islamic steward known as a caliph

Caliph

 A person considered a religious successor to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, and a

leader of the entire Muslim community.

Ummayyads

 Second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad.

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 
Abbasids

 Third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The Abbasid
dynasty descended from Muhammad's youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–
653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its name.

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Conquest of Sind

 In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim, commander of the Umayyad kingdom, invaded Sind.
 Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind and killed him in a well-contested battle.
 Dahir’s capital Aror was captured.
 Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan.
 Qasim organized the administration of Sind.
 The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects). There was no
interference in the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim was recalled by the
Caliph.
 The Arabs lost control over Sindh in 779 AD.

What was the result of conquest of Sind by Muslims or How Indian culture diffused abroad?

 There was diffusion of culture between Sind and Indian people

 Arab travelers visited Sind. They had carried Indian medicine and astronomy to, far off
lands
 The Indian numerals in the Arabic form went to Europe through them.

Why Muslims could not expand their authority further into India?

 Due to the presence of the powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.

How Islam came to India?

 Arab conquest of Sindh resulted in the spread of Islam to North India.

 Merchants and migrants first brought the teachings of the holy Quran to India in the 7th
century.
 But Islam was first introduced in India by Malik Ibn Dinar in Kerala in 644 AD.

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Mahmud of Ghazni and his Invasions
Introduction

 End of 9th century AD - Abbasid Caliphate declined.

 The Turkish governors established independent kingdoms and the Caliph became only a
ritual authority.
 One among them was Alptigin.

Predecessors of Mahmud of Ghazni

Alptigin (962–963)

 A Turkic slave commander

 later become the semi-independent governor of Ghazni
 Ghazni was his capital

Sabuktigin (977 – 997)

 Founder of the Ghaznavid dynasty

 Apltigin’s successor and son-in-law
 He wanted to conquer India from the north-west. He succeeded in capturing Peshawar
from Jayapala.
 But his raids did not produce a lasting effect.
 He was succeeded by his son, Mahmud.

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Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030)

 Succeeded his father Sabuktigin.

 He extended his control over parts of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of
the Indian subcontinent.
 He raided the subcontinent almost every year (made seventeen raids) – his targets were
wealthy temples, including that of Somnath, Gujarat.

Raids of Mahmud of Ghazni

 His raids were aimed at plundering the rich temples and cities of northern India.
 1011 - Nagarkot (in the Punjab hills) and Thaneshwar (near Delhi).
 1018 - Mathura and Kanauj
 Next important raid – Gujarat
 1024 - Mahmud marched from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated the Solanki King
Bhimadeva I, plundered Anhilwad and sacked the famous temple of Somanatha.
o He returned through the Sind desert. This was his last campaign in India.
 Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.

Why did he raid India?

 To accumulate wealth and from that wealth create a splendid capital city at Ghazni.

How was he able to raid so many times?

 During 10th century North India was divided into a number of Hindu states.
 Frontier of India - Hindu Shahi kingdom which extended from the Punjab to Kabul.

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  Other important kingdoms of north India - Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal, Malwa and
Bundelkhand. (see map)
 The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala was
defeated in 1001. Jayapala thought his defeat was a disgrace and so he immolated
himself.
 Jayapala’s successor Anandapala fought against Mahmud but he was also defeated in
the Battle of Waihind in 1008.
o Waihind was the Hindu Shahi capital near Peshawar.
 In this battle, Anandapala was supported by the rulers of Kanauj and Rajasthan. As a
result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud extended his rule over most of the Punjab.

Impact of raids

 His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely changed the political situation in India.
 He paved the way for the Turks and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper
incursions into the Gangetic valley at any time.
 Drained the resources of India
 Deprived India of her manpower.
o This resulted in adverse effect on the political future of India.
 Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the gates of India against foreign invaders.
o Mahmud destroyed it and thus India’s frontiers became defenceless.
 The inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent
Muslim conquests of India comparatively easy.

Ghaznavid Empire

 He built wide Empire

 Punjab in the east to the Caspian Sea on the west and from Samarkand in the north to
Gujarat in the south.
 It roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.
 His achievements were due to his leadership and restless activity.

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  Mahmud was considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.

Patronization of Art and Culture

 He also patronized art and literature.

 Firdausi - poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud.
o He wrote Shah Namah.
 Mahmud was interested in finding out more about the people he conquered, and
entrusted a scholar named Al-Baruni to write an account of Indian subcontinent.
o And so Al-Baruni wrote Kitab-ul Hind
o He consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.

