Unit #4- Study guide

1. The Industrial ●​ 1760-1840

Revolution ●​ mass production of cotton industry
●​ New innovations of cotton spinners: spinning jenny, water
frame, flying shuttle, spinning mule (inventors: James
Hargreaves, Richard Arkwright, John Kay, Samuel
Crompton)
●​ Flourished in England with their advantages
●​ Railroads and Steam Engines play a great role in growing the
revolution
●​ George Stephenson: Created the Rocket
●​ James Watt: improved the steam engine
●​ Urbanization of rural workers lead to industrialization

2. Great Britain’s ●​ Booming economy over the Atlantic in colonies

advantage ●​ Agricultural Revolution produced mass amount of food for
people for consumption
●​ Workers who couldn’t own land moved to working in urban
communities: urbanization
●​ Geographic location allowed easy oceanic transportation
●​ Growing population called for a way to get raw materials
●​ Had natural resources on land: coal and iron
●​ Rural workers become more mobile; not tied down to
farmland now that factories were made
●​ failure

3. IR & the standards of ●​ Factory workers in harsh conditions in the beginning of IR

living for workers ○​ Damp and poor ventilation caused spread of disease
○​ Dangerous machinery caused injuries
○​ Women and children were not paid as much as men
●​ They worked as long as 14 hours a day
●​ Poor Law of 1834 pushed for unemployed to work in other
places
●​ Changes were made for workers in Factory Act of 1833 and
Mines Act of 1842, mostly for sake of woman and children
workers

4. the Radical Phase ●​ Also known as the “second revolution” in France

●​ In 1793, the jacobians replaced the Girondins and became
more overbearing in their belief of a centralized government
●​ Jacobians had firm control of convention
●​ this led to more violence
●​ Many were executed so that the republic could become whole
 again
●​ In 1795 France fell under a five-man directory
●​ Robespierre tried to create a temporary dictatorship to save
the republic

5. Klemens von ●​ Ruler of Austria, met with others at the Congress of Vienna
Metternich ●​ he was against Russia taking over Poland in fear of an
unbalance of power in Europe.
●​ established the Carlsbad Decrees Thought that liberalism
was responsible for war and bloodshed. In favor of
Conservatism
●​ always remained loyal to the aristocratic class, and jealously
defended its rights and privileges with a clear conscience
●​ believed that liberalism had been responsible for generation
of war and bloodshed
●​ blamed liberal middle class revolutionaries for stirring up
lower classes
Nell and Natalie p. 757-759

6. Charles X (France) ●​ ruler of France 1824-1830

●​ came to power after Louis XVIII
●​ reactionary
●​ wanted to establish old order in France - established decrees
stripping wealthy middle class of voting rights and censored
press
●​ “3 glorious days” government collapsed and he fled
Natalie and Nell p. 777

7. Marx ●​ supported the proletariat (working class).

●​ Believed classes were doomed to battle each other, and that
the bourgeoisie would be overthrown by the working class
●​ revolutionary socialist
●​ studied industrial rev+ french rev
●​ The Communist Manifesto, and Das Kapital (most notable
writings)
●​ believed politics and economics were at cause and effect of
each other
●​ Ideas off of Hegelian
●​ Valued the facts of history
Natalie and Nell p.766

8. Carlsbad Decrees ●​ in Germany-requiring 38 states to remove subversive

(tending or intending to overthrow, destroy, or undermine an
 established or existing system) from all universities and press
plus a committee of spies to rat out and punish any liberals or
radicals.
●​ established by Metternich
Nell and Natalie p. 759

9. Smith ●​ Adam Smith

●​ Wrote Wealth of Nations
●​ believed in laissez-faire
●​ insisted that supply and demand would act as an “invisible
hand” so that selfish individual acts would ultimately benefit
the whole society
●​ opposed gov. regulations that interfered with the competitive
free market
●​ believed gov policies should be limited to enforcing contracts,
protecting private property, and ensuring national defense.
●​ -Tommy Ezell and Amir Moayed

10. Fourier ●​ Charles Fourier

●​ envisioned a socialist utopia of mathematically precise, self
sufficient communities with 1620 people each
●​ early proponent on total emancipation of women
●​ believed that marriages were only another kind of prostitution
and sales
●​ Utopian Socialist
●​ advocated social and economic planning to create societies
based on cooperation rather than competition
●​ -Tommy Ezell and Amir Moayed

11. Luddites​ ●​ Named after Ned Ludd

●​ 1812
●​ Frustrated English handicraft workers
●​ broke into early textile factories, smashed all machines inside
because they thought they were putting the workers out of
business
●​ later formed labor unions for better wages+work conditions
●​ upset that the Industrial Revolution destroyed the rural way of
life and polluted the land and water.
●​ Tommy Ezell and Amir Moayed

12. Estates/classes in ●​ 1st Estate: Clergy

French society ○​ ~100,0000
○​ people
p. 698-699 ○​ owned 10% of land
○​ paid only a “voluntary gift” rather than regular taxes to
the government every 5 years
○​ church levied a tax (tithe) on landowners, which
averaged less than 10%
●​ 2nd Estate: Nobility
○​ ~400,000 noblemen and women
○​ owned ~25% of land
○​ taxed very lightly
○​ enjoyed manorial rights (privileges of lordship that
dated back to medieval times and allowed them to tax
the peasantry for their own profit)
■​ done by exclusive rights to hunt and fish,
village monopolies on baking bread and
pressing grapes for wine, fees for justice, and
a host of other “useful privileges”
○​ had “honorific privileges” such as the right to
precedence on public occasions and the right to wear
a sword
■​ proclaimed nobility’s legal superiority and
exalted social position
●​ 3rd Estate: Everyone else
○​ few commoners (prosperous merchants or lawyers
and officials) were well educated and rich, and might
even buy manorial rights as profitable investments
○​ many more commoners were urban artisans and
unskilled day laborers
○​ vast majority consisted of peasants and agricultural
workers in the countryside
○​ conglomeration of vastly different social groups united
by shared legal status as distinct from nobility and
clergy

13. unions ●​ workers did not want to be replaced by machines and wanted
specialized workers to strike with them for higher pay
Pg 748 ●​ Combination Acts passed in 1799 in response to formation of
unions
●​ Repealed in 1824 from opposing uproar
●​ Robert Owen attempted to form Grand National
Consolidated Trades Union in 1834
●​ Didn’t work but him and other efforts still pursued their needs
●​ Finally, the Amalgamated Society of Engineers were
 accepted because of members with fairly conservative means

