Vector Algebra

Chapter 5: Vector Algebra

This chapter provides a comprehensive introduction to the fundamental principles of vectors and scalars. It delves
into the algebra of vectors, covering essential operations such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication of a
vector by a scalar. Furthermore, it explores the two primary methods for multiplying vectors: the scalar (dot)
product and the vector (cross) product. The chapter concludes by examining the scalar and vector triple products,
highlighting their geometric interpretations and their applications in solving problems in geometry, mechanics, and
other fields involving three-dimensional space.

Introduction to Vectors and Their Types

Scalars and Vectors

In physics and mathematics, physical quantities are categorized into two main types: scalars and vectors. A scalar
is a quantity that is fully described by its magnitude or numerical value alone. Examples of scalar quantities include
mass, length, time, distance, speed, and temperature. In contrast, a vector is a quantity that possesses both
magnitude and a specific direction. To fully describe a vector, one must state its size as well as the direction in
which it acts. Common examples of vectors are displacement, velocity, force, and acceleration.

Geometrically, a vector is represented by a directed line segment. If a vector starts at an initial point A and ends at
a terminal point B, it is denoted as AB . The length of the segment from A to B represents the magnitude of the
vector, and the arrowhead at B indicates its direction. Vectors are also commonly denoted by a single lowercase
letter with an arrow above it, such as a.

Position Vector and Direction Cosines

The position of any point in space can be described relative to a fixed reference point, known as the origin. The
position vector of a point P with respect to a fixed origin O is the vector OP . This vector effectively provides the
coordinates of the point P in a vector form. In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, if the coordinates
of point P are (x, y, z), its position vector, often denoted by r , is expressed as a sum of its components along the

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 Vector Algebra

coordinate axes: r = x^i + y^j + zk^. Here, ^i, ^j , and k^ are the unit vectors along the positive x, y, and z axes,
respectively.

The magnitude, or length, of the position vector r is calculated using the distance formula, which is given by ∣r ∣ =
x2 + y 2 + z 2 . The direction of a vector in space is specified by its direction angles, which are the angles that
the vector makes with the positive x, y, and z axes. These angles are typically denoted by α, β , and γ , respectively.
The cosines of these angles, namely l = cos(α), m = cos(β), and n = cos(γ), are called the direction
cosines of the vector. The direction cosines are related to the components of the vector and its magnitude by l =
x/∣r∣, m = y/∣r∣, and n = z/∣r∣. A fundamental property of direction cosines is that the sum of their squares
is always equal to one: l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.

Types of Vectors

To effectively work with vector algebra, it is important to understand the different classifications of vectors. The
Zero Vector, denoted as 0, is a vector with zero magnitude and an arbitrary or undefined direction. A Unit Vector
^ and is
is a vector that has a magnitude of exactly one. A unit vector in the direction of a vector a is denoted by a
^
calculated as a = a/∣a∣. Co-initial Vectors are two or more vectors that share the same initial point. Collinear
Vectors are vectors that are parallel to the same line, regardless of their magnitudes and directions. They can be in
the same or opposite directions. Two vectors are considered Equal Vectors if they have the same magnitude and
the same direction. Finally, the Negative of a Vector a, denoted as −a, is a vector that has the same magnitude as
a but points in the exact opposite direction.

Algebra of Vectors

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Vector addition combines two or more vectors to produce a single resultant vector. This process can be visualized
geometrically using two primary laws. The Triangle Law of Vector Addition states that if two vectors are
represented by two sides of a triangle taken in order (head to tail), then their sum, or resultant, is represented by
the third side of the triangle taken in the opposite order. The Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition states that if
two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, their resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from that same point.

= a1^i + a2 ^j + a3 k^
Algebraically, vector addition is performed by adding their corresponding components. If a
and b = b1^ i + b2 ^j + b3 k^, their sum is given by a + b = (a1 + b1 )^i + (a2 + b2 )^j + (a3 + b3 )k^.
Vector addition follows the commutative property (a + b = b + a) and the associative property (a + (b +
c) = (a + b) + c). Subtraction of a vector is defined as the addition of its negative. Thus, to subtract vector b
from vector a, we add the negative of b to a: a − b = a + (−b).

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 Vector Algebra

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Multiplying a vector by a scalar (a real number) changes the magnitude of the vector and may reverse its direction,
but it does not alter its line of action. If
a is a vector and k is a scalar, their product, ka, is a new vector. The
magnitude of this new vector is ∣k∣ times the magnitude of the original vector, i.e., ∣k a∣ = ∣k∣∣a∣. The direction of
ka is the same as the direction of a if k is positive (k > 0), and it is opposite to the direction of a if k is negative
(k < 0). This operation is fundamental for many applications, such as finding a unit vector in the direction of a
given vector a, which is achieved by multiplying a by the scalar 1/∣a∣. Scalar multiplication is also distributive over
vector addition, meaning k(a + b) = k a + kb.