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Muhammad Ghori

 Ghoris were vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of Mahmud.
 Real name - Muizzuddin Muhammad
 After decline of Ghaznavid empire he brought Ghazni under his control and turned his
attention to India.
 Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in this
direction.
 1175 - captured Multan and occupied whole of Sind
 1186 - attacked and captured Punjab from Khusru Malik and annexed it to his
dominions.
 The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion eastward to the Sutlej and led his
invasion of the Chauhan kingdom.

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The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)

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  As soon as the north Indian kingdoms get to know about conquest of Punjab they
formed a confederacy under command of Prithviraj chauhan.
 1191 - Prithviraj chauhan defeated Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi.
 Muhammad Ghori felt greatly humiliated and to avenge this defeat he gathered an army
of 1,20,000 men.
 He came with this large force to Lahore via Peshawar and Multan.
 He sent a message to Prithviraj asking him to acknowledge his supremacy.
 Prithviraj rejected this proposal and prepared to meet the invader. Many Hindu rajas
and chieftains also joined him.
 1192 – In Second Battle of Tarain, Muhammad Ghori thoroughly routed the army of
Prithiviraj, who was captured and executed.

Impact of Battle of Tarain

 Major disaster for the Rajputs.

o Political prestige suffered a serious setback.
 The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.

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  The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer and a new era
in the history of India began.
o After his victory, Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni and left his favorite
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further conquests in India.
 1193 – Aibak made preparations for easy invasion by Muhammad Ghori against the
Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra.
o Battle of Chandawar - Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s forces. Kanauj was
occupied by the Muslims.

Causes for the failure of Hindu kingdoms

 Most important cause - lacked unity.

o They were divided by factions.
 The Rajput princes exhausted one another by their mutual conflicts.
 Many Hindu states were declining in power.
 Inferior and outdated military methods.
o Indians - continued to rely on elephants
o While Muslims - possessed quick-moving cavalry.
 The Muslims soldiers had better organization and able leaders.
 Fighting class – in Hindus - confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas while it wasn’t
the case with Muslims.

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 DELHI SULTANATE

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Introduction

 The Turkish invasions and Battle of Tarain and Battle of Chandwar had established
Delhi Sultanate which existed from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D.
 5 Dynasties ruled under Delhi Sultanate. They were – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids
and Lodis
 Their rule extended into the Deccan and South India and resulted in far-reaching
changes in society, administration and cultural life.

Slave Dynasty (1206 -1290)

 Also known as Mamluk dynasty.

 Mamluk – Quranic term for slave.
 3 dynasties were established during 1206 – 1290
o Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
o First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish
o Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210)

 Slave of Muhammad Ghori (remember his appointment as Governor of Ghori’s Indian

possessions.
 Set up his military headquarters at Indraprasta, near Delhi.
 Even during the life time of Ghori he raised a strong army and hold over north India.
 1206 – Ghori died and Aibak declared his independence.
 He broke all connections with the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty
as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
 He assumed the title Sultan
 He made Lahore his capital.
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  Rule lasted - 4 years’ short period.
 He was called as “Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs” because he gave liberal donations to
Muslim writers.
 Aibek was great patron of learning and patronised writers like
o Hasan-un-Nizami, author of 'Taj-ul-Massir'
o Fakhruddin,author of 'Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shah'
 He built –
o Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi
o Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhonpra mosque in Ajmer.
o He started the construction of Qutb Minar in memory of sufi saint Qutbuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki which was completed by his successor, Iltutmish
 Death - he died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210.
 Successor - his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236)

Figure 1 Iltutmish’s Tomb

 Belonged to Ilbari tribe and so dynasty’s name Ilbari dynasty.

 Aibak bought him and made him son-in-law
 Appointed as iqtadar of Gwalior by Aibak
 1211 – defeated Aram Baksh (son of Aibak) and became Sultan.
 Shifted capital from Lahore to Delhi.

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  In first 10 years focused on securing his throne from rivals.
 Mongol policy of Iltutmish saved India from the wrath of Chengiz Khan.
o He refused to shelter Jalaluddin Mangabarni (also known as Khwarizm Shah),
whom Chengiz was chasing.