14. Congress of Vienna in ●​ represented a temporary triumph for old conservative power
1815 ( Cami Lutwak) ●​ Monarchies such as Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great
Page 757 Britain defeated France and agreed to meet at Congress of
Vienna to set a general peace settlement
●​ the great challenge for political leaders in 1814 was to
construct settlement that would last→ led to successful and
peaceful century
●​ met at Congress of Vienna in 1815 to balance European
power
●​ The congress of Vienna consisted of the four French allies
(Russia, Prussia, Austria and Great Britain), a number of
small European states, Low Countries(Belgium and Holland)
●​ Quadruple Alliance was lenient yet took strong defensive
measures
○​ Allies granted France large borders, restored Bourbon
dynasty, no reparations
■​ did not show injustice and revenge to the
defeated country
○​ Quad. Alliance + smaller states agreed to raise a
number of formidable barriers against renewed French
aggression

15. Napoleon (Cami Birth: 1769-1821; born in Corsica into impoverished noble family
Lutwak) Job: military dictator/general during French Rev. and was placed in
Pages 712-718 command of French forced and win many victories around late
1790’s
Up and downfalls: 1799: seized power of military groups and
became national hero
●​ sent peace offerings to Austria and Great Britain but peace
was rejected
●​ after rejection, French military sent war on Austria
●​ Napoleon unsatisfied and wanted to weaken other countries
●​ tried to restrict trade with Britain
●​ Austria, Russia, Sweden joined Britain to form 3rd Coalition to
restore balance of power
●​ took over Directory
Napoleon wanted ever-expanding France which by 1810 included
Belgium, Holland, northern Italy, and parts of Germany
-​ introduced new French laws, abolished feudal dues and came
to be seen as conquering ruler
 -​ gained power over the church
-​ Later on, fight with Russia→ defeat on Napoleons army
-​ Allies started fighting France→ Napoleon made many
enemies and forced into exile around 1815
-​ Came back to rule France, but was defeated by Britain and
Austria at Waterloo.

16. The Reign of Terror -​ Also called the Terror

(p710) -​ Meant to keep the revolution alive and help the war effort
-​ Anyone accused of being enemies of the revolution were
executed
-​ The guillotine was used to execute lots of people
-​ Begun by the Committee of Public Safety, who believed that it
was an unfortunate, yet necessary method of keeping the
revolution alive
-​ Lots of counter revolutionary uprisings occur
-​ Robespierre was in charge of the committee and caused
much of the Terror
-​ Robespierre also eventually killed by the Guillotine (Danton)

17. Sans-culottes The Sans-Culottes

-​ “without breeches”
(p707) -​ protested the upper classes who wore breeches, so
they wore pants instead
-​ were laboring poor who wanted economic reform
-​ worked with Robespierre and the Jacobins to overthrow the
Mountain and lead the revolution

18. Girondists ●​ A group within France’s National Convention (and Legislative

Assembly) from 1792-1793
●​ Opposed the Jacobins, including The Mountain.
●​ Wanted war with Austria, didn’t want to abolish the current
monarchy.
●​ Started losing power to more radical groups like the Jacobins
once the king had been overthrown.

19. Jacobins -​ Political club within the Legislative Assembly that was known for
(p705) its revolutionary ideas
-​ Supported equality of everyone
-​ Closely allied with/ helped the sans-coulottes
-​ Created a strong government that could withstand the internal
turmoil in France
-​ Supported rights of property, yet allied more with middle class than
 upperclass
-​ After overthrowing monarchy, helped to lead the revolution

20. The Mountain -​ A group within the Jacobins

(p707) -​ Most radical group
-​ Named the Mountain because they sat in the upper left hand
corner of the Legislative assembly
-​ Enemies of the Girondists, allied with the sans-coulottes and
defeated the girondists
-​ led by Robespierre
-​ Made/ composed the majority of the Committee of Public
Safety
-​ Most of them murdered during the Thermidorian Reaction

21. Entrepreneurs ●​ Were industrial investors who sponsored development of

factories.
●​ Fritz Harkort was German entrepreneur
●​ Started Germany’s industrial revolution

22. steam engine Steam Engines

-​ Were very inefficient at first
-​ Made by Thomas Newcomen and Thomas Savery
-​ Thomas the Tank Engine!??! luminary
-​ James Watt refined them in the 1760s
-​ Teamed up with John Wilkinson (big manufacturer) to make
many engines
-​ Quickly became used in all industries as power multiplier
-​ Worked by making steam and using it to push pistons at great
strength

23. Thomas Newcomen ●​ In the year 1705, Thomas Newcomen created the very first
(p731) steam engine.
●​ His engine burned coal to create steam, which powered a
pump.
●​ It pumped water out of mines
●​ Engine was very inefficient.
●​ replaced mechanical pumps powered by animals
●​ By the beginning of the 1770’s, however, hundreds of
Newcomen’s engines were successfully, but extremely
inefficiently, working in Scottish and English mines.
24. James Watt (p731) ●​ James Watt was born in 1736 in Scotland.
●​ In the beginning of the 1760’s, he began to have an interest in
the study of the steam engine.
●​ During this time, he was a skilled craftsman who worked at
the University of Glasgow making scientific instruments.
●​ In 1763, Watt was asked to repair a Newcomen Steam
engine.
●​ After many observations, Watt realized how inefficient
Newcomen’s engines were and made an adjustment to save
energy.
●​ made steam engines practical and commercially successful in
Britain
●​ James added a separate condenser, and this made such a
great big difference that in 1769, the steam engine was
patented under his name.
●​ sparked transformations in manufacturing and transportation

25. women in the IR ●​ Women played a major role in the French Revolution
●​ There was that time at the beginning when congress wasn’t
getting anything done, so a bunch of women broke into
Versailles and dragged the Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI
out, then forced them to move to paris.
●​ Plus, the French Revolution was an important time for
women’s rights, because individuals were fighting for equality
in general already. Women’s rights ideas were proposed and
were actually considered for on the of the first times ever.

26. Mary Wollstonecraft ●​ Fought for the rights of women in the French Revolution.
& FR ●​ Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792
●​ Argued that women are not inferior to men, and were only less
prepared for work because they had received unequal educations.