Section Formula

The section formula is a useful tool for finding the position vector of a point that divides the line segment joining
two other points in a specific ratio. Let P and Q be two points with position vectors p and q , respectively. If a point
R divides the line segment PQ in the ratio m : n, its position vector r can be determined.

For internal division, where R lies between P and Q, the position vector of R is given by the formula:

mq + np
r=
m+n
For external division, where R lies on the extension of the line segment PQ, the position vector of R is given by:

mq − np
r=
m−n
A special and common case of internal division is finding the midpoint of a line segment. This occurs when the ratio
is 1 : 1 (i.e., m = n = 1). The position vector of the midpoint is then given by the midpoint formula:
p+q
r=
2

Product of Two Vectors

Scalar (Dot) Product

The scalar product, also known as the dot product, is one of the two ways to multiply vectors. The dot product of
two non-zero vectors, a and b, is defined as a ⋅ b = ∣a∣∣b∣ cos θ, where θ is the angle between the two vectors
(0 ≤ θ ≤ π ). The result of a dot product is always a scalar quantity, not a vector.

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 Vector Algebra

Geometrically, the dot product can be interpreted as the product of the magnitude of one vector and the magnitude
of the projection of the second vector onto the first one. The dot product has several important properties,
including commutativity (a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a) and distributivity over vector addition (a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c). A
a⋅ b
primary application of the dot product is to find the angle between two vectors using the formula cos θ = . It
∣a∣∣b∣
is also used to determine if two vectors are perpendicular (orthogonal). Two non-zero vectors are orthogonal if
and only if their dot product is zero, i.e.,a ⋅ b = 0, since cos(90∘ ) = 0. In component form, if a = a1^i +
a2 ^j + a3 k^ and b = b1^i + b2 ^j + b3 k^, their dot product is calculated as a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

Vector (Cross) Product

The vector product, or cross product, is the second way to multiply two vectors. The cross product of two non-
zero vectors, a and b, is a vector quantity defined as a × b = ∣a∣∣b∣ sin θn ^ . In this definition, θ is the angle
between a and b, and n^ is a unit vector that is perpendicular to the plane containing both a and b. The direction of
^ is determined by the right-hand thumb rule: if you curl the fingers of your right hand in the direction from vector
n
a to vector b through the smaller angle, your thumb will point in the direction of a × b.

Geometrically, the magnitude of the cross product, ∣a × b∣ = ∣a∣∣b∣ sin θ, represents the area of the
parallelogram formed by using vectors a and b as adjacent sides. Unlike the dot product, the cross product is not
commutative; in fact, it is anti-commutative, meaning a × b = −(b × a). The cross product is a powerful tool
for finding a vector that is perpendicular to two given vectors. It is also used to check for collinearity; two non-
zero vectors are collinear (parallel) if and only if their cross product is the zero vector, a × b = 0, since
sin(0∘ ) = sin(180∘ ) = 0. For vectors given in component form, the cross product is most conveniently
calculated using a determinant:

^i ^j k^
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3

Scalar and Vector Triple Product

Scalar Triple Product

The scalar triple product involves three vectors and combines both the cross product and the dot product. For
three vectors a, b, and c, the scalar triple product is defined as(a × b) ⋅ c. The result of this operation is a
scalar. The geometric significance of the scalar triple product is profound: its absolute value, ∣(a × b) ⋅ c∣,
represents the volume of the parallelepiped whose adjacent edges are defined by the vectors a, b, and c.

A key property of the scalar triple product is that the roles of the dot and cross products can be interchanged
without changing the value: (a × b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b × c). This allows the product to be denoted simply as [a b c].
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 Vector Algebra

If the three vectors are given in component form, their scalar triple product can be calculated as the determinant of
a 3 × 3 matrix formed by the components of the vectors. If the scalar triple product of three non-zero vectors is
zero, [a b c] = 0, it implies that the vectors are coplanar; that is, they all lie on the same plane, and the volume of
the parallelepiped they form is zero.

Vector Triple Product

The vector triple product also involves three vectors, a, b, and c, but it is defined as the cross product of one
vector with the cross product of the other two, such as a × (b × c). The result of this operation is a vector. It is
crucial to note that the vector triple product is not associative, meaning a × (b × c)  (a =
× b) × c.

The vector a × (b × c) is perpendicular to a and also lies in the plane containing vectors b and c. This product
can be simplified using a fundamental vector identity known as the "BAC-CAB" rule:

a × (b × c) = (a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b)c
This identity is extremely useful for simplifying complex vector expressions and is widely applied in various areas of
physics, particularly in the fields of mechanics and electromagnetism, for proving other vector identities and solving
physical problems.

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Vector Algebra

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