Military conquests

 Established his control over Bengal and Bihar

 Annexed Sind and Multan into the Delhi Sultanate.
 He suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered Ranthambore (not Ranthampur), Jalor,
Ajmir and Gwalior.
 Led an unsuccessful expedition against the Paramaras of Malwa.
 Iltutmish was a great statesman. He received the mansur, the letter of recognition, from
the Abbasid Caliph in 1229, which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
 He nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor. Thus the hereditary succession to
Delhi Sultanate was initiated by Iltutmish.
 He patronized many scholars and a number Sufi saints came to India during his reign.
Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din., Nizam-ul-mulk Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din
Hasan and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami were his contemporary.
o Minhaj-us-Siraj is author of 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.
 He completed the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi, the tallest stone tower in India
(238 ft.).
 He built a magnificent mosque at Ajmer.
 Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic coins of the
Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains.


 The silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee.
 Iltutmish had also created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders -
Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa or Forty
 Organize Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which were assigned to the
nobles and officers in lieu of salary.

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Raziya (1236-1240)

 Razia was the first and last female ruler of Delhi Sultanate.
 Even Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi of Delhi and
Wazir put Ruknuddin Feroz on the throne.
o Nasiruddin Mahmud - real brother of Raziya
o Rukn ud din Firuz and Muizuddin Bahram - step brothers
 Raziya with the support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne, when Ruknuddin marched
to Multan to suppress the revolt.
 She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as superintendent of the royal stables.
 She discarded the female apparel and held the court with her face unveiled.
 She even went for hunting and led the army.
 Turkish nobles don’t like these activities and so resentment against her aroused in them.
 1240 - Altunia, her lover and the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her.
 She went in person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took Raziya
prisoner.
 In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram on the throne.
 However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to
Delhi. But she was defeated and killed by court intriguers.
 The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the Forty. In the next six years,
Bahram and Masud ruled Delhi.
 There ensued a struggle for supremacy between the Sultans and the nobles.
 In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud as Sultan.

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Era of Balban (1266-1287)

 Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan

 He was Naib or regent of Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.
 Balban was all powerful in the administration but like most of rulers he had to face the
intrigues of his rivals in the royal court.
 1266 – Nasiruddin Mahmud died and Balban succeeded to throne.
 Earlier Balban was regent and so, he was aware of the problems of Delhi Sultanate.
 He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)

Steps to enhance power and authority of Monarch

 He was convinced that he has to enhance the power and authority of monarch to
overcome the problems and hence he took some steps like
o Sultan was God’s shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace.
o He introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration
and kissing the Sultan’s feet to prove his superiority over the nobles.
o Introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz.
o He was champion of Turkish nobility but did not share his power with other
nobles.
o Indian Muslims were not given important post in the government.
o Spies were appointed to monitor the activities of the nobles.

Forty

• He believed that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty.
(remember the Turkan-i-Chahalgani?)

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  Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the Turkish nobles.
 Only the most obedient nobles were spared and rest were eliminated by fair or foul
means. For example –
o Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty
towards his servants.
o Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished for killing a man who
was drunk.
o Sher Khan, the governor of Bhatinda was poisoned.

Restoration of law and order

 His focus was more on restoration of law and order instead of expansion of his kingdom
 Established Diwan-i-Arz - a separate military department and reorganized the army.
 Balban took severe action against Mewatis who often plundered the outskirts of Delhi.
Robbers were mercilessly pursued and put to death. As a result, the roads became safe
for travel.

Mongol threat

 Mongols reappeared in the northwest and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud against
them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a moral blow to the Sultan.
 He could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions.
 Balban died in 1287.
 He was one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate.
 When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made the Sultan of Delhi. After
four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.

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 The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)

Jalaluddin Khalji (1290 - 1296)

 The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim imperialism in India.
 Founder of the Khalji dynasty - Jalaluddin Khalji.
 He was seventy years old when he came to power.
 He was generous and lenient. For example –
o Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed to remain the governor of Kara.
But when Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was pardoned.
o When the robbers looted the country, they were allowed to go after a severe
warning.
o In 1292 when Malik Chhajju revolted for the second time, he was replaced by
Jalauddin’s son-in-law, Alauddin Khalji.
 In 1296 while taking expedition to Devagiri Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his
father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.

Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)

 2nd ruler of Khalji dynasty

 He called himself as ‘Second Alexander’
 He took the title ‘Sikander-i-Sani’.
 Early name was Ali Gurushap.
 He banned drinking of alcohol in open in his kingdom.
 He built the city Siri, the second of the seven cities of Delhi, near Qutub Minar.