27. Olympe de Gouges & ●​ French feminist and political activist

FR ●​ Advocated for a more liberal government
●​ Three forms: unitary republic, federalist government, and
constitutional monarchy
●​ Most radical idea was gender equality
●​ Got guillotined for political and social beliefs

28. Communist Manifesto ●​ Socialist Bible

●​ History of all previously existing societies is the history of
class struggle
●​ Society was split between the middle class (bourgeoisie) and
 the working class (proletariat)
●​ Bourgeoisie consistently took advantage of the proletariat
throughout history
●​ Predicted proletariat would conquer the bourgeoisie in a
violent revolution
●​ “Working men of all countries unite”

29. Karl Marx ●​ completed a majority of his work and preached his ideas from
the years 1844-1883.
●​ intense man and cared very little about what other people
thought about him.
●​ His public attitude towards people was intense, offensive, and
he did not hold anything back.
●​ a caring and compassionate individual towards his family and
friends.
●​ He did not believe in pleasing everyone, he was rude if it got
the point across
●​ He was not about being famous or popular he spoke to the
intelligent mind and those who understood but did not always
like his ideas.
●​ wrote Das Kapital focused on the history of class struggles,
the history of society and the scientific laws which govern all
history.
●​ does not appeal to conscience or principle.
●​ against natural rights because of his hatred for the
bourgeoisie.
●​ class warfare = unavoidable and this leaves no doubt why he
did not like the bourgeois and Utopian Socialists.
●​ detested romanticism, emotionalism, sentimentalism and
humanitarianism.
●​ interested in the dialectic process of history (Hegel)
○​ believed that dialectic processes were driven by
economic changes
■​ a.k.a dialectical materialism

30. Friedrich Engels ●​ Engels after a while had decided that he wanted to return to
Germany but on the way he met Karl Marx in Paris.
●​ Before Engels met Marx he had the beliefs of a materialist
and scientific socialist.
●​ They met at a local cafe on the Place du Palais in August of
1844.
●​ The two immediately became close friends and were
 throughout the rest of their lives.
●​ He helped Marx write the Communist Manifesto which was
basically the foundation for communism.
●​ He and Marx both believed in the idea of dialectical
materialism, which states that all human history is determined
by economic factors.
●​ He thought that there was a never ending class struggle.
●​ He also thought that socialism was inevitable and that
Capitalism holds the bomb to its own destruction.

31. The condition of the ●​ Published by Friedrich Engels in 1844.

Working Class ●​ “I charge the English middle classes with mass murder,
wholesale robbery, and all the other crimes in the calendar”.
●​ He believed that the new poverty of industrial workers was
worse than the old poverty of cottage workers and agricultural
laborers.
●​ This was all because of Capitalism, with it’s relentless
competition and constant technical change
●​ Strongly influenced Marx and later socialists.

32. Living conditions in ●​ Hard living from 1792 to 1815, a period of constant warfare
IR with france; Food prices rose faster than wages, and living
conditions of laboring poor declined.
●​ After 1820 wages started rising substantially.
●​ By 1850, there was considerable economic improvement for
workers.
●​ Workers consumed 50% more more in 1850 than in 1770
●​ Diets became more varied
●​ Clothing improved
●​ Housing quality deteriorated

33. working conditions IR ●​ 14 hour work days

●​ damp dark factories = sickness
●​ Child Labor = bad, children were easily injured
●​ Families with little money = Everyone works
●​ No age limit for who can and can’t work
●​ Little wages, and even less for children
●​ These conditions led to the Factory act of 1833, and the
Mines act of 1842

34. Tennis Court Oath Page 700 (right hand side column)
When: 17th June 1789
 Where: Tennis Court located in Saint Louis district of the city of
Versailles (near the palace of versailles)
Who: members of the third estate
Who was king?: Louis XVI (16)
What was happening in May 1789?: In May 1789, 1200 delegates
of the three estates paraded in pageantry through the streets of
Versailles to an opening session with feudal magnificence. The
estates were deadlocked though.
What did the third estate do? Delegates of the third estate refused
to transact any business until the king ordered the clergy and nobility
to sit with them in a single body. Finally after a six week war of
nerves, a few parish priests began to go over the third estate
June 17: third estate called itself the “National Assembly”
June 20: the delegates of the third estate got excluded from their hall
because of “repairs”, moved to a large indoor tennis court, this is
where they swore the famous Oath of the Tennis Court
What did this mean?: This meant that the third estate swore not to
disband until they had written a new constitution.

35. Declaration of the What: document

Rights of Man Who wrote it: The national assembly wrote it
When?: August 1789
What was it: A new constitution that gave all citizens free expression
of thought
"liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression"

36. Napoleon & Russia (Pg 717)

- Napoleon's invasion of russia caused him to lose his footing with
the people
-Left for russia w/ 600,000 people 370,000 died from starvation/ cold
winters. 200,000 were taken as captives
- Originally wanted to stop at Smolensk ut Napoleon got greedy and
went all the way to moscow
-leader alexander evacuated moscow and did not allow for
negotiation so Napoleon retreated
-retreat was known as “One of the great military disasters in history”

37. Factory Act of 1833 (746) What they did:

-no children under 9
-9-13 no more than 9hrs per day
-14-18 no more that 12 hrs. per day
-education for the children.
-This did not get rid of the abuse on children but it got rid of child
 labor.
-Also did not limit the hours for children in private companies
-Caused less of families to be working together, and more of only the
men working.

38. Assembly of Notables -​ a group of high ranking nobles who consulted with the king of
France on extremely important matters of state
-​ They were a lot like the States General
-​ They met in 1583, 1596–97, 1617, 1626, 1787, and 1788.
-​ The last time they met it was under King Louie XVI’s rule. At
the time, France was in a lot of financial debt. They believed
that a tax reform was needed.

39. Order of French rulers Louis XVI (1774 - 1792)

in time period Robespierre (1793 - 1794)
Directory (1795 - 1799)
Napoleon (1804 - 1814)
Louis XVIII (1814 - 1815)
Napoleon (1815)
Louis XVIII (1815 - 1824)

40. progress of factories - spinning jenny (invented by James Hargreaves)

- water frame (invented by Richard Arkwright) - acquired a capacity
of several hundred spindles and demanded a lot of power, required
large specialized factories that employed as many as a thousand
workers
- After these inventions, all cotton spinning was gradually
concentrated in factories.
- steam engine (James Watt) - replaced waterpower in mills, and
provided Britain with an almost unlimited supply of energy
- Consequences: replaced the putting out system, replaced skilled
labor with unskilled labor, dramatically increased production,
industrialization

41. Liberty and Equality Two ideas that were very prominent during the French Revolution
that came from the overall sense of nationalism in the country at the
time. Liberty is the idea of freedom and equality being everyone is
equal throughout society, the Old Regime was very opposite to both
ideas as the third estate was in no way equal to the other two or free

42. Assignats An assignat was the currency used by the national assembly from
 1789 to 1796. They were used right after the formation of the national
assembly. They were created when the possessions of the church
were repossessed and were meant to be bonds that evolved into the
currency.