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 Nobles

 He made enormous gifts to the hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win over them to his
side. Those who still opposed him accession were punished severely.
 He framed regulations to control the nobles.
 Basic reasons according to sultan for noble rebellions -
1. General prosperity of the nobles.
2. Intermarriages between noble families.
3. Inefficient spy-system.
4. Drinking liquor.
 Therefore, he passed 4 ordinances.
1. He confiscated the properties of the nobles.
2. Reorganization of intelligence system and immediate report of secret activities
of nobles
3. The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally stopped.
4. Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of Sultan were
forbidden.
 By such harsh measures his reign was free from rebellions.

Reforms of Alauddin Khalji

Army reforms

 He had a large permanent standing army, which was paid in cash from the royal
treasury.
 This was done through the produce collected as tax from lands between the Ganga and
Yamuna. Tax was fixed at 50 per cent of the peasant’s yield.
 According to the Ferishta, Persian historian, he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen.
 He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya or chehra
(descriptive list of soldiers).
 A strict review of army from time to time was carried out so that the army has its
maximum efficiency.
 Military expeditions into southern India started during the reign of Alauddin Khalji.

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Market reforms

 Alauddin chose to pay his soldiers salaries in cash rather than iqtas.
 The soldiers would buy their supplies from merchants in Delhi and it was thus feared
that merchants would raise their prices.
 To stop this, Alauddin controlled the prices of goods in Delhi.
 Alauddin Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi –
1. For grain
2. For cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil
3. For horses, slaves and cattle
4. For miscellaneous commodities.
 Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi.
 The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store-houses in same
way as today Food Corporation of India (FCI) does.
 Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities.
 A separate department called Diwan –i-Riyasat, which was renaming of Diwan-i-Rasalat
was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.
o During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, this department was renamed or replaced by
the department called Diwan-i-riyasat whose primary function was to implement
the economic regulations issued by the Sultan and control the markets and
prices.
 Every merchant was registered under the Market department.
 There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding
the functioning of these markets.
 The Sultan also sent slave boys to buy various commodities to check prices.
 Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat
by using false weights and measures.
 Even during the famine, the same price was maintained.

Land Revenue Administration reforms

 He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land.
o After measurement the revenue from the land was assessed according to the
measurement of land.
 Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax.
 Land revenue was collected in cash so he can pay the soldiers in cash.
 His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and
Akbar.

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  To know about the revenue arrears and collect them, he introduced a new department
of Diwan-i-mustakhraj.

Architecture

 Alai Minar (see image and details in architecture section)

 Alai Darwaza

Military Campaigns

Mongol Invasions

 He had sent his army six times against the Mongols.

 First 2 times - he was successful
 Third time - Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from
entering into the capital city.
 Next three times - Mongol invasions were dealt with severely.
 The north western frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden
of Marches to protect the frontier.

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[Link] Page 30
Conquest of Gujrat

 He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his
daughter escaped.
 While the queen was caught and sent to Delhi. Kafur, a eunuch, was also taken to Delhi
and later he was made the Malik Naib – military commander.

Conquest of Rajasthan

 In 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthambore (not Ranthampur) because the ruler
Hamirdevra had declined sultan to handover the Mongol nobles who had took shelter
there.
 After a three month’s siege Ranthambore fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or
self-immolation.
 After Ranthambore he turned to Chittor. It was the powerful state in Rajasthan.
 There were two reasons that led Alauddin to attack Ranthambore. First, he wanted to
marry Rani Padmini or Padmavati who was very beautiful and refusal by Raja Ratan to
give way to his army for Gujrat conquest
 The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort.
 Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought valiantly but submitted.
 The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed jauhar. Jauhar, sometimes
spelled Johar or Juhar, was the Hindu custom of mass self-immolation by women in
parts of the Indian subcontinent, to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by foreign
invaders, when facing certain defeat during a war.
 This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavath written by

Malik Muhammad Jayasi

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Conquest of Deccan

 Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far south.
 This region was ruled by 4 important dynasties –
1. Yadavas of Devagiri – ruler Ramachandra Deva
2. Kakatiyas of Warangal - Pratabarudra Deva
3. Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra - Vira Ballala III
4. Pandyas of Madurai - Vira Pandya
 Malik Kafur, Alauddin’s military commander, subdued all four region’s rulers one by one
and seized vast quantity of booty and returned to Delhi.
 Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.

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Patronization of Art

 He patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.

 Amir Khusru is known as the ‘Parrot of India’
 Amir Khusru is considered as the father of Urdu language and the inventor of Sitar.
 Laila Majnu and Tughlaq Nama are the famous works of Amir Khusru.

End of dynasty

 Khilji dynasty came to an end when the Mubarak shah Khalji was killed by Khusrau
Khan.
 Some historians consider Khusrau Khan as the last Khalji Sulthan.
 Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the
throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.

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 The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)

Founder of dynasty - Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320 - 1325)

 His real name was Ghazi Malik.

 Ghiasuddin Tughlaq founded the dynasty after killing Khuzru Khan in 1320.
 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against Warangal.
 He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.
 Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
o He built the Tughlaqabad Fort.
 First Sultan to start irrigation works.
 Ghiazuddin died by the collapse of a pavilion.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)

 Ulugh Khan (also known as Juna khan) was said to have treacherously killed his father
and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
 He had introduced many ambitious schemes and novel experiments but all of them
ended in miserable failures because they were all far ahead of their time.
 Very tolerant in religious matters.
 Maintained diplomatic relations with far off countries like Egypt, China and Iran.
 Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to portrait
correct picture about his personality.
 He was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and
philosophical education.

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Experiment 1 - Transfer of Capital

 He wanted to make Devagiri (which he renamed Daulatabad) his second capital so that
he might be able to control South India better.
 The moving of capital was not successful.

Why this experiment failed?

 It was too far from northern India (more than 1500 kms) and sultan could not keep a
watch on the western frontiers.
 Everyone, including nobles, population had to suffer the hardship of summer and long
distance.
 Many people died. Those who opposed were supressed.
 He returned to Delhi and once again it was made the capital.

Impact -

 Southern kingdoms saw this as sign of weakness of sultan

 Soon after Bahamani and Vijayanagar kingdom in Deccan declared their independence.

Experiment 2 – Token Currency

 The sultan decided to issue ‘token’ coins in brass and copper which could be exchanged
for silver coins from the treasury
 Kublai Khan issued paper money in China. Sultan tried to copy the same.

Why this experiment failed?

 Because he was not able to prevent forging the new coins.

 The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale.

Impact -

 Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets.

 Finally, he had to discontinue the circulation of token currency and promised to
exchange silver coins for the copper coins. Soon the treasury became empty.
 According the Barani, the heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in
Tughlaqabad.

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Experiment 3 – Taxation in Doab

 There were many reasons for this 3rd experiment –

o He wanted to conquer India and central Asia, this means large army and that
means large amount of money to pay their salaries
o To overcome financial difficulties
 So he increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and
Yamuna rivers).

Why this experiment failed?

 It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers.

 At the same time there struck a famine in doab which made the condition worse.

Impact -

 Serious peasant revolts.

 Farmers fled from the villages.

Experiment 4 – Agricultural Reforms

 Lately Sultan realized that real solution lies in adequate relief measures and the
promotion of agriculture.
 A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established.
 He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the
farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
 Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the
government spent seventy lakh tankas.
 This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.

Rebellions

 In Sultan’s later part of reign, there were no. of revolts against Sultan by nobles and
provincial governors.
 Madurai sultanate established by rebellion Hasan Shah.
 1336 – Vijayanagr Kingdom founded.
 1347 - Bhamini kingdom established.
 Governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted.
 Gujarat - Taghi rose in revolt.

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Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became worse and he died in 1351.

 According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people from the
Sultan.
 Moroccan Traveller Ibn Batuta visited India during his period.
 According to Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His reign
marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
o He was also known as a wisest fool, Pagal padushah, unfortunate idealogue and
the predecessor of Akbar in intellectual and religious matters.
o Ibn Batuta called him ‘‘an ill-starred idealist’’.
o Edward Thanas described him as ‘prince of moneyers’.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)

 Firoz Tughlaq had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles.
 He was the author of Fatuhat -i- Firozshahi
 His wazir (Prime minister), Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert helped the
Sultan in his administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during this
period.

Military Campaigns

 He had to face the problem of preventing the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.
 As no. of rulers started declaring themselves as independent. He tried to focus on
northern India instead of reasserting the control over southern India
 Bengal - He led two unsuccessful expeditions to Bengal.
o Bengal became free from the control of Delhi Sultanate
 Jajnagar (modern Orissa) – successful expedition and returned with rich booty acquired
from the temples.
 Nagarkot – made its ruler to pay tributes.