43. Water frames A powerful loom that was very expensive however it was very
efficient. It evolved from the older spinning jenny, but could not be
used in the home since it used water power

44. Richard Arkwright: -Invented the Water Frame

Page 728 - Produced an explosion in the infant cotton textile industry
- Production increased by 13% each year
- Produced 10 times as much cotton yarn as had been made in 1770

45. Body linen: Page 729 -Industrial Revolution -> cheaper cotton goods
-Bought / treasured by all classes
-Past: Only wealthy could afford body linen (called underwear b/c it
was made from expensive linen cloth)
-Now: Millions could afford to wear cotton
slips/underpants/dresses/shirts

46. Spinning jenny: -1765 invention by James Hargreaves

Milind Pathiyal​ -Led to boom in cotton textile industry in 1780s
Page 728 -1790: 10x more output than 1770
-Simple and inexpensive
-Six to twenty-four spindles were mounted on a sliding carriage
-Each spindle spun a fine, slender thread
-The woman moved that carriage back and forth with one hand and
turned a wheel to supply power with the other
-Now, male weavers couldn’t keep up

47. James Hargreaves -(c. 1720-1778)

-Invented spinning jenny
-Past: flying shuttle
-Spinning jenny allowed people produce more at a faster rate.

48. Power loom -1784 by Edmund Cartwright

-Used water power instead of human power
-Fastest device used for creating textiles at its time
-Produced textiles at very fast rates in comparison to everything else
at the time
-Saved labor costs (weaver wages were high)

49. Steam engine -Thomas Savery (1698) Thomas Newcomen (1705)

 -Patented in 1781 by James Watt
-Watt added a separate condenser -> + efficiency
-External combustion engine
-Worked using pistons and could power heavy machinery
-Became very popular in boats and locomotives as they became
more popular

50. Continental System ●​ The Continental System (pg 717) was legislation enacted by
Napoleon in the early 1800s.
●​ It excluded British goods from the continent and forced the
rest of the European continent to agree in the blockade of
British goods.
●​ This was one of Napoleon’s first major blunders in foreign
policy – instead of causing Britain’s economy to collapse,
Britain enacted a counter-blockade to hurt the continent back,
and it succeeded greatly. France and other parts of the
Continent were bankrupted by the System while England
used its new need for independence to push it into the
Industrial Revolution.
●​ The Continental System essentially also caused the
Franco-Russian war in 1812 that was another great failure for
Napoleon, causing him to lose over 500,000 men. Napoleon
used tsar Alexander I of Russia as a piece of blame for the
System’s failures because he had openly denounced the
system in 1811, causing the war.

51. Marie Antoinette ●​ Marie Antoinette (1774 - 1792) was Queen of France, married
to Louis XVI.
●​ She angered French Revolutionaries with her frivolous
behavior and incessant spending on unnecessary items of
fashion and beauty.
●​ She was also generally hated by the people because she did
not bear Louis a son until far into her rule (not her fault), and
she was the daughter of the Austrian Archduchess, daughter
of Empress Maria Theresa and Emperor Francis I of Austria.
This marriage was originally to secure peace between the
Austrians and French, but it caused great war between
France and Austria after the Revolution.
●​ The Women’s March on Versailles was in part caused by
Marie Antoinette’s frivolous spending and caused chants of
hatred against her (pg 704).
●​ After the French Revolution, Marie Antoinette colluded with
 Austrian leaders to try and destroy France from the inside.
The Declaration of Pillnitz in 1791 was passed in part
because of Antoinette’s influence and this led to the
Franco-Austrian War in 1792.
●​ Her husband, Louis, was executed in 1793 and her health
declined rapidly afterwards. She was executed 10 months
later, put on the guillotine with her haircut with no special
ceremony.

52. Radical Phase​ -​ Radical French Revolution Stage 1792 - 1794

-​ Began with march on Versailles
-​ Sans-culottes
-​ Robespierre took control of gvm’t
-​ Robespierre: eradicating those who opposed the revolution ->
strengthening of the revolution.
-​ Included Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 – 28 July 1794)

53. Formation of the ●​ Started when Third Estate was locked out
National Assembly ●​ Consisted of Third Estate Delegates
●​ Passed laws/reforms for France
●​ Born of the Tennis Court Oath

54. Storming of the ●​ People of Paris believed the king’s finance minister would put
Bastille them at the mercy of aristocratic landowners.
●​ They feared that the king’s troops would sack the city
●​ On July 13, 1789 people seized arms to defend their cities
from the king’s troops
●​ On July 14, 1789 hundreds of people marched to the Bastille
●​ 98 people were killed, but fighting continued until the prison
surrendered
●​ This uprising broke the power monopoly of the royal army &
saved the National Assembly

55. Great Fear ●​ Fear of vagabonds and outlaws by contemporaries

●​ Seized countryside and enhanced rebellion
●​ Were in attempt to free themselves from manorial rights
●​ Led to nobles urging equality and eliminating feudal dues.
●​ As the Great Fear subsided, they became a force of order
and stability

56. Women’s march ●​ Took place on October 5, 1789

●​ Women marched the palace of versailles
●​ Were marching because of scarcity and prices of bread
 ●​ When they were denied access to versailles, they decapitated
the guards and put their heads on their pikes
●​ They were also from the markets, so they were big meaty
women.

57. Early industrial ●​ The first factories were mostly powered by water or wind
factories ●​ Produced mostly textiles and materials like cotton and linen
●​ Employed entire families including children
●​ Machines like the water frame and the spinning jenny greatly
improved output of the factories.

58. slogan of FR ●​ liberty, equality, fraternity

●​ Phrase used during the French Revolution
●​ France attempted to establish a democratic government in
place of the monarchy, partly due to the excesses of the
aristocratic class.