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 o Collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from the Jawalamukhi temple library and
got them translated into Persian.
 Thatta in the Sind region – crushed a rebellion there.

Administrative Reforms

 His reign was more notable for his administration.

Nobles, Ulemas and Revision of Iqta system

 Ulemas – scholars of Islamic learning who were generally orthodox in their outlook.
 Strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
 He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties.
 Thus the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.

Taxes

 As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes.

 First Sultan of Delhi to impose Jaziya.
o Jaziya - It was a religious tax for the freedom of worship.
 He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
 The special tax on 28 items was abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law

Agriculture

 Imposed irrigation tax.

 Irrigation canals and wells were dug.
 The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi.
 Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
 There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi yielding more revenue.

Factories

 New royal factories were developed known as karkhanas in which thousands of slaves
were employed.

Towns

 About 300 new towns were built.

 The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah
Kotla.

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 Other reforms

 Old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
 A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and
widows.
 Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.
 He patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.
 He was guided by the ulemas and so he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
 He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was
the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
 Defeated soldiers and young persons were created as slaves and Firoz’s successor had to
face the rebellion of slaves at his death in 1388
 In upcoming years there was further disintegration of Sultanate.
o Many provinces had revolted
o Timur invaded India in 1398 and returned back in 1399. In that 1-year duration
he had sacked the Delhi and India and killed many people.

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 Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451)

Khizr Khan (1414 - 1421)

 Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.
 He occupied Delhi and declared himself as sultan and founded the Sayyid dynasty in
1414.
 He died in 1421

Mubarak Shah (1421 - 1434)

 After Khizr khan death, he was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah.
 He was a man of great vision, but the nobles were against him and kept revolting.

Muhammad Shah (1434 -1445)

 Nephew of Mubarak Shah.

 Always busy against conspirators and gradually lost control over his nobles.
 Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated everything.
 Muhammad Shah died in 1445.

Alam Shah (1445 - 1451)

 Muhammad Shah was succeeded by his son Alam Shah (1445-1451)

 The weakest of the Sayyid princes.
 He handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
 Bahlul formally crowned himself when ruler of Delhi died in 1451

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 Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)

The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans.

Bahlul Lodi (1451 - 1489)

 Founder of Lodi Dynasty

 Bahlul Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks.
 He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.

Sikandar Lodi (1489 - 1517)

 He was the greatest of the three Lodi sovereigns.

 He controlled the Ganga valley as far as western Bengal.
 He moved the capital from Delhi to new city because he thought he would have better
control over kingdom. This city later became famous as Agra.

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  He extended his empire from the Punjab to Bihar. He was a good administrator.
 He was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and powerful.
 He tried to win people by various measures of public welfare.
o Tried to maintain price control and encouraged low prices.
o Roads were laid.
o Many irrigational facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
 He was a bigot. He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on
the Hindus.

Ibrahim Lodi (1517 - 1526)

 He succeeded Sikandar Lodi.

 He was defeated by Rana Sangram singh of Mewar.
 He was arrogant. He insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated them and those
who revolted were put to death.
 His own uncle, Alauddin revolted.
 Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Lahore was insulted and discontent emerged
between them.
 Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan Lodi along with Ibrahim’s
uncle, Alam khan, plotted with Babur, the king of Kabul to invade India.
 Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat (1526).
 The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy-five years.

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Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultanate:
The main causes were:-

 Despotic and military type of government which did not have the confidence of the
people
 Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz
Tughlaq)
 War of succession as there was no fixed law of it
 Greed and incompetency of nobles
 Defective military organisation
 Vastness of empire and poor means of communication
 Financial instability
 Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a burden on
the treasury
 Invasion of Timur

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 INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE

Administration

 Powerful and efficient administration.

o Reason - establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate.
 At its peak point, Delhi sultanate had extended as far south as Madurai.
 Though the Delhi Sultanate had started disintegrating but still their administrative
system had left a powerful impact on the Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the
Mughal system of administration.

State and Sultan

 The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
 Sultans were representatives of the Caliph.
 Name of the Caliph was included in the khutba or prayer and even inscribed on the
coins.
 Balban who called himself the shadow of God, to increase the power of monarch also
continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in the khutba and coins.
 Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of
permission from the Caliph.

Office of Sultan and his authority

 Office of the Sultan was the most important in the administrative system.
 He was the ultimate authority for the military, legal and political activities just like our
today’s political heads of state.

Law of Succession

 Absence of law of succession.

 This means all the children of sultan had equal right to the throne. Razia was perfect
example of it.
 Iltutmish nominated Razia (his daughter) in preference to his sons.
 But nobles had a very big say in such nominations or successions and so they were to be
accepted by the nobles.
 Sometimes ulemas also played crucial role in accepting the succession to the throne.
 But military superiority remained the main factor in matters of succession not only in
that period but also in upcoming times.

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Central Government

 The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and officials in his administration.

Post of Naib

 Most powerful
 Practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan
 Exercised general control over all the departments

Finance department

 Headed by - Wazir
 Department name – Diwan-i-Wizarat

Military department

 Headed by - Ariz-i-mumalik
 Department name – Diwan-i-Ariz
 Head was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military
department.
 He was not the commander-in-chief of the army.
 The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army.
 This department was 1st set up by Balban
 Further improvisation by - Alauddin Khalji, whose army strength was 3 Lakh
 Alauddin introduced - system of branding of the horses and payment of salary in cash.
 Cavalry was given importance under the Delhi Sultanate.

Department of religious affairs

 Headed by – Chief Sadr

 Department name – Diwan-i-Rasalat
 This department made Grants for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs
and madrasas.

Judicial department

 Headed by - chief Qazi

 Other judges or qazis were appointed in various parts of the Sultanate.

Civil matters

 For Muslims – their personal law or sharia was followed.

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  For Hindus - their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village
panchayats.

Criminal matters

 Based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.

Department of correspondence

 Department name – Diwan-i-Insha

 All the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt with by this
department.

Name of department Known by Headed by

Finance department Diwan-i-Wizarat Wazir
Military department Diwan-i-Ariz Ariz-i-mumalik
Religious affairs department Diwan-i-Rasalat Chief Sadr
Judicial department Chief Qazi
Correspondence department Diwan-i-Insha Dahir-i-mumalik

Local Administration

 Sultante was divided into provinces, which were called as Iqtas.

 Iqtas holder was called Iqtadar or Muqti.
 Initially iqtas were under the control of the nobles.
 Like the earlier Sultans, the Khalji and Tughluq monarchs appointed military
commanders as governors of iqtas.
 The provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana.
 Shiqdar controlled shiq
 Amil headed pargana which comprise of number of villages.
 Village remained the basic unit of the administration.
 Village headman – ‘muqaddam or chaudhri’.
 Village accountant – ‘patwari’ and today also it is known by the same name.

Muqtis

 Duty of the muqtis –

o To lead military campaigns
o Maintain law and order in their iqtas.
 In exchange for their military services, the muqtis collected the revenues of their
assignments as salary.

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  They also paid their soldiers from these revenues.
 Control over muqtis was most effective when –
o These offices were not inheritable
o If iqtas were assigned for a short period of time before being shifted.
 These harsh conditions of service were rigorously imposed during the reigns of Alauddin
Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.
 Accountants were appointed by the state to check the amount of revenue collected by
the muqtis.
 Care was taken that the muqti collected only prescribed taxes and maintained the
required number of soldiers.

Economy

 Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in the land revenue administration.

 The lands were classified into three categories:
1. Iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their
services. The officials collect revenues from these iqtas as their salaries.
2. Khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. Inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
 Land revenue paid by peasantry – 1/3rd or sometimes ½ of their total production
 They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living.
 Frequent famines made their lives more miserable.
 Tughlaq dynasty rulers like Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took some steps
to enhance agricultural production –
o By providing irrigational facilities
o By providing takkavi loans
o Encouraging the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead of barley.
o Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwan-i-
Kohi.

Urbanization

 During sultanate period process of urbanization had started.

 No. of cities and towns like Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad,
Delhi and Jaunpur had grown during this period.
 Delhi remained the largest city in the East.

Trade and commerce

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  The economic reforms of Alauddin Khilji brought the prices to very low but that had also
increased the import goods since the Sultan made advances to the foreign traders to
import their goods and he always subsidised in such cases.
 Contemporary writers like Ibn Battutah described growth of trade and commerce
 India exported a large number of commodities to countries of Persian Gulf, West Asia
and South East Asia.
 Overseas trade - Multanis and Afghan Muslims controlled it.
 Inland trade - Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchant’s domination.
 Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated smooth transport and
communication.