59. Estates General in ●​ Estate general comprised of three separate estates: 1st, 2nd,
1789- 3rd
●​ 1st estate comprised of clergy, 2nd estate nobility, 3rd estate
everyone else
●​ Although the 3rd estate was the majority of the population,
however they only has much say as the other 2 estates
●​ King was forced to call the estates general because France
was nearing complete bankruptcy
●​ Tennis Court oath was when the third estate was locked out,
third estate pledge they wouldn't leave until they drafted a
constitution

60. women working in -Mine Acts of 1842 prohibited children under 10 and women from
the mines working in the mines
-Didn’t want women to work in the mines since they didn’t wear shirts
-some women were mad since mining jobs paid a lot of money
-some women were accepting because the act provided that they
were part of families that could manage economically
-women slowly eased into domestic work and away from factory work

61. defeat of Napoleon - Invaded Russia in June 1812 with 600,000 men.
(both time) -Due to the Russian winter, Napoleon was forced to retreat, returning
with only 30,000 men.
-Men got killed by the bitter conditions, groups of Russians killed him
too, and some deserted.
-This was one of the biggest military disasters in history.
-Not long after this he was stripped of his power and sent to the
island of Elba as punishment (Louis XVIII had control).
- He then took advantages of uprising in Paris and was able to seize
power and became emperor once again.
-Britain then allied with Prussia, Austria, and Russia, and as
Napoleon swept to take more land, he was defeated at the battle of
Waterloo
-Expelled to Helena where he also died later.

62. goals & effect of ●​ The allies (Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain) met
Congress of Vienna at the Congress of Vienna to make a peace settlement
●​ France was given its borders from 1792
●​ They also put in strong defensive measures against France
so that it wouldn’t become too powerful again
●​ The four allies were given about equal power

63. The Constitution of ●​ Was drafted by the National Assembly on 9/30/1791

1791 p 757 ●​ Louis XVI was forced to accept the final constitution drafted
by the people. (3rd estate)
●​ This was pretty much the constitution of the united States but
for France
●​ The constitution called for liberty
●​ Robespierre thought the revolution was finally over, but it was
just the constitution part.

64. locomotive -Definition: a powered rail vehicle used for pulling trains
-Coal industry originally been using plank roads/ rails to move coal
wagons within mines
-Rails reduced friction & allowed a horse or a human to pull a heavier
load
-1816: a rail capable of supporting a heavy locomotive was
developed→ all sorts of experiments w/ steam engines on raids went
forward
-1825: (after 10 years of work): George Stephenson build an effective
locomotive
-1830: his developed Rocket sped down the rack of the
just-completed Liverpool & Manchester
65. Absolute monarchy -An absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the
enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society,
allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious
toleration, expanding education.
-To rule absolutely was also Divine Right in which you were god
chosen to rule.

66. Democracy- - a system of government ruled by elected officials by the people for
the people.
-The French rev was all about democracy
-Was liberty/freedom
-Modern and former democracy was formed in ancient Greece

67. Dictatorship -a country that is ruled by one person with total power.
- A now a day example would be North Korea

68. Representative a system of government with a law-making body with some

government officials being elected by the people.

69. Sovereignty supreme power or authority

70. Checks and Balances Montesquieu’s idea; executive, judicial, legislative branches
systematically balanced one another.

71. Constitutional All law-making power was placed in the hands of the National
Monarchy Assembly which was elected by the economic upper half of French
males. Half the power was placed in the king and the other half was
placed in the people

72. The Rocket First mini train created by George Stephenson. Made transportation
much more effective which also lead to a better economy. This is
because it made transportation of goods and people much easier
creating a much vaster trading network.

73. Problems in France In 1789 the French revolution began. The French people grew angry
1789 with the existing monarchy. This was because they spent more
money on luxury in the Palace of Versailles instead of feeding their
own people. The French people began the revolution which led to
many deaths and plunged the country to even worse economic
downfall. Maximilien Robespierre obtained most of the power
because he was the face of the revolution. However with this power
 he became corrupt and radical and killed any sign of counter
revolution. This led to many unnecessary deaths and the French
country eventually reverted back to the monarchy. It was as if the
revolution never happened.

74. Luddites Hand crafters and workers; felt threatened by the Industrial
Revolution; destroyed machines; see number 11

75. American Revolution American war against Britain

1775-1789
Loyalists vs patriots
Origin: taxes (Stamp Act); unfair representation
Common Sense by Thomas Paine
Declaration of Independence - July 4, 1776
France helped America; got bankrupt

76. Manorial Rights Privileges of lordship that allowed nobles to tax peasantry for own
profit; dated from medieval times
Esp. in France; part of the 2nd Estate

77. Second Revolution(in -The monarchy fell, and rapid radicalization of the revolution began.
FR) -After Louis’s imprisonment people invaded prisons and attacked
prisoners. This was the September Massacres
-crazy laws were passed like only addressing people in the friendly
informal “thou”
-Convention proclaimed France a republic but had two fighting
groups, Girondists and The Mountain
-Louis XVI sentenced to death in January 1793
-Girondists and The Mountain still calling for War against Tyranny =
France at war with almost all Europe
-The Mountain convinced Girondists would reinstate royalists while
Girondists feared bloody dictatorship by The Mountain
-This lead to peasants being decisive political power= Sans-culottes
-Mountain and Girondists reject demands by Sans-culottes but then
Mountain joined Sans-culottes to create uprisings to arrest Girondists
members of Convention
-Robespierre and The Mountain form Committee of Public Safety

78. Planned Economy -government sets maximum allowed prices for key products
-Robespierre and coworkers tried to instate Planned Economy, did so
on price of bread
-bread makers had to make “bread of equality” mixed with all flours
79. Nationalism -Sought to turn cultural unity into self government
-common language, history and traditions would bring about unity
and common loyalties
-origins in French Revolution and Napoleonic wars
-Johann Gottfried Herder regarded as father of modern nationalism
-saw every cultural group as unique and possessing a distinct
national character, - Volksgeist- evolving over many centuries;
sovereignty and autonomy deserved
-Johann Gottlieb Fichte regarded as father or German nationalism
(anti-Semitic)
-Revolutionary Movements from nationalism in Spain (1820) Naples
(1820) Piedmont (1820) and Greece (1821-1829)
-With connection of language and traditional culture, greeks
joined forces and with the help of England, France and Russia
became independent from the Turks
-Revolutions in 1830 in France, Italy, German states, Belgium,
Poland spurred nationalism
Refer to pages 10-12 in Chapter 23 Sage Notes

80. Thermidorian reaction -Began when Robespierre executed Danton and other close colleagues
-Everyone was super scared so on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794) they
arrested Robespierre and executed him the next day.
-1794-1799. was a revolt within the French Revolution against the
leadership of the Jacobin Club over the Committee of Public Safety. -It
recalled the early days of the Revolution.
-The respectable middle class lawyers and professionals who had led the
liberal revolution of 1789 reasserted their authority drawing support from
their own class, the provincial cities, and the better of peasants.