 Balban was the first Sultan who got dense forests cut; roads built and secured form the
danger of bandits.
 It also helped the traders and their commercial caravans to move from one market place
to another
 Sarais or rest houses were made on the highways for convenience of travelers.
 Cotton textile and silk industry flourished
 Introduction of Sericulture on a large scale made India less dependent on other
countries for the import of raw silk.

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  Growth of Paper industry led to extensive use of paper from 14th and 15th centuries.
 leather-making, metal-crafts and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing
demand.
 The royal karkhanas whose workers were slaves supplied the goods needed to the
Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver and
gold ware.
 The nobles always tried to imitate the luxurious life style of Sultans.
 They were well paid and accumulated enormous wealth.

Coins

 Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas.

 During the Khalji rule, 1 silver tanka = 48 jitals (like today we have 1$ = 60 `)
 During Tughlaq rule, 1 silver tanka = 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule.
 Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South
Indian conquests.
 Copper coins were less in number and dateless.
 Recall failure of Muhammad bin Tughlaq token currency experiment had exhausted the
royal treasury.
 Though he issued several types of gold and silver coins. At least 25 varieties of gold coins
were issued by him.

Social Life
Hindu society

 There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society.

 Traditional caste system
 Upper strata of the society – Brahmins.
 Women –
o Subservient position

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 o Practice of Sati
o Seclusion of women
o Wearing of purdah among the upper class women (purdah system brought by
Arabs and Turks).

Muslim society

 It remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups - The Turks, Iranians, Afghans
and Indian Muslims
 There were no intermarriages between these groups.
 Hindu converts from lower castes were also not given equal respect.
 Muslim nobles – occupied high offices
 Hindu nobles – high offices very rarely given in the government.
 Hindus have to pay Jaziya.
 In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
 During Firoz Tughlaq period it was collected as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins
were exempted from paying jiziya.

Art and Architecture- Covered in Part 4

Music

 New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period.

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  Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam.
 He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems.
 The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
 The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of
Firoz Tughlaq.
 Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
 Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition
of a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Literature

 The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature.

 Many of them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature.
 Learned men were from Persia and so Persian language got encouragement.
 Besides theology and poetry, the writing of history was also encouraged.

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  Some Sultans kept their own court historians. The most famous historians were Hasan
Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif.

Amir Khusrau (1252 -1325)

 The famous Persian writer of this period.

 He wrote a number of poems.
 He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry
called ‘Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian style’.
 He also wrote some Hindi verses.
 Amir Khusrau was author of Khazain-ul-Futuh and Tughlaq Nama.

Languages

 Sanskrit and Persian languages functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
 Zia Nakshabi – 1st person to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.
 Book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot – was a popular book and translated into
Turkish and later into many European languages.
 The famous Rajatarangini written during the period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of
Kashmir.
 Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were translated into Persian.
 In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
 Regional languages also developed during this period.
 Chand Baradi – famous Hindi poet of this period.
 Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of
Mahabharata into Bengali.
 The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages.
 The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.

Author name/ Book written About book

Writer/Historian
Minhaj – i – Siraj Tabaqat-i-Nasiri A general history of Muslim
dynasties up to 1260.
Ziauddin Barani Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi History of Tughlaq dynasty
Amir Khusrau Khazain-ul-Futuh Alauddin’s conquests
Amir Khusrau Tughlaq Nama Rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq
Kalhana Rajatarangini About early Kashmir and its
neighbours in the north
western parts of the Indian
subcontinent
Al Baruni Kitab-ul-Hind History of India

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Abu Nasr bin Muhammad al Kitab-ul-Yamini History of the reign of
Jabbaral Utbi Subuktigin and Mahmud
Ghazani

Shaikh Abdul Husan Kamil-ut-Tawarikh account of Muhammad of

popularly, known as ‘Ibn-ul- Ghur’s conquest of India.
Asir’

Taj-ul-Maasir Hasan Nizami Account on the career &

reign of Qutub-ud-din Aibak
& the early years of Iltutmish

Ibn Battutah Kitab-in-Rahlab Book of travels which

furnishes a lot of historical
information

Firoz Shah Tughlaq Futuhat-i-Firozeshahi Small autobiography of Firoz

Shah Tughlaq

Ahmad Yadgar Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afghana Account of the rise and fall of

the Lodis and Suris. Written
during Akbar’s reign.

Chand Bardai Prithviraja Raso Events relating to Prithviraj.

Chandrasekhar Surjana Charita Kavya Source of information of the

Chauhan rulers.

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