81. Family monarchy ●​ sought to give men ultimate power over family (reactionary)
○​ women lost power of dealing with personal finances
(all accounts in mens’ names)
○​ women lost power they had gained in 1790s
●​ under Napoleon’s rule

82. Civil Code of 1804 ●​ implemented by Napoleon to maintain civil order

●​ guaranteed male equality and security of wealth and property
○​ allowed Napoleon to consolidate his power by gaining
support from people (ideas reminiscent of
revolutionary ones)
■​ peasants could have land
 ○​ repudiated upper class privileges

83. Bank of France ●​ established by Napoleon and Parisian bankers to secure

state and financial oligarchy
●​ helped to support Civil Code of 1804 (see above) by allowing
peasants to purchase and keep land and status
●​ allowed Napoleon to gain support from the large middle class
and consolidate his power

84. Corsica ●​ island in the Mediterranean Sea

●​ belonging to France
●​ The French conquest of Corsica
●​ (1768 and 1769)
●​ France received control of the island of Corsica by Genoese
Republic, and the Treaty of Versailles in 1768
●​ France ultimately achieved victory, and Corsica annexed
●​ Napoleon was born here

85. Third Coalition ●​ Austria, Russia, and Sweden joined with Britain to form the
Third Coalition against France
●​ before Battle of Trafalgar
●​ A result of Napoleon’s attempt to restrict trade with
Britain/Europe
●​ Napoleon’s assumption of the Italian crown convinced Russia
and Austria that he was a threat to the balance of power
●​ When N scored victory over Austria and Prussia at the Battle
of Austerlitz (Dec 1805) Alexander I retreated
●​ Austria accepted large territorial losses in return for peace
●​ Third Coalition collapsed

86. Waterloo ●​ Final battle for Napoleon

●​ final defeat in his wars
●​ Napoleon escaped Elba (1815)- ends up in France
●​ Louis XVIII fled, N took charge
●​ However, this was a long shot, as all the allies were against
him
●​ At the end of the Hundred Days, they crushed his forces at
Waterloo
●​ June 18, 1815
●​ imprisoned N on St. Helena
●​ Louis XVIII returns
●​ Allies against France harshly defeated N, who took revenge
by writing memoirs of his life
 ●​ an era had ended

87. Louis XVI p. 699-700, 704-705, 707

●​ French King at start of French Revolution
●​ Son of Louis XV
●​ Weak Monarch
●​ Vacillated between opinions and sides
○​ Reluctantly called the Estates General in 1787 to create a
new tax on landed property
○​ After Tennis Court Oath, he ordered estates general to
meet together, not separately
○​ At the same time, he was urged by relatives + nobles to
dissolve the estates by force, which he did, in addition to
firing his finance minister (Jacques Necker) and some of
his other more liberal ministers.
○​ this spurred the raid of the Bastille and made king lose
control of city, allowing the estates to continue
●​ After he was violently brought to Paris, the estates declared a
constitutional monarchy he was forced to sign (Sep. 1791)
●​ Tried to escape from France, but was caught at border
○​ Prussia and Austria then make Declaration of Pillnitz
(willing to invade if Rev. goes too far)
○​ France then declares war on Austria
●​ Convicted of treason and narrowly sentenced to death by
guillotine

88. Louis XVIII 718, 759, 762, 775-776

●​ Took French crown after Napoleon’s exile
○​ Fled during his return, then took the crown again
●​ uncharismatic, crippled by gout
●​ Tried to gain support by issuing the Constitutional Charter
○​ accepted many of the Revolution’s earlier changes
(Freedom of Press, Speech, Assembly, freedom from
arbitrary arrest)
○​ many fewer people were actually allowed to vote for
representatives (100k richest out of 30m population)
●​ Succeeded by Charles X

89. Bourgeoisie p. 692, 699, 765

●​ well-educated, prosperous middle-class
●​ representative institutions appealed to them to defend liberty,
as well as other liberal ideas
●​ growing tensions between them and nobility (2nd estate)
 were one cause of French Revolution
●​ Karl Marx believed that they were always at war with
proletariat
○​ predicted that proletariat would conquer them
○​ hated by Marx
○​ discussed in Communist Manifesto

90. Classical liberalism p. 697

●​ Examples: Constitution, Bill of Rights
●​ Belief in Liberty: individual freedoms and political safeguards,
representative government but not necessarily democracy
●​ Liberal movement in America was legal and political, not
economic

91. Body linen p. 728-729

●​ Underwear
●​ Previously made of expensive linen cloth
○​ only rich could afford it
●​ Because of IR many poor people could afford cotton slips to
wear under clothes
●​ Caused by new methods and inventions for spinning cotton
(spinning jenny, water frame)

92. Crystal Palace ●​ The site of the famous industrial fair in England; The Great
Exhibition of 1851
●​ An architectural masterpiece made out of glass and iron
which were cheap and plentiful at the time due the industrial
boom
●​ Very modern building where countries and companies
displayed their products and inventions for juries to award
prizes

93. Iron law of wages ●​ Coined by wealthy stockbroker/economist David Ricardo

●​ Stated that under the pressure of population growth caused
by the industrial revolution, wages for laborers would sink to
subsistence levels in which wages would be just high enough
to prevent starvation
●​ Set the pessimistic and depressing tone for economics (The
Dismal Science)
●​ However, pessimistic economists and their followers were
later proved wrong

94. William Cockerill ●​ A Lancashire carpenter, he and his sons later began building
 cotton spinning equipment in Belgium
●​ His son, John Cockerill purchased the old summer palace of
deposed bishops in Liege, belgium
●​ Cockerill turned this into an industrial enterprise that
produced machinery, locomotives and steam engines
●​ Additionally, he established ironworks and coalmines
●​ His industries became an industrial nerve center where many
skilled british workers migrated themselves illegally to work
for Cockerill (Britain did not want other countries to
industrialize faster than them, so they prohibited the
immigration of british technicians and engineers)
●​ The immigrant workers provide him with the latest plans and
secrets, and Cockerill used this to boast after an industrial
advance in Britain occurred, he knew about it before
●​ The migrant british workers and technicians were a driving
force for the spread of the early industrial revolution

95. Fitz Harkort -​ industrial entrepreneur and business pioneer successful in

Pg. 737-738 the machinery industry
-​ German, but served in England for the Prussian Army during
the Napoleonic wars
-​ he saw all of the innovations in England and thought that
germany needed to catch up
-​ his engines were extremely productive ,but gathering workers
and supplies from England was expensive
-​ he ended up losing a lot of money and went out of business

96. Tariff Protection -​ helped business people in their own countries to overcome
economic difficulties
-​ ex: France’s government put high tariffs on British imports to
protect their economy
-​ also in the German states they formed the Zollverein
-​ it placed very high taxes on imported goods so small
startup companies could grow before competing with
British monopolies

97. Economic -​ emphasizes domestic control of economy and labor, even if it

Nationalism requires the imposition of tariffs/other restrictions on labor and
movement
-​ a high tariff could allow industries to develop and prosper
-​ manufacturing increases people’s well-being and relieves
poverty
-​ generally economic nationalists dislike globalization or
 unrestricted free trade
-​ relates to tariff protection

98. Class-consciousness -​ ex: as a result of the IR the “public” began to see themselves
Pg. 740-741 as the backbone of the middle class and became the working
-​ conflicting classes formed because people believe they
belonged to specific groups
-​ Marxists called this belief in distinct classes “class
consciousness”

99. Robert Owen -​ manufacturer from Scotland

-​ Enlightenment thinker against employing children in factories
-​ thought that employing children under 10 would be “injurious
to the children and not beneficial to the proprietors”
-​ promoted education for kids, and raised the age of
employment at his own mills
-​ helped establish the Factory Act of 1833
-​ organized the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union
(GNCTU), but it failed

100. Factory Act of 1833 -​ Robert Owen, workers, and enlightenment thinkers pushed
p.746 for law to be put in place
-​ Limited work day for children between the ages of 9-13 to 8
hours per day
-​ Adolescents ages 14-18 were limited to 12 hours
-​ Children under 9 were to be enrolled in elementary school run
by factory owners
-​ Broke the pattern of whole families working in factories
because efficiency required standardized shifts and it limited
work hours

101. Mines Act of 1842 -​ prohibited children under 10 and all women from working
p. 748 underground in the coal mines
-​ Miners felt uncomfortable with women working without shirts,
so they pushed for the law to be passed
-​ Women opposed it because it prevented them from working
in the mines (which paid higher than other jobs)

102. Combination Acts -​ Class consciousness created unions and strikes against the
1799 bourgeoisie
p.748-749 -​ In order to keep power in the owners, the Combination
Acts passed in 1799 and outlawed unions and strikes
-​ It also repealed laws for regulated wages of hand-craft
 workers
-​ Acts were disregarded and the continual strikes and unions
caused the acts to be repealed in 1824

103. Grand National -​ Established by Robert Owen in 1834

Consolidated Trades -​ Was one of the largest and most visionary unions
Union 1834 -​ After Combination Acts, people wanted to create a single and
p.749 large national union
-​ After 1815, Robert Owen experimented with cooperative and
socialists communities
-​ The Grand National Consolidated Trades Union eventually
collapsed
-​ After Owen’s Union collapsed, people became involved in
Chartist movement which gave all men the right to vote

104. The Committee of -​ Robespierre and other members of the Mountain joined
Public Safety together to create the Committee of Public Safety
-​ the National Convention gave them dictatorial power to deal
with national emergencies
-​ collaborated with the sans-culottes to establish a planned
economy
-​ produced arms for war efforts
-​ lead the Reign of Terror by killing anyone who they suspected
of being against the revolution

105. Napoleon’s 1801 -​ The Concordat brought back the Roman Catholic Church as
Concordat w/Catholic the majority church of France
Church -​ Did not make Catholicism the official state religion of France,
allowing for freedom of religion
-​ The state of France would pay clerical salaries
-​ Catholic Church gave up claims to land confiscated after
1790
-​ Sunday was reestablished, French Republican calendar
abolished

106. 1815 Congress of -​ Recognized Napoleon’s defeat and returned former rulers to
Vienna power (such as French Bourbons and the pope of the Papal
States)
-​ Was a temporary triumph for the old conservative order
-​ The “Big Four”: Austria, England, Prussia, and Russia
(France later joined)
-​ Klemens von Metternich represented Austria, Lord
Castlereagh represented England, Count Hardenburg for
 Prussia, and czar Alexander I for Russia
-​ Winning powers from the Congress of Vienna sought to
prevent liberalism and nationalism from disturbing
conservative power
-​ The era of new conservative victories was led by von
Metternich, an Austrian minister and diplomat

107. the railroad -​ rails used in mines with wooden planks and were enhanced
p.732 to carry heavier weight
-​ George Stephenson created the Rocket which travelled 16
mph between Manchester and Liverpool
-​ Railroads became much more useful after the invention of the
locomotive
-​ Railroads reduced the cost of shipping goods over land
-​ They created larger markets which encouraged large
factories which competed with the cottage industry
-​ Construction of railroads also provided a need for unskilled
laborers and created jobs

108. The Great Reform -​ Considered great milestone in British history

Bill of 1832 -​ Spurred by cholera epidemic
-​ Increased number of voters from 6% to 12%
-​ Eliminated underpopulated rural electoral districts which
supported the House of Lords and replaced them with
representation from manufacturing districts
-​ Resulted in the supremacy of the House of Commons over
the House of Lords

109. Liberalism -​ primary ideas: liberty and equality

-​ ideas with “laissez faire”
-​ successful in American Revolution and in part of the French
Revolution
-​ demanded a representative government and equality before
the law; natural rights
-​ opponents of liberalism criticized its economic principles,
unrestricted private enterprise, and no government
interference in the economy
-​ after 1815, liberalism became increasingly identified with the
middle class

110. Karl Marx -Large supporter of socialism

Pg 26-27 in ch 23 packet, -against capitalism as it gave the worker only a small portion of his
pg 765-766 in book, also just labor price
packet we discussed in -published The Communist Manifesto, which became the bible of
groups socialism/communism, with Friedrich Engles
-supported Fourier’s ideas of emancipation of women and abolition
of marriage
-thought all history is defined by economic factors
-believed one class always exploited the others, classes constantly
battle, one will overtake the other
-predicted that the proletariat would conquer the bourgeoisie in a
violent revolution as proletariat grew in size and class-consciousness
-also wrote Das Kapital
-ideas united sociology, economics, and history
-last classical economist
-Marxism is named for his beliefs
-Marxism is atheistic

111. George Hegel -philosophical forerunner of Romanticism

pg 20 in ch 23 packet, pg -leading figure in German idealism
766 book -believed that each age was characterized by a dominant set of
ideas, which produces opposing ideas and eventually new synthesis
(thesis-antithesis-hybrid)
-for example, the idea of dominance gives way to nonbeing, which
leads to becoming.
-dialect in which rise of industrial capitalism would result ultimately
give way to socialism of revolutionary works

112. The Romantic Romanticism

movement -belief in unrestrained imagination in art, music and life
Sturm und Drang
-early german romantics
The artists
-lived extremely emotional lives
-suicide, death duels, and strange diseases common
-rejected materialism and escaped life through art
-believed purpose of life is to fully develop one’s unique human
potential
-sought to escape industized life through art
-art contained extreme colors and romantic imagination towards
history
Literature
-Britain first country where romanticism flourished in poetry
-William Wordsworth-famous poet and published Lyrical Ballads
-wrote about the simplicity of love of nature in commonplace
 forms;everyone could read it
Walter Scott-wrote story poems about anti centralized authority and
individual freedom
Germaine de Stael-France-Swiss writer who urged France to throw
away their old school classical models(art and lit)
Hugo-some of Napoleonic general who wrote amazing poetry using
rhythm, language and image
-Wrote “hunchback of notre dame”
-equated freedom in lit with liberty in politics and society
Amandine Aurore Lucie Dupin(George Sand)-famous romantic
writer
-liked to wear male clothes
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
-famous german fairy tales
Art
Eugene Delacroix
-famous romantic painter in france
-mastered dramatic, and colorful scenes that stirred the
emotions(liked exzotic stuff)
-spoke person for freedom
Joseph M. W. Turner and John Constable
-notable romantic painters from england
-loved nature
Turner depicted natures power and terror
Constable painted gentle landscapes where humans were one with
nature
Music
-abandoned rigid structured music
-made orchestras bigger
-music was now seen in more places
Franz Liszt
pianist equivalent to rock star
Beethoven
most famous composer of the time

113. repeal of the British Corn Laws

Corn Laws in 1846 -regulated the foreign grain trade in england
-lead to grain shortage because of war with france
-grain prices increase
Repealed
-made grain cheaper to buy since grain could be traded with
countries outside of england
 Catch
-parliament changes law so that grain can be imported only when
home grain prices rose too high

114. City uprisings -Many revolts and uprisings throughout Europe during 1848
in 1848 -France, Italy, Austria (Hungary & Bohemia), & German States all
involved
-France: “February Revolution” forced King Louis Philippe to abdicate
the throne and formed the Second French Republic; “June Days
Revolution” began class warfare in France
-Italy: Italian nationalists & liberals sought to end foreign domination
of Italy, and they expelled Austrian & Bourbon rulers, establishing
Roman Republic in 1849
-Austria: see question 116
-German States: Liberals demanded constitutional govt. &
union/federation of German States

115. The British -considered a milestone in British history

Reform Act of 1832 -people demanded a more responsive govt. because of the cholera
epidemic
-increased number of voters from 6% of pop. to 12%
-eliminated underpopulated rural electoral districts (“rotten
boroughs”)

116. 1848 Austrian -Louis Kossuth of Hungary demanded independence

revolution -The Czechs in Bohemia declared autonomy
-The Austrian Empire collapsed
-The Austrian army eventually regrouped and defeated the
Hungarians

117. The Chartists -chartism was working class movement for political reform, from
1838-1858
drafted “People’s charter” in 1838
-demanded all men have the right to vote
-signed petitions for this in 1839, 1842, and 1848. Parliament
rejected all
-wanted complete political democracy and rule by the common
people

118. 1848 -the “bourgeois monarchy” was lazy, corrupt, and only the rich
Revolution in France people in society voted for deputies. The government refused to
consider electoral reform, and the common people felt there was
class injustice
 -(see 114)

119. Frankfurt >France sparked revolutionary ideas in Germany

Assembly (1848-1849) >Liberals-Constitutional government and union desired amongst
German states.
>Prussia, the second largest German kingdom, sought to create a
liberal constitutional monarchy.
>Demands were focused after fall of Louis Philippe, and
workers+middle class fought against Frederick William IV, who
eventually gave in.
>Frederick granted Prussia a liberal constitution and Prussia became
a national German state.
>Working class fought further to gain democratic and socialist rights
that troubled the middle class, who urged counter revolution.
>Self made committee(national assembly) of liberals met in Frankfurt
to create a unified German state.
>Assembly consisted of lawyers, professors, doctors, officials, and
businessmen.
>Frederick VII, king of Denmark, tried to control Schleswig and
Holstein, and the Germans in these provinces revolted.
>Frankfurt assembly commanded Prussian army to begin war against
Germany.
>Important because provided German middle class with motivation.
>1849, Frankfurt Assembly made Frederick William from Prussia
emperor of German state.
>Frederick reasserted “ruling by divine right”, and refused the “crown
from the gutter”
>Authoritarian, he disbanded Prussian Constituent Assembly and
made limited conservative constitution.
>Unification of German States failed.

120. Radical >Advocating or based on thorough or complete political or social

reform; representing or supporting an extreme section of a political
party.
>Liberalism and Nationalism

121. Liberal page 9 in ch, 23 packet

•Liberal- A political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of
liberty and equality
•First major theory in Western thought that saw an individual as a
self-sufficient being, whose freedom and well-being were the sole
reasons for the existence of society
 •Classical Liberalism- Reformist and political rather than
revolutionary in character, individuals were entitled to seek their
freedom in the face of cruel and oppressive rule of the government,
Humans had a certain ‘natural rights’ and governments should
protect them (Locke), Rights guaranteed by the government
(Declaration of the Rights of Man)
•Some economists (an expert in economics) of the era (Ricardo and
Malthus) painted a bleak picture of liberalism- thus leading to
economics being called dismal science
•Liberal Reform(1820-1830)- Britain abandoned the Congress
System in 1822 and reformed prisons and the criminal code, allowed
membership in labor unions, and established efficient metropolitan
police force (“Bobbies”)
•Religious Reform- the 1673 Test Act (had banned non-Anglicans
from office) was repealed and the Catholic Emancipation Act (1829)
granted full civil rights to Roman Catholics

122. Moderate -​ not extreme in their views in either direction

-​ often supported similar things to the radicals, but to a lesser
degree
-​
-​

123. Conservative -​ political groups that sticks to traditional values, emphasizing

stability
-​ Big in Great Britain
-​ Changed from conservatives to Republicans in the United
States
-​ Edmund Burke
-​ Klemens von Metternich

124. Reactionary -​ political view favoring a return to the previous state or “the
way things were”
-​ opposed to modernism